Registration For Information Assessmenttt Fffor Ttthe Iiintttegralll Managementtt Offf Ttthe Axiiios - Vardar Riiiver Basiiin

Bonazountas M.
,
Vasilopoulos V., Leivadarou J.
REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

THE INTEGRAL MANAGEMENT OF THE AXIOS-VARDAR RIVER BASIN
N
NA
ATTIIO
ON
NA
ALL TTE
EC
CH
HN
NIIC
CA
ALL U
UN
NIIV
VE
ER
RS
SIITTY
YO
OFF A
ATTH
HE
EN
NS
S
FFA
C
U
L
T
Y
O
F
C
I
V
I
L
E
N
G
I
N
E
E
R
I
N
G
ACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
D
DE
EP
PA
AR
RTTM
ME
EN
NTT O
OFF W
WA
ATTE
ER
RR
RE
ES
SO
OU
UR
RC
CE
ES
SA
AN
ND
DE
EN
NV
VIIR
RO
ON
NM
ME
EN
NTT
R
RE
EG
GIIS
STTR
RA
ATTIIO
ON
N FFO
OR
R IIN
NFFO
OR
RM
MA
ATTIIO
ON
NA
AS
SS
SE
ES
SS
SM
ME
EN
NTT FFO
OR
R TTH
HE
E IIN
NTTE
EG
GR
RA
ALL
M
MA
AN
NA
AG
GE
EM
ME
EN
NTT O
OFF TTH
HE
EA
AX
XIIO
OS
S--V
VA
AR
RD
DA
AR
RR
RIIV
VE
ER
RB
BA
AS
SIIN
N
P
PR
R.. B
BO
ON
NA
AZZO
OU
UN
NTTA
AS
SM
MA
AR
RK
KO
OS
S
V
VA
AS
SIILLO
OP
PO
OU
ULLO
OS
SV
VA
AS
SIILLIIS
S
LLE
EIIV
VA
AD
DA
AR
RO
OU
U JJE
EN
NN
NY
Y
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES,

HYDRAULICS AND MARITIME ENGINEERING
Iroon Politecniou 5
15780 Zografou Campus
el. 210-772.2828, Fax: 210-772.2827
bonazoun@central.ntua.gr
ATHENS 13 NOVEMBER,2006
NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES & ENVIRONMENT
1
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Abstract The Axios-Vardar River constitutes the most significant source of

water for the greater region of Central Macedonia (Greece) and the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). Greece and FYROM share this
transboundary river, however, a common river basins action plan has not yet
been inducted by the two neighbouring countries.This project was submitted
by the non-profit organization "Aristotelis", the Greece founding organisation of
the Euroregion Belasica, and is realised by the National Technical University
of Athens under the supervision of professor Bonazountas. The project
provides information and standards for the formation of a mutual Axios-Vardar
river basins action plan under the Water Framework Directive 2000/60. It
focalizes in the collection, assessment and presentation of the information
relevant to the economy, environment, social infrastractures and
administration of the selected catchment. Suggestions are going to be
provided, in the subsequent parts of this project, for sustainable and
environmentally-friendly measures to policy makers.
Table of Contents
11.. IIN
NTTR
RO
OD
DU
UC
CTTII
....................................................................................................................................................................77
1.1.
1.2.
General Conditions ................................................................................. 7

Projects Aim ........................................................................................... 8
22.. E
EU
UR
RO
OR
RE
EG
GIIO
ON
NB
BE
ELLA
AS
SIIC
CA
A....................................................................................................................................99
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
General ................................................................................................... 9
Recent and ongoing / planned activities ............................................... 10
Activities of the Euroregion Belasica during 2005 ................................. 12
33.. W
WA
ATTE
ER
R FFR
RA
AM
ME
EW
WO
OR
RK
KD
DIIR
RE
EC
CTTIIV
VE
E 22000000//6600 ......................................................................1144
3.1
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
Introduction ........................................................................................... 14
Necessity of the Directive ..................................................................... 14
Preparation of the Directive .................................................................. 15
Meaning of the Directive ....................................................................... 15
Key features of the Directive ................................................................. 15
River Basin Management Planning ....................................................... 16
Public Information and Consultation ..................................................... 17
Definitions of Surface Water and Groundwater Status ......................... 17
Water Framework Directive 2000/60 Axios-Vardar river basin
implementation ..................................................................................... 18
44.. A
AX
XIIO
OS
S--V
VA
AR
RD
DA
AR
RW
WA
ATTE
ER
RD
DIIS
SC
CH
HA
AR
RG
GE
EA
AN
ND
DU
US
SE
E....................................................2200
4.1. Water discharge .................................................................................... 20
4.1.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 20
4.1.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 21
4.2. Water use ............................................................................................. 21
4.2.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 21
4.2.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 22
2
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

55.. E
EN
NV
VIIR
RO
ON
NM
ME
EN
NTTA
ALL S
STTA
ATTE
EO
OFF A
AX
XIIO
OS
S--V
VA
AR
RD
DA
AR
RR
RIIV
VE
ER
R..................................2244
5.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 24
5.1.1.
Agriculture..................................................................................... 24
5.1.2.
Urban ............................................................................................ 25
5.1.3.
Mussel farming ............................................................................. 25
5.1.4.
Industry ......................................................................................... 26
5.1.5.
Impacts on functions of the ecosystem ecological approach ...... 26
5.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 29
5.2.1.
Industry ......................................................................................... 29
5.2.2.
Agriculture..................................................................................... 29
5.2.3.
Livestock ....................................................................................... 29
5.2.4.
Urban ............................................................................................ 30
5.3. Nutrients ............................................................................................... 30
5.3.1.
Nutrients in the Axios River catchment ......................................... 30
5.3.2.
Nutrient inputs from rivers and point sources to the Thermaikos
Gulf ............................................................................................... 37
66.. A
AD
DM
MIIN
NIIS
STTR
RA
ATTIIO
ON
N--P
PO
OLLIIC
CIIE
ES
S......................................................................................................................3399
6.1. Administration ....................................................................................... 39
6.1.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 39
6.1.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 40
6.2. Policies ................................................................................................. 40
6.2.1.
European Union Policies .............................................................. 40
6.2.2.
Greek policy .................................................................................. 40
6.2.3.
FYROM policy............................................................................... 42
77.. G
GE
EO
OM
MO
OR
RP
PH
HO
OLLO
OG
GY
YA
AN
ND
DC
CLLIIM
MA
ATTE
E................................................................................................4444
7.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 44
7.1.1.
Geographical Position ................................................................... 44
7.1.2.
Morphology ................................................................................... 44
7.1.3.
Climate ......................................................................................... 46
7.1.4.
Geology-Hydrogeology ................................................................. 49
7.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 53
7.2.1.
Geographical position ................................................................... 53
7.2.2.
Morphology ................................................................................... 53
7.2.3.
Climate ......................................................................................... 53
7.2.4.
Geology ........................................................................................ 54
88.. E
EC
CO
ON
NO
OM
MY
Y -- P
PR
RO
OD
DU
UC
CTTIIO
ON
N............................................................................................................................5555
8.1. Greece .................................................................................................. 55
8.1.1.
Agricultural production .................................................................. 55
8.1.2.
Industrial sector ............................................................................ 56
8.1.3.
Shellfish farmers ........................................................................... 57
8.2. FYROM ................................................................................................. 58
8.2.1.
Industry ......................................................................................... 58
8.2.2.
Agriculture..................................................................................... 58
8.2.3.
Livestock ....................................................................................... 58
3
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

8.3. Bilateral Trade ...................................................................................... 59

8.3.1.
Greek investment in FYROM ........................................................ 59
8.4. Axios-Vardars pollution: Impacts on economy ................................... 59
8.4.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 59
8.4.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 60
99.. S
SO
OC
CIIE
ETTY
Y ........................................................................................................................................................................................6611
9.1. Population-Demographics..................................................................... 61
9.1.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 61
9.1.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 61
9.2. Transportation infrastracture ................................................................. 62
9.2.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 62
9.2.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 62
9.3. Health Infrastracture ............................................................................. 62
9.3.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 62
9.3.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 63
9.4. Education Infrastracture ........................................................................ 63
9.4.1.
Greece .......................................................................................... 63
9.4.2.
FYROM ......................................................................................... 63
9.5. Ecological Movement ............................................................................ 64
1100.. R
RE
EFFE
ER
RE
EN
NC
CE
ES
S ......................................................................................................................................................................6655

4
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

FIGURES
Figure 1:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations ............... 20
Figure 2:Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf ......................................... 26
Figure 3:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) intra-annual variations of water
discharge (a), ........................................................................................ 31
Figure 4:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations ............... 32
Figure 5:Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) variations .................. 34
Figure 6: Axios river basin altitude curve ........................................................... 45
Figure 7: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Polikastro station ............ 47
Figure 8: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Chalastra station ............. 47
Figure 9: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Polikastro station
for the period 1972/73-2000/01 .......................................................... 48
Figure 10: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Chalastra station
for the period 1972/73-2000/01 .......................................................... 48
Figure 11: Mean annual flow istograms of the Axios river (m3/s), ...................... 49
Figure 12: Elevation fluctuation of drill of the Eleousa region in the Axios river
basin.(data EYATH). .......................................................................... 52
Figure 13: Primary animal breeding in the Greek part of the Axios .................... 55
Figure 14: Primary crops in the Greek part of the Axios RIVER ......................... 56
Figure 15: Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf ...................................... 57
TABLES
Table 1:Hydrographic characteristics of Vardar river basin with major tributaries
(2002) ................................................................................................................. 21
Table 2: Annual average input of nutrients in the Greek part of the Axios-Vardar
River from point sources .................................................................................... 26
Table 3: Nutrients input into the inner Thermaikos Gulf in 5-year time intervals 37
Table 4: Mean annual flow of Axios river (m3/s). Periods 1926-31, 1937-40,
1955-62, 1964-65. .............................................................................................. 49
MAPS
Map 1: The Axios-Vardar river basin .................................................................... 8
Map 2: Axios-Vardar River Basin ....................................................................... 33
Map 3: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and
catchments ......................................................................................................... 35
Map 4: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and
catchments ......................................................................................................... 36
Map 5: Location of Waste Water Treatment Plants. .......................................... 38
Map 6: Location of the Axios (greek part) river basin ... 44
Map 7: Greaters area geomorphological evolution (Meladiotis, 1984) .............. 46
Map 8:Divide of the Paionia, Paiko and Alompia zone (Mercier & Sauvage, 1968)
........................................................................................................................... 51

5
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

ACRONYMS
ASP: Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
AUTH: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
DSP: Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning
EEA: European Environment Agency
EYATH: Thessaloniki Water-Sewerage Company
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization
FYROM: Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GNP: Gross National Product
HAB: Harmful Algal Bloom
IMF: Internationally Monetary Fund
NRC: National Research Council
NSP: Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
NTUA: National Technical University of Athens
PATHE: Motorway connecting Patra-Athens-Thessaloniki-Evzoni
PSP: Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
NEAP: National Environmental Action Plan
NSSG: National Statistical Service of Greece
NTUA: National Technical University of Greece
TEE: Technical Chamber of Greece
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
WFD: Water Framework Directive
WWTP: Waste Water Treatment Plant

6
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
1.
1.1.

INTRODUCTI
General Conditions
Axios is one of the most important transboundary rivers in Greece, mainly

because of the use of waters for irrigation in the fertile plain of Thessaloniki. The
river forms a very rich ecological delta (protected RAMSAR site) before
discharging into the Gulf of Thermaikos.
The population activities on Greek side are mainly agricultural, heavily depending
on the river flow (varying from 10 m3/s to 1,425 m3/s). The maximum flow rate
was greatly reduced during recent years, mainly due to the construction of
retention reservoirs and irrigation works upstream in FYROM. There is yet no
bilateral cooperation agreement for sharing the international waters of Axios
River.
The city of Thessaloniki is located east of the lower river. For this second-largest
city of Greece (population over 1 million) an initial plan for sewage disposal in the
lower Axios was completely modified in order to protect the water quality and
ecosystems. Thessalonikis sewage, after secondary treatment, is discharged
into the sea through a submarine short outfall.
Vardar river flows into the North Aegean Sea as Axios river in Greece (87 km
long, extending over 3,212 km2) and covers 20,535 km2 (86.9%) of FYROM;
small catchment parts are further in Serbia. Vardar is the longest and largest
river of FYROM (302.6 km), with an average elevation of the basin at 793 m (the
Vardar spring in the Shara massif near Vrutok/Gostivar is at only at 683 m), at
average rainfalls of 660 mm and a total annual discharge of 4.56million m3. Its
floodplain is mainly used by agricultural use (including cattle-breeding). The
capital of FYROM and several big industrial cities with a total population of over 1
million are located in this area: Gostivar (100,000 inhabitants), Tetovo (180,000)
Skopje (570,000), Veles (70,000) and Gevgelija (40,000 inhabitants; at the Greek
border), including several large units of chemical industry. Treska, Pchinja,
Bregalnica, Crna, Lepenec and Babuna rivers form sub-basins of the Vardar. 19
large and over 100 small dams and reservoirs have been constructed in this
region.

7
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Map 1: The Axios-Vardar river basin
1.2.
Projects Aim
The project provides information and standards for the planning of an AxiosVardar river basins action plan, primarily in Greece and secondarily in FYROM.
It focalizes in the collection, assessment and presentation of the information
relevant to the economy and environment of the involved countries. The action
plan will be in accordance with the Europeans Commitee Water Framework
Directive 2000/60.
Euroregions are often called laboratories of the future European construction,as
they are supposed to verify and strengthen the legitimacy of the great moral,
political, economic, and cultural projects of a United Europe.

8
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
2.
2.1.

EUROREGION BELASICA
General
Members:
Greece (municipality of Kilkis, members from Thessalonica; municipalities of
Axios, Chalastra, Kallithea, Neapolis, Michonia; Gallikos; Herso; Mouries;
Chamber of Small and Medium Industries of Thessalonica; Nonprofit Corporation
for regional and International cooperation and development Poseidon;
chambers of Kilkis; Federation of Industries of Kilkis; Federation of Industries of
Thessalonica; Municipal Company for Watering & Drainage of Kilkis; Municipal
Company for Tourist and Cultural Development of Kilkis; Action & Partners
Development Consultants;
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (municipalities of Strumica;
Gevgelija; Novo Selo; Bosilovo; Murtino; Vasilevo; Radovis; Valandovo; Kuklis;
Delcevo; Regional Chamber of Commerce Strumica; Foundation of Small and
Medium Enterprises Development Regional center, NGO DENICA;
Bulgaria (municipalities of Petric; Sandanski; Blagoevgrad; Strumjani; Kresna).
Euroregion Belasica, established 24th February 2003 in Kilkis, is a unity of three
non-profit cross-border organisations which are in fact networks of Local
Authorities, Entrepreneurial and Social Partners of the common border between
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Greece and Bulgaria. One of the
very few euroregions in the Balkan area and one of the very few euroregions, the
membership of which consists of three founding partners: one from EU member
state, one from EU candidate member and one from non-member country.
The Euroregion Belasica is a trilateral region between Bulgaria, Greece and the
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Considering the importance of
crossborder co-operation at all levels, the aims of Euroregion Belasica refer to
the establishment of peace and stability at a regional and European level, to the
free movement of goods, investments, technologies and people, to the
achievement of sustainable development and social cohesion in the region while
maintaining the historical, cultural and ethnical characteristics of each country.
Acknowledging the potential of the co-operation between the three organisations
for overcoming legislative differences, for the alleviation of administrative and
organisational obstacles to true activities and overcoming of historical and ethnic
biases, contaminated in previous periods, Euroregion Belasica is aimed
developing partnership and joint projects for promoting regional infrastructure,
development of rural border areas, industrial development, cultural exchange,
protection of the environment, competencies at European, national and local
level, better coordination of EU policies, creation of equivalent living conditions
as well as coordination between EU aid programmes.

9
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Membership: At its 2004 annual assembly, its membership was increased by

new members from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (municipalities
of Gevgelija, Konopiste and Delcevo).
Organisation: The Cross-border Euroregion BELASICA has management and
operating bodies of its own. The basic organisation chart of Belasica is presented
below:
Fields of joint activities: the sixteen fields of activities that are being developed
in the euroregion are: Regional Development; Economic Development; Tourism
Entertainment; Culture and Society; Transfer of Technology and Innovation;
Energy; Transport and Infrastructure; Ecology and Environment; Management of
Waste Products; Agriculture; Social Cooperation; Health Services;
Communication; Protection against Disasters and Damages; Education; Social
Security.
2.2.
Recent and ongoing / planned activities
During the last few years, the euroregion has been intensively working on
reinforcing the co-operation in all of the priority fields. 40 applications have been
submitted so far in relation to totally 40 projects, several of which have been
accepted and are presently being implemented. The most important of the later
includes the following:
GMF-German Marshal Plan- Drafting Regional Master Plan for the Region
Development Plan. The Project is an analysis of the regions economic
potential, presenting 100 priority projects and 10 Detailed Plans (projects),
which were submitted for the purposes of funding; * GR-Plan for the Balkans
Reconstruction- Project for Decentralisation of the municipalities; the Project
is both a study and a fund for the reconstruction of the municipalities within
the region (stage I) and the
Reconstruction of all of the municipalities concerned in the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia. The project was aimed at ensuring an easier
acceptance of decentralisation financing of all soft activities within the
framework of each municipality and providing for equipment for the new
offices for the municipalities future new competences.
Accademia Italiana University for Modern Design from Firenze; The
University is the response to the problem which presently exists in the region;

10
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

an appropriate building for this project has been provided by the Ministry of
Defence, and its reconstruction will start shortly.
Project for the Regions Cultural Development: organising cultural events in
the three countries concerned; the first meeting took place in Kukus (August
2004) and the meeting and competition of the dancing associations from the
region;
Project for Developing the Carnival in the municipality of Strumica and region;
Project for Protection against Floods along the river Strumica and Depos
Overhaul;
Project for Constructing Mudular Cleaning Stations for Waste Waters;
Interreg 3A for several projects for soft activities.
The most successful event in the above regard was the very recent Regional
Investment Fair (B2B meeting) in the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, during which 15 direct investments were agreed.
As concerns the new action plans, there are a lot of project proposals, as were
presented by the municipalities during last year Annual General Assembly of the
Common Organising Committee, Higher Administrative Committee of the
Euroregion Belasica (Kilkis, April 24th, 2004).
In addition to the above, (and as was agreed at the aforesaid Assembly) the
Euroregion Belasica today:
is presented in the official website of the Council of Europe, having an
analytical link;
is presented by the Special Negotiator of the Stability Pact in SE Europe as
an example of cross-border co-operation;
has direct access and support from the national authorities of all three
countries for the promotion of its aims;
is in direct communication with representatives of Eastern Europe services,
such as the Europaid Co-operation Office, and is informed about programmes
that concern it;
has been presented in more than 15 international congresses on crossborder
and inter-country collaboration promoting its members and future
collaborations with corresponding institutions of Central Europe;
has established strategic collaborations with big networks of Central Europe;
is in list of priority of financing by institutions as the GTZ;
is in the beginning of implementing the first basic work that is the
development of the Master Plan of the Euroregion under the financing of the
Balkan Trust for Democracy of German Marshall Plan;
is broadened with the attendance of Municipalities and Enterprising
Institutions from Thessaloniki.
A great number of the proposals for the year 2004 were concentrated in the calls
for proposals of Interreg IIIA. The basic criteria for success constitute the
readiness of institutions from the Greek side for the implementation of projects,
its documentation of return (which in the case of the euroregion is self-evident)
and the high quality of the proposals. In the case of collaboration with Bulgaria,

11
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

the euroregion contributed in the submission of proposals in the PHARE for the
co-financing of Interreg programmes from the Bulgarian side".
2.3.
Activities of the Euroregion Belasica during 2005
During 2005 the euroregion made several significant changes in the regions
structure and in the field of regional co-operation. It drafted several projects
during the year and participated actively in building up the regional strategy for
border co-operation.
A short desription of the activities includes the following:
The euroregion has been significantly broadened by the accession of both the
Regional Organisation for Border Co-operation Poseidon (Salonika, Greece)
and the municipalities from the area of Salonika, as well as of several NGOs
and regional chambers of commerce. In Bulgaria, the municipality of
Blagoevgrad has been accepted as a new member of the euroregion;
The euroregion participated at the annual Assembly of AEBR (in Greece)
during which it actively participated in drafting the development strategies for
the region at European level;
In terms of the Project Akademija Italjana, the project has remained
the top priority project of the euroregion. During 2005, a memorandum on
cooperation was signed with the Academia Italiana (from Firenze, Italy) with
a view to opening the University, while a location for the University has been
provided for by the Defence Ministry. This Project aims at opening the
University on the 1st September 2006. To this end, an agreement has also
been concluded with a consulting house from Skopje, while the project is
supported by the USAID, GTZ, the FYR Macedonian Governmental
Secretariat for European Integration, and the municipalities of Strumica,
Salonika, Blagoevgrad and Kukus;
Akrila Project for producing construction materials from industrial and
agricultural waste materials;
Within Interreg 3 A, the euroregion has submitted 14 projetcs during 2005, out
of which 4 have been accepted, concerning cultural co-operation, ecology,
infrastructure and connection. The implementation of these projects will start
in January 2006;
Project Wine Road which is supported by the FYROM Ministry for Economy
and is aimed at promoting wine tourism in the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia;
A fair in the municipality of Gevgerlija (Gevgelija Ekspo): the euroregion
Belasica has concluded an agreement with the Skopje Fair on organising
regional fairs. The first fair of this type was organised in Gevgelija and was
aimed at promoting border co-operation and connecting of the business
actors from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria and
Greece. On this occasion, several protocols for co-operation were signed
between the chambers of commerce of the municipalities Kukus, Strumica

12
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

and Blagoevgrad, all of which are aimed at connecting and joint activity at
third markets;
The euroregions interregional co-operation includes the signing of the
Protocol on Co-operation with two regions in Italy (regions Marche and
Calabria) for joint activity on interregional projects for economic
development, infrastructure, social assistance and education;
GMF- German Marshal Fund: Project for drafting Regional Strategy for
Economic Development. The Regional Strategy has been drafted and it will
be promoted at the euroregions annual assembly to be held on the 10th
December 2005 (Greece).
Relations with other Euroregions: In this regard, one should particularly stress
this Euroregions ongoing very good co-operation with the Euroregion NisSkopje-Sofia, both of which have already submitted joint applications for specific
projects. The headquarters of "Aristotelis" (the Greece founding organisation) is
acting as a representative office of the euroregion concerning communications
with third parties outside the respective countries.

13
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

3.
WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE 2000/60
3.1.
Introduction
The Water Framework Directive is the most substantial piece of water legislation
ever produced by the European Commission, and will provide the major driver for
achieving sustainable management of water in the UK and other Member States
for many years to come.
It requires that all inland and coastal waters within defined river basin districts
must reach at least good status by 2015 and defines how this should be
achieved through the establishment of environmental objectives and ecological
targets for surface waters. The result will be a healthy water environment
achieved by taking due account of environmental, economic and social
considerations.
The Article 14 of the Directive requires Member States to encourage the active
involvement of all interested parties in its implementation. In particular, public
consultation is essential during the production, review and updating of river basin
management plans which form the central theme of the Directive.
For public consultation to be meaningful people will need a basic understanding
of the principal features of the Directive and how these relate to the situation in
their own local river basin.
This Information Note provides an understanding of the principal features of the
Directive. Further information on what is required by the Directive, based on an
introductory guide published by the Foundation for Water Research, is provided
in the accompanying Information Notes.
3.2.
Necessity of the Directive
Over the past 30 years, a series of EC Directives have had a major influence on
UK water law and regulation. They addressed priority issues such as water
quality objectives for waters used for specific purposes, the control of dangerous
substances, the protection of the sea against pollution, the preservation of the
fundamental biological and ecological balances of the planet and the adoption of
industry specific measures to reduce pollution.
In the 1990s there was concern at the fragmented nature of existing Directives
and the lack of progress with their implementation. Inadequate measures for the
protection of groundwater were also of concern. In addition there was pressure
for a Directive to protect aquatic ecosystems. This culminated in the
development, by the European Commission, of a proposal for a more
comprehensive approach to water policy that took account of the need for the
following:
14
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

A high level of environmental protection
The precautionary principle
Preventive action
The elimination of pollution at source
The polluter pays principle
Costs and benefits
Further considerations were the need for international collaboration for certain
river basins which cross Member States boundaries and the variability of
environmental conditions in the different regions of the Community. Also
considered was the principle of subsidiarity, which allows for decisions to be
made at individual Member State level where these can be demonstrated to be
environmentally acceptable, cost effective and to fall within the overall
requirements of the Directive.
3.3.
Preparation of the Directive
The Directive was the result of a co-decision process by which the Council of
Ministers and the European Parliament have joint responsibility for the final text.
A conciliation process was needed to resolve the differences between these two
bodies. Many organisations, including national and local governments, water
service providers, agriculture, industry, consumer associations and
environmental non-governmental organisations, were involved in the consultation
process leading to the final draft.
3.4.
Meaning of the Directive
The Directive will impact on every aspect of water use: domestic, industrial,
agricultural, leisure and environmental conservation. Besides restrictions on point
source discharges (e.g. sewage discharge), the achievement of good status will
mean tackling the problem of diffuse pollution from agriculture and contaminated
land. In some instances, it may require river re-grading work or the reversal of
land drainage schemes to restore lost habitats. Environmental organisations
hope that implementation of the Directive will result in major improvements to the
biodiversity of water habitats.
3.5.
Key features of the Directive
The key features of the Directive are:
The concept of river basin management is introduced to all Member States

through the establishment of river basin districts as the basic management

15
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

units. For international rivers these river basin districts (RBDs) will transcend
national boundaries (Article 3).
For each river basin district a river basin management plan must be
developed, including a programme of measures, and these will form the basis
for the achievement of water quality protection and improvement (Articles 11
and 13).
Although its prime aims are environmental, the Directive embraces, all three
principles of sustainable development. Environmental, economic and social
needs must all be taken into account when river basin management plans are
being developed (Article 9).
The river basin management plans will not allow further deterioration to
existing water quality. With certain defined exceptions, the aim is to achieve
at least good status for all water bodies in each river basin district. Definitions
of good status for surface and groundwater are given below. Geographical
factors are allowed for when good status is defined and the principle of
subsidiarity allows Member States some freedom within the overall
requirements of the Directive (Article 4).
The two previously competing concepts of water quality management, the use
of environmental quality standards and the use of emission limit values are
brought together by the Directive in a new dual approach (Article 10).
To overcome the previously piecemeal nature of water environment

regulation, a number of existing directives will be replaced when new local
standards are developed to meet the Directive requirements. These local
standards must be at least as stringent as those being replaced. Daughter
directives will be introduced to deal with groundwater quality and for priority
substances (formerly known as dangerous substances) (Article 16).
Measures to conserve water quantity are introduced as an essential

component of environmental protection. Unless minimal, all abstractions must
be authorised and, for groundwater, a balance struck between abstraction
and the recharge of aquifers (Article 11).
The polluter pays principle is incorporated through a review of measures for

charging for water use, including full environmental cost recovery (Article 9).
Public participation and the involvement of stakeholders is a key requirement

of the river basin management planning process, thus satisfying this aspect of
Agenda 21 (Article 14).
3.6.
River Basin Management Planning
River basin management is not new to the United Kingdom. It has been practised
in England and Wales since the formation of the former Water Authorities in
1974. The role was later inherited and enhanced by the formation of the National
16
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Rivers Authority and more recently the Environment Agency (EA). In Scotland
the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and in Northern Ireland the
Environment and Heritage Service (EHS) have, to varying degrees, had this duty.
Under these arrangements, there has been significant improvement to river water
quality in the UK, particularly over the last decade. However, water quality
objectives set throughout this period tended to be user-based and were not
statutory. Furthermore, economic and social aspects were not formerly a part of
the river basin management process. The Directive imposes new disciplines and
approaches that will impact significantly on the environmental regulators.
The river basin planning process is cyclical and the Directive requires periodic
updates to the river basin management plans and associated programmes of
measures on a six-yearly basis.
3.7.
Public Information and Consultation
The active involvement of interested parties is a core principle of the river basin
planning process as defined in Article 14 of the Directive, in particular during the
production, review and updating of the river basin management plans.
The involvement of interested parties in the UK began with the public
consultation process that preceded the incorporation of the Directive into law. In
England and Wales, respondents to this process and other notable stakeholders
were invited to join a national stakeholder group to act as a sounding board on
implementation issues. Similar arrangements are in place in Scotland and
Northern Ireland.
The Directive requires that Member States shall ensure that, for each river basin
district, they publish and make available for comments to the public (including
users) the following:
A timetable and work programme for the production of the plan and the
consultation measures to be taken, at least three years before the beginning of
the plan period.
An overview of the significant water management issues identified in the river
basin, at least two years before the beginning of the plan period.
Draft copies of the river basin management plan, at least one year before the
beginning of the plan period.
On request, access to background documents and information used for the
development of the draft plan.
To allow active involvement and consultation with interested parties, including
stakeholders and the public, Member States must allow six months for written
comments on these documents.
3.8.
Definitions
of
and Groundwater Status
Surface
Water
Good surface water status is that achieved by a surface water body when
both its ecological status and its chemical status are at least good.

17
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Ecological status is an expression of the structure and functioning of aquatic

ecosystems associated with surface waters. Such waters are classified as of
good ecological status when they meet Directive requirements.
Good surface water chemical status means that concentrations of pollutants
in the water body do not exceed the environmental limit values specified in the
Directive.
Good groundwater status is that achieved by a groundwater body when both
its quantitative status and chemical status are good.
Quantitative status is an expression of the degree to which a body of
groundwater is affected by direct and indirect abstractions. If this complies with
Directive requirements the status is good.
Good chemical status is ascribed to a groundwater when it meets Directive
requirements for the maximum levels of defined pollutants.
3.9.
Water Framework Directive 2000/60 Axios-Vardar river

basin implementation
The present Hellenic-FYROM research project deals with transboundary

cooperation between Greece and FYROM for promoting sustainable water
management, by taking particularly into account the relevant provisions of the EC
Water Framework Directive 2000/60, one of the most important pieces of
legislation that the EU has adopted in recent times. The project has been
financed by the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in the framework of the
Hellenic International Development Cooperation (HELLENIC AID).
Directive 2000/60 emphasizes that water is not a commercial product but, rather,
a heritage, which must be protected, defended and treated as such. Good water
quality will contribute to securing the drinking water supply for the population.
Common principles are needed in order to coordinate Member States' and
Accession Countries' efforts to improve the protection of their waters, aquatic
ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands directly depending on them, to
promote sustainable water use and to contribute to the control of transboundary
water problems.
Particularly as regards transboundary water cooperation, the Directive 2000/60
emphasizes that within a river basin where use of water may have transboundary
effects, the requirements for the achievement of the environmental objectives
established under the Directive, and in particular all programmes of measures,
should be coordinated for the whole of the river basin district. For river basins
extending beyond the boundaries of the Community, Member States should
endeavour to ensure the appropriate coordination with the relevant non-member
States. In other words, the Directive aims to contribute to the implementation of
international conventions on water protection and management, notably the
UN/ECE Convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses
and international lakes.
From this point of view, the success of the transboundary component of the
Directive relies on close cooperation and coherent action at all levels, as well as
on information, consultation and involvement of the public, including users.
Within the framework of the present Hellenic-FYROM project, legal,
18
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

administrative, environmental protection and sustainable development issues of

contemporary water policy are studied and analyzed, with the aim to contribute to
the development of an integrated water policy in a bilateral context.
As the two countries have a direct interest to protect and use their water
resources in a sustainable way, the project can be proved very useful to them.
Indeed, if properly implemented, the Directive 2000/60 can bring substantial
gains to both countries, from a development, social and ecological point of view.
The two countries have now the opportunity to apply the provisions of the
Directive 2000/60 in their transboundary water-related, environmental protection
and sustainable development relations. By developing new forms of bilateral
institutional, legal, environmental and technical cooperation, in a spirit of intereuropean partnership, they could actually break new ground in the field of
sustainable development policy in the region of Southeastern Europe. This policy
can attract financing institutions, investors and corporations that have an interest
in promoting or implementing sustainable development projects.
Contributions open a promising field of bilateral cooperation. It is up to the
environmental administrations of both countries to take full advantage of it, in
order to facilitate and modernize their water-related transboundary cooperation.
Thus, the governments of both countries could overcome a tradition of rather
ineffective cooperation. The Water Framework Directive and its implementation
gives the unique chance and impetus for Greece as an EU Member State and
FYROM as a prospective Accession country to develop a new partnership for
transboundary water resources management, based on new principles,
approaches and objectives to the benefit of both parties and the environment.

19
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
4.
4.1.
4.1.1.

AXIOS-VARDAR WATER DISCHARGE AND USE

Water discharge
Greece
The annual flow regime of the Axios River was characterized by average flows
during the 1970s (Karageorgis et al. 2003), a wet period during 19801985, a dry
period during 19881994, and then a relatively wetter period during 19952000
(Fig. 1). The constantly decreasing trend inflow between 1980 and 1994 is
proportional to respective rainfall variations. Similar to the other major Greek
rivers (Skoulikidis, 1999), minimum runoff was observed during the period 1988
1994, when a dry wave affected Europe (e.g. Shuurmans 1990) and Greece
(Lambrakis et al. 1997). The mean annual water discharge estimated from
historical data is 5.0109 m3 yr-1; however, recent (19952000) measurements
revealed a considerable decrease in the order of 3.4109 m3 yr-1. Similarly, mean
annual solid discharges from historical data were estimated at 12X106 t yr-1,
whereas recent estimates were 10 to 20-fold lower (0.1X106 t yr-1 , Karageorgis
and Anagnostou 2001). This significant reduction is related to the decrease of
water discharge, as well as the construction of the Prochoma dam and several
other reservoirs in FYROM.
Figure 1:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations

of water discharge measured at the Thessaloniki-Eidomeni Railway
Bridge station. A line is drawn between the median of each year. The
Bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower ticks
represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively.
source: Karageorgis et Al.,2003

20
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
4.1.2.

FYROM
The table 1 shows the hydrographic characteristics of the Vardar river basin and
of its main tributaries in FYROM.It is evident that even the Vardar (FYROM part)
tributaries are significantly longer than the Axios (greek part) main body (83 km)
or its two main tributaries, Gorgopis (70km) and Vardarovasi (103 km). The
Vardar run-off is the major part of the total Axios-Vardar run-off. There is great
concern about these waters from both neighbouring countries. The maximum
flow rate was greatly reduced during recent years, mainly due to the construction
of retention reservoirs and irrigation works upstream in FYROM. There is yet no
bilateral cooperation agreement for sharing the international waters of the river.
River
[km]
Hav
[m]
Vardar
Treska
Pcinja
20,535
2,068
2,840
793 301.6 44.9

1,01 138.3 24.2
758 136.4 2.6
4,564.35
762.3
396.9
722
863
444.15
1,178.10
Bregalnica 4,308
Crna
5,890
Lr
[km]
225
228
Q
[m/s]
4.1
7.4
V
[m]106
Table 1:Hydrographic characteristics of Vardar river basin with

major tributaries (2002)
4.2.
Water use
4.2.1.
Greece
The rational distribution of water has been achieved by the construction of a dam
near Prochoma with a maximum irrigation capacity of about 35,000 ha. The
water is abstracted from Axios for agricultural, industrial and urban supply
purposes.
Agriculture
Water demand for irrigation constitutes the most important pressure factor within
the Greek part of the catchment. A key component is the irrigation dam, located
in Prochoma and named Elesoussa or Ellis dam (Fig. 1), some 28 km from
the river mouth. The dam was constructed in the 1950s and irrigates about 300
km2 through a system of channels, 200 km2 of which are rice and maize fields.
The irrigated area expands downstream of the dam up to the river mouth.
Upstream of the dam, water is pumped from the river to irrigate other types of
crops. Wheat is the most common (1,000 km2), followed by cotton (320 km2),

21
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

barley (120 km2), alfalfa (80 km2), and tobacco (32 km2). The dam is partially
open during the winter/spring months and regulates the water flow, to retain
water for the dry summer period (Konstantinidis 1989). Throughout the area,
water is pumped from several registered and non-registered (illegal) drill holes,
which affect the level of the groundwater table considerably.
Industry
Industrial plants within the Axios River catchment comprise a cheese factory,
three dye-houses, a slaughterhouse, a dairy factory and a canning plant. Their
relatively limited number and capacity indicate that industrial water use is not an
important pressure factor. Likewise, nutrient emissions are low, as the industries
effluents are processed (except for the Axioupolis dye-house and slaughterhouse).
Urban
Nowadays, all communities and municipalities in the Axios catchment (population
233,500; census 2001) satisfy their drinking water needs directly from the river or
from groundwater. Census data show that the population of the area is growing
slightly. During the decade 19811991, population growth was 4%, whereas
during 19912001, the population increase was more than 20%. These figures
suggest that water demand for urban use will increase in the next years.
4.2.2.
FYROM
Water is abstracted from the Vardar for irrigation (63%), fish ponds (11%),
drinking water (12%), municipal and industrial uses (15%), agriculture, and there
are hydro-electric power stations at several reservoirs in the river basin. 15 large
and over 80 small reservoirs have been constructed in Vardar River basin, with a
total volume of over 1 million m3 usable storage.
Irrigation
Irrigation in FYROM is based on a system of seventeen dams, with a reservoir
capacity of more than 500106 m3, which distributes water through pipes and
canals to 800 km2 of land (Fig. 1). Continuously decreasing rainfalls during the
1990s have generated inefficiency in water supply, especially during the summer
months. However, FYROM plans to irrigate 4000 km2 by the year 2025, based on
the construction of high-capacity dams (Lisiche and Kozjak dams are currently in
a final stage of construction). As dams collect water during high flow periods and
release it during the dry months, this policy finds the Greek side largely in
agreement. However, possible environmental impacts of regulated-low flow
during winter months have not been assessed at all.
Drinking Water

22
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Drinking water resources for the urban population are relatively satisfactory,
although water shortages appear occasionally and trigger con.icts between the
different user groups (NEAP 1996). Nevertheless, water demand for expanding
urban centers is expected to grow, posing additional pressures to the availability
of freshwater resources.

23
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
5.
5.1.

ENVIRONMENTAL STATE OF AXIOS-VARDAR RIVER
Greece
Environmental pressures exerted in the catchment from FYROM are:

environmentally unacceptable industrial processes and practices, waste (solid or
liquid, hazardous or non hazardous, municipal or industrial). These pollutants
originated from FYROM are tranfered through the Axios-Vardar river to the
downstream greek part of the basin and finally are driven out to the Thermaikos
Gulf. They constitute a major pollution factor for the greek part.Apart from these,
there are significant downstream environmental pressures.
The main environmental pressures, which affected negatively the deltas area
ecological character, leading to the destruction of 70% of the original wetlands
during the 20th century, are numerous: water discharge decrease, drainage
works, urbanization, and pollution. Moreover, the general decrease in rainfall,
combined with over-use of water for irrigation, has resulted in severe salinization
of the delta area, with a direct impact on the .ora and fauna of the wetlands
(Zalidis 1998). Nowadays, some of these activities have been stopped and their
impacts have already been mitigated. The main pressures identified in the
coastal zone,will be listed hereafter.
5.1.1.
Agriculture
Agricultural activity in the Axios delta area is intensive. Rice production in the
area amounts to 60% of the total Greek production and takes place mainly in the
delta area. The farming community is the largest consumer of Axios River water.
Over the last decade, many farmers have switched to rice instead of cotton or
vegetables, because rice is very tolerant to weather conditions, rice seeds are
relatively cheap, and harvest is much easier. However, it demands vast amounts
of freshwater (three to four times the water needed for other irrigated crops),
thus, rice farmers have great interests to preserve the Axios River water
resources. There is no direct control by any state agency for the maximum
allowed quantity of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides used in rice cultivation.
Usage of toxic pesticides, like the addition of parathion in water, can have direct
impact in the local wild flora and fauna especially in the rice fields, which are a
usual habitat for wildfowl.
Concerning the cost for irrigation, the pricing strategy of the local irrigation
network (TOEV) does not reflect the full cost of the resource, but intends to cover
only running expenses. The pricing policy is based on the average estimated
price per hectare that each local irrigation network has set for irrigation.

24
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
5.1.2.

Urban
The total population for the five municipalities that administratively form the Axios
delta area is 48,000 inhabitants (census 2001) within 552 km2. Local population
density reaches 87 inh/km2,slightly higher than the average of Greece (83
inh/km2). During the decade 19811991, population increase was 10.5%,
whereas during the next decade it was 5% (population density 75 inh/km2 and 84
inh/km2, respectively). The population trend in the delta area is continuously
Increasing due to the highly productive land, the multiplication of industrial units
and the consequent labor demand. On this basis, urban development constitutes
a substantial type of pressure in the Axios delta area. In order to evaluate urban
pressures in the coastal zone, the population within the municipalities bordering
the coast has been considered. This estimate includes also the Thessaloniki
metropolis (89% of the total county population). During 1981, the coastal
population was 800,000, which increased to 860,000 in 1991
and to 940,000 in 2001. The overall increase in the period 19812001 was 18%.
Some of Thessalonikis municipalities are heavily populated (population density
>20,000 inh/km2), underscoring the role of the city as a major pressure area. In
addition, recent plans of EYATH include the Axios and Aliakmon Rivers as
potential suppliers of drinking water for the city of Thessaloniki.
5.1.3.
Mussel farming
During the last 20 years, a considerable growth in shell.sh (mussel) production

appeared in the Axios River coastal area. To date, more than 44 pole cultures
and 229 long-line cultures occupy the marine area between the Axios River
mouth to the NE (Chalastra area), whereas 37 pole and 120 pole cultures are
situated to the SW of the Axios River mouth, covering a narrow zone of 6 km
(NCMR 2001). Shellfish production in the area reaches 85% of the total Greek
production, and increased rapidly since the 1990s to more than 30,000 t per year
(Fig. 5), whereas 7080% of the product is exported to other countries. The value
of the production amounts to more than 10 million annually (Zanou and
Anagnostou 2001), and about 1,000 people are employed in the units. Recently,
the production has been considerably affected by the occurrence of harmful
algae blooms (HABs), which sometimes result in the accumulation of toxins in
shell- .sh, making it dangerous to consumers. It should be noted that toxins,
although hazardous to humans, do not a.ect the mussel itself.. Moreover,
shellfish farming is accompanied by high amounts of solid waste (mainly shells),
illegal construction of auxiliary premises, and occasionally severe hygienic
problems.

25
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Figure 2: Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf

source: Ministry of Agriculture
5.1.4.
Industry
Industrial plants within the Axios River catchment comprise a cheese factory,
three dye-houses, a slaughterhouse, a dairy factory and a canning plant (Table
1). Their relatively limited number and capacity indicate that industrial water use
is not an important pressure factor. Likewise, nutrient emissions are low, as the
industries e.uents are processed (except for the Axioupolis dye-house and
slaughter-house). The total annual input of nitrogen and phosphorus load
originating from industrial sources situated within the AXCAT was estimated at
15 t and 12 t, respectively.
Table 2: Annual average input of nutrients in the Greek part of the Axios-Vardar River from point sources
Source: Lazaridou-Dimitriadou,1998
5.1.5.
Impacts on functions of the ecosystem ecological approach
Groundwater resources contamination from pesticides in the Axios river

basin.
26
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

The profile of the pesticides detected in the south and the north parts of Axios
river basin showed high similarity.Rice cultivation in the south part of the basin
resulted in an almost uniform contamination of the soil water and the phreatic
horizon of the surrounding studied fields.
Irrigation of the studied fields in the southern part of the basin using riverine
water might have caused the deposition of pesticides, contained in the riverine
water, to surface soil layers and their subsequent leaching to deeper soil
layers.The existence of an operative system of drainage canals in the southern
part of the basin reduced the rapid transport of pesticides with low leaching
potential, although it could not prevent the vertical movement of mobile
pesticides to shallow groundwater.
Occurrence of pesticides in the rain of Axios River Basin
A variety of pesticides, including parent compounds and major conversion
products, are present in rainwater of both agricultural and residential areas of the
Axios River Basin. Presently, the environmental impact of pesticides found in
rainwater is difficult to assess. According to previous findings pesticide residues
are present in most aquatic systems of the basin, even in remote areas of the
highlands (unpublished data); in fact, the latter aquatic systems are used as
drinking water sources. Therefore, what is most certain at the present is that
rainwater of this area, due to the presence of pesticides at concentrations higher
than 0.1g/L in most rain events of the year, does not comply with the drinking
water quality standards of the European Union (EU) Directive WFD 2000/60
which is of great concern.
Eutrophication-chlorophylla and dissolved oxygen in the coastal zone
Eutrophication, the manifestation of nutrient-enhanced primary productivity, often
indicated by the presence, not only of high chlorophyll concentrations, but also by
the presence of noxious phytoplankton blooms and bottom water hypoxia/anoxia,
has been reported from a variety of marine environments (Rosenberg 1985;
Anderson and Rydberg 1988; Justic et al. 1995). The frequency of eutrophic
events has increased in many coastal areas, especially those affected by riverine
inflows.
The fresh water entering the Inner Thermaikos Gulf at the surface layer is
characterized by high values of dissolved oxygen, whereas the seawater
influenced by sewage is characterized by low values. However, during summer,
the most critical period for the occurrence of hypoxia in the Thermaikos Gulf, the
measurements showed that dissolved oxygen varies from 2.6 mL/L to 7.6 mL/L.
Lower values were recorded near the bottom of the northern part of Thessaloniki
Bay, which is most strongly influenced by sewage outflows.
The seasonal horizontal distribution of chlorophyll shows the significant
contribution of sewage discharged at the northern Thessaloniki Bay to the
eutrophication of the environment during the warmer period, whereas during
winter the influence of the rivers can be equally important.

27
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Harmful algal blooms (HABs)

Changes in plankton community structure caused by nutrient over-enrichment
often result in phenomena called red tides. They are characterized by the
proliferation and occasional dominance of particular species of toxic or harmful
algae (NRC 2000). For this reason, they are more correctly called Harmful Algal
Blooms or simply HABs. One major category of HAB impact occurs when toxic
phytoplankton is filtered from the water as food by shellfish, which then
accumulate the algal toxins. Humans may suffer poisoning syndromes, which
have been named paralytic, diarrheic, neurotoxic, and amnesic shellfish
poisoning (PSP, DSP, NSP, and ASP) (NRC 2000). Other HAB impacts occur:
(a) when marine fauna are killed by algal species that release toxins into the
water; and (b) when blooms have sufficient density to cause anoxia, as large
quantities of algal biomass sink to the bottom and decay, consuming oxygen. In
the case of the Thermaikos Gulf, data on phytoplankton responses to
eutrophication from the 1980s to 1995 (Moncheva et al. 2001) demonstrated that
frequent diatom blooms occurred during summer. The dominance of diatoms in
the Thermaikos Gulf was attributed to their higher e.ciency in utilizing high
nutrient levels (especially Si), mainly supplied by river run-off. However, after
1995, dramatic changes occurred. The diatom blooms changed to toxic
dino.agellate blooms that can be related to the low N/P ratios. Occurrence of
HABs was related to the toxic dinofiagellate species Dinophysis acuminata, a
DSP causative. The first confirmed bloom of Dinophysis acuminata was recorded
from January to May 2000, with cell abundances >5.0104 cells/L and okadaic
acid concentrations up to 1,600 ng/g of mussel tissue (8 times higher than
permitted limits). The Dinophysis acuminata bloom was repeated in the two
following years (January-April 2001, February-May 2002), with cell abundances
not exceeding 1.5 104 cells/L.
Physicochemical characteristics, biotic indices and statistical analyses indicated
poor water quality in spring and moderate to good quality in summer. In the high
flow season, lower quality was due to diffuse pollution in the form of suspended
solids along the main river course.The same kind of pollution was detected along
the main course of the Axios-Vardar in April and May 1997 during a study of
monthly water quality assessment of four stations (LANGRICK et al., 1998).
Heavy rainfall and the lack of aquatic and bankside vegetation led to excessive
flooding of the river and to the transport of suspended solids into the AxiosVardar, which were consequently deposited as silt. The main sources of
suspended solids were nearby fields that were recently ploughed in preparation
for the spring sowing. Organic pollution load was significant in the tributaries
Vardarovasi and Anthofito, because of better self-purification capacity of the river
during the high flow season (Lazaridou et Al, 1998). The high BOD5 values were
most probably related to the diffuse organic matter accompanying the suspended
solids and not to point source organic pollution.

28
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
5.2.
5.2.1.

FYROM
Industry
Industry is the dominant economic sector in FYROM, accounting for 35% of the
gross national product (GNP) and 39.9% of employment in 1994 (NEAP 1996).
UNEP (2000) identified environmental hot spot conditions in five of the sites
visited during its field mission in FYROM: the ferro-alloy plant in Jegunovce, the
OHIS A.D. organic chemicals plant in Skopje, the lead smelter MHK Zletovo in
Veles, the lead and zinc Rudnici Zletovo mine in Probistip, and the electrical
power plant in Bitola. The overall risk assessment suggests that these sites
require urgent attention in order to halt serious hazards to public health and the
natural environment. Treatment of the industrial sewage takes place only in a few
factories. For example, in 1993, a wide range of industries discharged 420 million
m3 of wastewater, of which only 6% was treated (NEAP 1996). However, these
sites are more important as heavymetal sources. For nutrients emissions, the
most important point source is the fertilizer plant in the industrial zone of Veles.
The plant produces yearly 60,000 t of fertilizers, using sulfuric acid from the
neighboring smelter and imported phosphorites from Morocco. The plants
wastewater loadings of phosphorus and nitrogen are equivalent to those that
would be generated by population centers of 4.6 million and 0.4 million people,
respectively (UNEP 2000), which corresponds to 4,600 t for phosphorus and
1,600 t for nitrogen, annually.
5.2.2.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the second important economical sector in FYROM, accounting for

22% of the GNP. Nearly half of the total area of the country is used by
agriculture, split equally between cultivated areas and pastures. Concerning
intensive agriculture in FYROM, although the trends are decreasing, pollution is
present. Fertilizer use has been declining over the last 10 years; there was a
rapid decline in the 19901993 period because of the phasing out of input
subsidies, import constraints and the financial difficulties faced by farmers. Over
the period 19942000, the consumption of total (nitrogen and phosphate)
fertilizers decreased from 47,000 t to 39,000 t (FAO 2002). Nevertheless,
fertilizer use remains quite high. Pesticide consumption has declined dramatically
over the past 10 years, i.e. from 2,706 t in 1983 to 659 t in 1993. Herbicide
consumption has declined similarly. Analysis suggests that there are few
problems in FYROM regarding retention of pesticide chemical residuals in
vegetable products, partly because pesticide use is much lower than in Western
Europe, and partly because standards are respected. Wheat, maize, rice,
tobacco, and barley are the primary crops in FYROM. Their production during the
last decade shows relatively small variations, and clear increasing or decreasing
trends could not be identified.
5.2.3.
Livestock

29
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Animal husbandry is intense in FYROM, with sheep, cattle, pigs, and hens
(poultry) representing the most important livestock. Throughout the past decade,
a slight decrease in livestock occurred, except for pigs, which exhibit a 16%
increase (FAO 2002). Pastures cover about 6,340 km2, corresponding to 10% of
the land. Animal feeding requires high water availability, posing additional
pressure to water resources. Moreover, livestock manure is an important nonpoint source of nutrients, contributing to the enrichment of topsoils in nitrogen (Nsurplus). Organic fertilizer production totals about 3 million tonnes, which satisfy
about 30% of the countrys total fertilizer demand (NEAP 1, 1996).
5.2.4.
Urban
Urbanization has gradually developed in FYROM, and to date, 60% of the people
live in large cities, e.g. Skopje, the countrys capital with some 600,000
inhabitants. Wastewater treatment plants exist only for three cities, Ohrid,
Prespa, and Doiran, but their sewage network is still incomplete. Municipal
untreated wastewaters that are discharged into the Axios River were estimated at
4,700 t yr-1 for nitrogen, and at 857 t yr-1 for phosphorus (NEAP 1996). The
immediate construction of WWTPs, at least for the major cities, is a target of
ultimate importance for the quality of the countrys freshwater resources.
5.3.
Nutrients
Nutrient contamination is the key pollutant of the Axios-Vardar catchment. Thus,

it is examined separately.
5.3.1.
Nutrients in the Axios River catchment
The annual freshwater discharge variation of the Axios River is characterized by

high values during spring (maximum in April) and a second peak during winter
(maximum in February) (Fig. 2a). This pattern classifies the Axios as a snow-rain
type-b river (Malikopoulos 1957). When long-term surveys are available a
chemical quality regime, may be defined on the basis of long-term monthly
average concentrations (Meybeck 1996). Furthermore, the following
interpretations rely on the assumption that single monthly measurements are
representative for the entire month. The intra-annual variation of nitrates shows
minima during the dry period (June to August; Fig. 2b). During the rise of the
hydrograph (September to December), nitrate concentrations increase gradually,
reaching the annual maximum in December. From January to May, nitrate
concentrations decrease gradually. This type of intra-annual variation is
attributed to arable land flushing during autumn and early winter and dilution
during the springtime (Skoulikidis and Kondylakis 1997). Low concentrations
during summer indicate that nitrate point sources are of minor importance. The
variation of ammonium and total phosphorous shows maximum

30
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

values during the dry period (July and August; Figs. 2c,d). This pattern, inverse
to the variation of nitrates, is attributed to the combination of low flow and the
contribution of point pollution sources (domestic wastewaters and seasonally
operating industries). During high discharge, relatively low concentrations are
observed; as in the case of nitrates, this is due to dilution. Ammonium also
exhibits high fluctuations, especially during the dry period, probably due to
episodic inputs. However, the long-term variation of the nitrate concentration, in
general, reveals a gradual increase throughout the years (Fig. 3). For total
phosphorus, the maximum median concentration is observed in October,
because of flushing from agricultural land (Fig. 2d). On
Figure 3:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) intra-annual variations of water discharge (a),
nitrates (b), ammonium (c), and total phosphorous (d), measured at the Thessaloniki- Eidomeni
Railway Bridge station. The bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower
ticks represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively

31
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Figure 4:Axios RIVER long-term (19802000) inter-annual variations

of nitrates, measured at the Thessaloniki-Eidomeni Railway
Bridge station. A line is drawn between the median of each year.
The bars represent the 2575% quartiles and the upper and lower
ticks represent the minimum and maximum values, respectively.

32
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Map 2: Axios-Vardar River Basin

source: Karageorgis et al. 2003

33
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

the other hand, total phosphorus fluctuations are relatively smaller, due to its
lower mobilization, since it is readily absorbed on particulate matter (e.g. Lajtha
and Schlessinger, 1988).
The spatial variation of nutrients is illustrated in a cross-section along the main
river course (Fig. 4). The peak concentrations of total nitrogen and total
phosphorus at station T8 (downstream of Skopje) and particularly at station T15
(downstream of Veles) indicate significant impact of wastewater discharges from
the town of Skopje (waste water from the organic chemical plant and municipal
sewage) and from the town and the fertilizer factory at Veles. (Nicolaidis et Al.,
2004)
Figure 5:Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) variations

along the Axios River course. Average concentrations of 1997
19981999

34
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

According to a study over the source apportienement of

nitrogen and
phosphorus inputs into the aquatic environment, conducted by the European
Environment Agency (EEA) in 2005, Axios-Vardar river basin is one of the most
phosphorus loaded basins in Europe.The load overcomes the 3 kg/Ha and is
mainly derived from point sources(map 4).On the other hand the nitrogen load is
relatively small in comparison with the most significant European catchments
(map 3).
Map 3: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments

Source: Source apportionment of nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the
aquatic environment ,EEA Report No 7/2005

35
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Map 4: Source apportionement of nitrogen load in selected regions and catchments

Source: Source apportionment of nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the aquatic
environment ,EEA Report No 7/2005

36
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
5.3.2.

Nutrient inputs from rivers and point sources to the

Thermaikos Gulf
It has been suggested that the four major rivers (Axios, Aliakmon, Loudias, and
Gallikos) discharging into the inner Thermaikos Gulf influence significantly the
trophic conditions of this coastal region by having a direct effect on primary
production and the associated food web structure and functioning. In fact, these
four rivers account for almost 40% of the freshwater inflow to the North Aegean
Sea according to UNEP/MAP data. The elevated concentrations of nutrients in
the river water of the inner Thermaikos Gulf are very likely due to the intensive
agricultural, mining and smelting activities that take place in the river basin. The
total annual flux of nitrogen and phosphorus was estimated at 9,700 t and 2,100
t, respectively for 1980 1985.Recently (19952000), these loads decreased to
9,200 t for nitrogen and increased to 2,400 t for phosphorus (Table 2). It is worth
noting that during the drought period of 19901994, nutrient influxes reached
their minimum values.
Table 3: Nutrients input into the inner Thermaikos Gulf in 5-year time intervals
The urban effluents of Thessaloniki city (population 1,200,000) have been

released untreated into the sea for several decades, as the sewage network was
incomplete and wastewater treatment plants were nonexistent. During this
period, more than 100,000 m3 of effluents were discharged daily, resulting in a
rapid deterioration of the Thermaikos Gulfs water quality and aesthetic
degradation. The WWTP-1 of the city was built in the Sindos area (map. 5). The
construction commenced in 1983 and finished in 2002. At this stage, the WWTP1 operated as a tertiary system (according to EYATH, nitrogen removal is better
than 80%), treating 120,000 m3 of sewage daily. In parallel, the WWTP-2 was
constructed in the eastern (tourist) part of the city (Nea Michaniona), and started
operation in 1997, with a capacity to treat daily 25,000 m3 of wastewater.
The industrial effluents of Thessaloniki were collected and transported at the
WWTP-3 of Sindos, which was constructed in 1978 and upgraded in 1991. The
facility treats 1,50012,000 m3 of sewage daily (average 7,500 m3 d-1) and
releases 950 t of nitrogen and 243 t of phosphorus annually.

37
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Map 5: Location of Waste Water Treatment Plants.

Inset map: Location of mussel-farming units in the Thermaikos Gulf
Source: Karageorgis et al. 2003
The diachronic variation of total nutrient inputs to the Thermaikos Gulf shows
that, although the operation of the WWTPs has commenced recently, nutrient
fluxes continue to increase; this may be explained by the increasing
population and agricultural/industrial activities. However, some improvement
should be expected in the short-term.

38
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
6.
6.1.
6.1.1.

ADMINISTRATION-POLICIES
Administration
Greece
At local level
The Prefecture of Thessaloniki and the Regional Authority of the province of
Central Macedonia are involved in different water management projects and
actions. For the water quality management, a new management body (Foreas
Diachirisis) has been formed recently following the demands of the Water
Framework Directive WFD 2000/60. This agent is now fully responsible for the
integrated management of the Axios delta area.
At national level
The Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of
Economics are responsible. There is no direct control by any state agency for the
maximum allowed quantity of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides used in rice
cultivation. Concerning the cost for irrigation, the pricing strategy of the local
irrigation network (TOEV) does not reflect the full cost of the resource, but intends
to cover only running expenses. The pricing policy is based on the average
estimated price per hectare that each local irrigation network has set for irrigation.
Because of the fact that Axios is a trans-boundary river, the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs is also involved.
Legal framework of the Axios catchment and its delta
As the result of international and national efforts, the following legal framework of
the Axios catchment and its delta is now in place:
Ramsar Site: The Axios delta and part of the river, up to 7 km upstream from
2
the river mouth (67 km ), are designated as a Ramsar site. The
Ramsar convention is one of the most important conventions
concerning the protection of the global avifauna. Greece has
ratified the Ramsar Convention on 19/11/1974 and listed 12
wetlands including the Axios delta. Recent governmental actions
aim at declaring also the Alyki Kitrous lagoon as a Ramsar site.
Natura 2000: This is the of.cial environmental programme of the European
Union concerning the identification andprotection of all
environmentally rich habitats. In our catchment, the following areas
are designed as Natura 2000 sites: site GR1220002,Axios2
Loudias-Aliakmon delta(112 km ); site GR1220007, Axios River
2
(77 km ); site GR1250010, delta Axios-Loudias-Aliakmon- Alyki
2
Kitrous (138 km ).
Special Protected
39
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Areas (SPA):
site GR1250010, delta Axios-Loudias-Aliakmon-Alyki Kitrous(138
2
km ) has been designated as aSpecial Protected Area.
Joint Ministerial
Decision:
With the JMD 14874/3291 of 6/7/1998, the areas of Gallikos
estuary, Kalochori lagoon, and Alyki Kitrous lagoon, were also
designated as ecological important areas to be protected.
Game Reserve:
Almost 30% of the area characterized as Ramsar site is also
characterized as game reserve to be protected.
6.1.2.
FYROM
As Vardar river basin includes the 86,9% of the FYROMs territory, a lot of
ministries are responsible for its management. These are the Ministry of
Environmental and Physical Planning, the Ministry of Water Economy, Forestry
and Agriculture, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry
of Economy, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of
Finance and the Ministry of Local Self-Government.
6.2.
6.2.1.
Policies
European Union Policies
On a European scale, the recent Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60

stands prominently in offering tools in support of an integrated management of
watersheds. In this line, adopting the wise use imperative of the European Union
is a prerequisite, as is also taking explicitly into account a number of factors
considered to affect specifically the management of Mediterranean
catchments, as: (a) developmental needs and economic inequality (b) pressure
from population growth, immigration and mass tourism; and (c) social and cultural
conflicts.
6.2.2.
General
Greek policy
According to the new Regional Development Plan 2000 2006 of Greece, the
general development goal for the region is the utilization of the new metropolitan
role of Thessaloniki in the Balkans area, along with the reinforcement of intraregional balance and sustainability.
The main strategic objectives for achieving this goal are the following (Konsolas et
al. 2002):
1. Development of Thessaloniki into a metropolitan center with international
functions. Emphasis is given on the areas of transport-communication, culture,
urban infrastructure, infrastructure and services for enterprises. Actions include
the creation of an integrated trans-modal transport network with hubs in major
40
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

centers of production activity, and their connection with trans-European and interregional transport networks.
2. Protection and utilization of the natural environment. Emphasis is placed on: (a)
urban and industrial waste, adopting measures for combating inner water and
coastal pollution, and completion of infrastructure for treatment of liquid and solid
waste; and (b) management of the natural and anthropogenic environment with
special actions for rational management
of water resources and their protection from unsuitable cultivation practices,
design and implementation of integrated protection programmes for biotopes and
wetlands.
3. Reduction of intra-regional disparities and sustainable development. Emphasis
is given on upgrading of health services, modernization of the railway network,
improvements in infrastructure of regional sea ports, promotion of local production
through agriculture and agro-industrial restructuring in the regions plains,
modernization and development of .shery and stock raising, reinforced protection
and preservation of agricultural land.
4. Decrease of unemployment and provision of equal opportunities in education
and skills. Emphasis is given to integrated employment programmes for
immigrants, repatriates and socially excluded groups to enter the labor market.
5. Within the third Community Support Framework 20002006, the Central
Macedonia Funding Programme, which will finance the above-mentioned actions,
has a total public expenditure of 1.2 billion .
Axios-Gallikos-Aliakmon- Loudias delta
The ecological significance of Axios-Gallikos-Aliakmon- Loudias delta and their
catchments explains why these regions have stimulated the interest of the Greek
Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning (YPEXODE) and several national
or international ecological groups. The first signs of environmental awareness
have been shown through the establishment of the Information
Centre by YPEXODE in Chalastra (Operational Programme Environment, SubProject 3.2) in 1998. This was one of the main obligations since the delta area and
a large part of the river were listed in the Ramsar Convention and the proposals
for the Natura 2000 programme. The Information Centre is responsible for the
scientific study of flora and fauna, preservation of the delta area, monitoring, and
reports about the state and the threats inside the delta and its surroundings.
YPEXODE was responsible for the financial and functional support of the
Information Centre until recently, but there is now great uncertainty about its
future.
Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs)
The improvement of the WWTPs and the sewage collection networks in the
greater Thessaloniki are considered as response actions of paramount
importance for the quality of the Thermaikos Gulf. The private (since 1998)
EYATH company has invested so far more than 70,000,000 (EC contribution
85%) to upgrade the citys sewage treatment infrastructure and for the period
20022006 has planned to invest more than 30,000,000 for additional works. In
addition, the company plans to use the pipeline network to support .ber-optics
41
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

telecommunication services. Finally, EYATH has shown understanding, as far it

concerns the role of the Axios River in the quality of the Thermaikos Gulf system,
and plans to collaborate with FYROM to construct sewage networks and WWTPs
in twelve cities. These actions would help towards the improvement of the overall
quality of the Axios River.
6.2.3.
FYROM policy
The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is a pluralist, multiparty democracy.

Its human rights record is broadly comparable with that of established Western
democracies. Within this framework, FYROM is seeking to make progress in the
field of environmental protection, and very keen to comply with EU environmental
requirements and standards (NEAP 1996). Nevertheless, the adoption of new
environmental legislation and the creation of new institutional structures by
FYROM need to be supported by investment, implementation and enforcement.
Specific environmental management recommendations given by UNEP for the
water sector in FYROM include the following: an integrated river basin
management plan should be developed and implemented for the Vardar (Axios)
River. The approach should be consistent with the EU Water Framework Directive
2000/60 and take full account of transboundary considerations. The Kosovo
conflict and the subsequent uprising by ethnic-Albanian armed groups placed an
additional burden on the already over-stretched resources of FYROM, although
their direct environmental impacts were found to be minimal. With regard to
UNEPs conclusion, two key areas of environmental improvement have been
identified for the State of FYROM: (a) the implementation of environmentally
acceptable industrial processes, including measures for adequately controlling the
use of chemicals; and (b) adequate handling, storage, treatment and disposal of
waste, whether solid or liquid, hazardous or non- hazardous, municipal or
industrial. According to Krstic et al. (1999), the Axios River is heavily polluted,
primarily due to lack of wastewater treatment facilities. UNEP identifies a chronic
lack of investment in environmental protection although the economic context of
the decade 1991-2001 in FYROM has led to decreased industrial output and
consequential reductions in pollution.
The terms, conditions and management of the water in FYROM are regulated by
a law with the title Legislative for waters (Official Gazette of FYROM, no. 4/
1998). The classiffication of water (mineral and thermal water are not included) is
defined by the Decree for water classiffication, while waters from natural and
artificial springs and lakes are divided into .ve classes according to the Decree
for water categorization, lakes, accumulation and ground waters (Official Gazette
of FYROM, no.18/1999). The means for de.nition and preservation of the sources
supplying the population with drinking water are determined by the Regulation for
the means for determination and maintenance of the protective zones around the
sources of drinking water (Official Gazette of Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia, 17/1983). FYROM has identified the importance of the problems
related to the quantity and quality of water resources early. Within the National
Environmental Action Plan (NEAP 1996), several considerations focused on the
improvement
of
the state of
water resources. Some of
the
priorities/recommendations are: (1) the construction of WTTPs for the major cities
42
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

and improve the industrial units, (2) the more effective water resources
management, constructing additional dams, (3) the development of a water
resources plan using recently acquired data, (4) the introduction of industry
specific effluent standards, (5) the improvent of enforcement of existing
regulations, and (6) the launching of a permanent multi-parameter monitoring
programme. Although it is clear that, in a political level, there is generally a good
understanding of environmental issues, it remains to be seen whether the country
will manage to allocate funding to materialize the some or all of the
aforementioned plans.

43
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CLIMATE
7.
7.1.
Greece
7.1.1.
Geographical Position
The Axios River basin is located in the central Balkan Peninsula (Fig. 1) and drains
80% of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), parts of Bulgaria, the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Greece (Hellas), the latter occupying the delta
area. The catchment covers an area of approximately 25,000 km2 and hosts a
population of 1,834,000, 1,600,000 of which reside in FYROM (the total population of
FYROM is 2,034,000 according to a census in 2001) and 234,000 in Greece (census
2001).
Map 6: Location of the Axios (greek part) river basin
7.1.2.
Morphology
The highest catchment altitude reaches the 2600m, whereas inside the greek part
reaches the 1650m. The Axios delta is part of a greater area that constitutes a wetland
complex, including the estuaries of the rivers Gallikos and Loudias and the delta of the
Aliakmonas river.
The hilly formations, which expand northern of the Pefkodasos settlement,
determine and separate the catchments boundaries in the greek part, into two
secondary catchments. These communicate via the Chiganne Derven strait:
a. The subcathment of the upstream Axios river in the north
b. The subcatchment of the downstream Axios river in the south. Its watershed line is
developed totally into the greek part.
44
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

The average Axios river basin is 239m. The relief indicator, which expresses the
intensity of the erosion processes that take place in the slopes of the river basin ,
reaches the value of 0.04 (Meladiotis ,1984).
It is concluded from the altitude curve of the Axios river basin that:
a. The altitude of 50% frequency is 115m.It expresses the altitude of the 50% of the
river basins total area.
b. The maximum frequency altitude is 50m.
The low values of the altitude curve suggest that there is an intense degradation of its
relief, due to external processes.
H(m)
Axios Catchment
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Cumulative Surface (%)

Figure 6: Axios river basin altitude curve
During the 5th century B.C Axios estuary situated fairly eastern of Halkidona. The
seas withdraw from the area is due to the Ehedoros (Gallikos), Axios, Loudias and
Aliakmonas rivers alluvia in combination with the regions rising movements. It seems
that the rivers had cut off gulf water segments, by depositing alluvia. Swamps were
formed on account of this procedure.

45
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

th
st
Map 7: Greaters area geomorphological evolution for the 5 and 1

st
century B.C and the 1 century A.C (Meladiotis, 1984)
During the period 1928-43, the rivers bed was deviated, towards the west of the old
bed in the region of the municipal department of Anatoliko, in order to cover the
necessities in agricultural land and to confront with malaria. The silts that transfered
the river had as result the creation of the Axios delta as it is today. In this position, it
has been created a very important wetland of multiple value to the human (biological,
economical, climatical, recreational etc.).
According to Vouvalidis et Al. (2005), it has been ascertained a rapid pace
elevation of the sea level in the region of Thermaikos that varies between 30m
(10000 years ago) to 5 m (5000 years ago), whereas the elevation pace has been
reduced during the last 4000 years. Historical data derived from the 5th century B.C
prove a quick expansion of the deltaic complex. The ancient cities of Pella and
Scydra were situated in those times next to the sea, whereas Scydra is located 30
km from the modern coastline.
7.1.3.
Climate
The climate of the Axios river basin varies from Mediterranean in the coastal zone
until continental in the northern part of the river basin.The average air temperature
receive values between 7-17.5C, whereas the average annual precipitation varies
from 400 to 1350 mm (Poulos et al., 2000).
In order to study the precipitation variation in the greek part of the catchment, data
were used from the raingauge stations of Polikastro (altitude 50 m) and Chalastra
46
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

(altitude 5 m) for the hydrologic years 1972-73 untill 2000-01. In the figures 7 and 8,
the annual precipitation level drift is presented, from which the extended variation of
the values is evident. The mean annual precitation level is 547.8 mm (Polikastro
raingauge station) and 412.3 mm (Chalastra raingauge station).
Polykastron rain gauge station (50 m)
900
annual rainfall (mm)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1994-95
1996-97
1998-99
1994-95
1996-97
1998-99
2000-01
1992-93
1992-93
1990-91
1988-89
1986-87
1984-85
1982-83
1980-81
1978-79
1976-77
1974-75
1972-73
Hydrologic year
Figure 7: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Polikastro station
Chalastra rain gauge station (5 m)

700
Annual rainfall (mm)
600
500
400
300
200
100
2000-01
1990-91
1988-89
1986-87
1984-85
1982-83
1980-81
1978-79
1976-77
1974-75
1972-73
Hydrologic year
Figure 8: Annual precipitation level variation (mm) in Chalastra station
The monthly precipitation level variation can be seen for the same time period, in
figures 9 and 10. It is clear that November is the wettiest month, which is followed by
December and May (Chalastra station).The driest months are July and August.
47
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Polykastron rain gauge station

80
Mean monthly rainfall (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Figure 9: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Polikastro station for the period
1972/73-2000/01
Chalastra rain gauge station

70
Mean monthly rainfall (mm)
60
50
40
30
20
10
Figure 10: Istogram of mean monthly precipitation level in the Chalastra station for the period
1972/73-2000/01
According to the measurements in the Polikastro bridge concerning the periods

1926-31, 1937-40, 1955-62, 1964-65, the mean annual discharge is 5x109 m3. This
corresponds to a mean discharge of 157 m3/s (fig.9).
48
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

According to more recent data, concerning the period 1995-2000, a significant

reduction appears.Thus, the mean annual discharge was measured to the level of
3.4x109 m3 (Karageorgis et al., 2005).
The months March and April present the highest water discharge (278 and 279
m3/s, correspondingly). The months with the lower discharge are August and
September, with flows of 49 and 51 m3/s, correspondingly.
Month JAN FEB
165 200
Flow
3
(m /s)
MAR
APR MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEPT
OCT
NOV
DEC
278
279 270
160
75
49
51
75
115
173
Table 4: Mean annual flow of Axios river (m /s). Periods 1926-31, 1937-40, 1955-62, 1964-65.
Axios river
Mean discharge (m /s)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
3
Figure 11: Mean annual flow istograms of the Axios river (m /s), periods: 1926-31, 1937-40, 1955-62,
1964-65.
According to the period 1951-79 data (Papamichail, 1992), the maximum annual
recorded flow reaches the value of 1550 m3/s (6/2/1963).The same researcher
estimates, by using the Pearson III logarithmic allocation, the maximum annual flow for
a 50-year return period to 1728 m3/s and for a 100-year return period to 1951 m3/s.
As long as it concerns the mean annual sediment yield, it is estimated to 1-2106
tons when historical data are used. Nontheless, according to recent measurements,
the sediment yield is estimated ten times smaller. This is due to the water flow
reduction, as well as due to the dam construction along the river route (Karageorgis et
al., 2005).
7.1.4.
Geology-Hydrogeology
Geologically examined, the Axios catchment is covered by neogenic and

quarternary deposits in a percentage of 33%, by limestone (11%), flisch (6%) and
granitical infixes, ophioliths-metamorphic rocks (50%).
49
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

The ultrabasic rock,(ophioliths, serpendinites, and peridontites) which are

encountered mainly in FYROM and especially in the regions of Veles and Probistip,
hospital rich deposits in lead and spelter (Pb-Zn).
The alpine background of the Axios-Vardar river basin is consisted exclusively by
rocks from the Axios geotectonic zone and especially the Paiko and Paionia zone. The
appearance of large ophiolithic masses, that define the zone location as the old
oceanic area of Titheus, feature the Axios zone.
The Axios zone was divided according to palaiogeographic terms in three
subzones from west to east (Meladiotis, 1984, Moudrakis, 1995, Tranos et Al., 1999),
(map.8):
a. Almopy
b. Paiko
c. Paionia
The Almopy zone is situated in the western part of the Axios zone and is consisted
of ophioliths and metamorphic rocks. This zone is not present in the Axios river basin.
The Paiko zone includes the mountains of Paiko and Jena, which form the western
Axios watershed in its greek part. It is consisted of the older metamorphic layer,
semimetamorphic rocks, the carbonic layer of marmaroid limestone, schistoliths, flisch,
dolomitic limestone, the classic layer of alternations among sandstone, conglomerate
and last but not least grey-black limestones of Maistrichtian age.
The Paionia zone includes crystallic rocks underlying argillaceous schists and
fyllites, limestones and ophiolithic rocks. The above rocks had been influenced during
the upper Jurasic- lower Cretidic period, by a low-degree metamorphosis (greenschistolithic phase). As a result, they appear to be today as low-degree metamorphic
rocks. Lastly, these rocks have suffered the influence of a relatively recent metametamorfic deforming incident. This incident occurred during the Oligocen-middle
Meiocen and includes successive breaches with a NE direction.
The imaginary line that crosses the settlements of Megali Sterna, Anatolika tou
Metallikou, Leventohori, Anatolika tou Melissochoriou, consists the imaginary border
between the Paionia and Perirodopic zone.

50
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Map 8:Divide of the Paionia, Paiko and Alompia zone (Mercier & Sauvage, 1968)
Hydrogeology
The most significant aquifers in the greek part of the Axios river basin are
developed in the rough quaternary deposits and in the carbonic rocks (karstic
aquifers).
The coastal part of the lower Axios river basin is covered by quaternary deposits
(sandy argils, sands). Inside the above geological deposits there are successive
aquifers. The alluvian deposit thickness fluctuates from 70 to 100 m and is above the
sandstone-margaic tertiary layer of great thickness (>700 m) in the Axios catchment.
According to drilling research data, there is one unconfined aquifer (10-20m
depth) and more confined ones (40-200m depth). Tzimourtas et Al. (1997) distinguish
three aquifers in the northern part of the Thessaloniki-Axios catchment. The first is
unconfined with a mean depth of 25m and thickness of about 25m, an intermediate
one (depth 75m -thickness 30m) and a deeper one (depth>200m, thickness 55m).
The aquifers are supplied directly from the rainfall water, via lateral infiltration
along the river and its tributaries. According to the geological sections of the drillings,
the lateral infiltrations depth varies between 15-50m in the coastal zone and it
exceeds the 80 metres in the internal one. The measurement flows vary from 30-100
m3/h.
The underground water level fluctuates from 3-50 m from the surface. In the
coastal zone, phenomena of artesianism were noted during the old days. It must be
pointed out that, due to the exhaustion of the upper underground water resources,
the drilling depth is constantly increasing below the sea level to exploit the deeper
water resources. The pumps, in some areas, exceed the natural enrichment. In
51
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

combination with the prolonged periods of drought, there is a constant drop of the
underground water level.
In fig 12, the underground water fluctuation in the region of Eleousa can be seen.
There is a small rise trend during the last two years, mainly because of the
termination of the pumping from the Thessaloniki Water-Sewerage Company
(EYATH). Nowdays, the citys necessities in water are covered from the Aliakmon
River. It must be noted that the underground water elevation in the coastal area
remains until now under the sea level (-15m).
01/05/06
01/03/06
01/01/06
01/11/05
01/09/05
01/07/05
01/05/05
01/03/05
01/01/05
01/11/04
01/09/04
01/07/04
01/05/04
01/03/04
01/01/04
01/11/03
01/09/03
groundwater level (m b.g.s.)
Groundwater level fluctuation
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
Figure 12: Elevation fluctuation of drill of the Eleousa region in the Axios river basin.(data EYATH).
The main karstic aquifer in the greek part of the Axios river basin is expanded in
the carbonic rocks of the Paiko mountain. In this region, there are independent
aquiferic systems, such as the Griva, Gkola-Chuka, Gkandats etc. (Dimopoulos
2000).
The main karstic system of Griva has an area of 15.5 km2 and is expanded inside
the limestones in the eastern side of mountain Paiko. It is drained from the main
karstic wells of Skra,that make their appearance in the northern side of the system, in
an altitude of 550m. Their flows do not exceed the 20 m3/h.
The karstic system of the eastern Paiko is expanded inside the triad-jurasic
limestones Gkola-Tsouka. It is a significantly karsted system that covers an area of
14 km2 and is drained through numerous wells of large discharge, such as the wells
of Goumenissa, Karpi and Kastaneri. Their discharges vary from 50 to 600 m3/h and
they make their appearance in elevations from 550 to 750 m.
It must be stressed that there are a lot of pressures exerted on the basins water
resources from the human activities. These are mainly metallurgical and agricultural
activities as well as cattle-breeding, urbanization and over drilling. They result to
qualitative degradation of the surface and underground waters (nutrient pollution,
increased heavy metal concentration, saline water) and their quantitative reduction
(negative water balance in some areas, water elevation drop).
52
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
7.2.
7.2.1.

FYROM
Geographical position
The Vardar river basin (FYROM part) covers approximately 80 % of the

FYROM.That is why Vardar catchment is regarded as synonymous to the FYROM
state. The FYROM has an area of 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi). It is bounded on
the north by Serbia, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Greece, and on the
west by Albania. It is completely landlocked. Forests of beech, pine, and oak,
located primarily along the countrys western side, cover 36 percent of the
territory.
7.2.2.
Morphology
The FYROMs terrain is punctuated by deep valleys and rugged mountains and
hills. Many of the mountain ranges rise to heights of 2,100 to 2,700 m (7,000 to
9,000 ft). The Rhodope Mountains dominate the republics eastern half. Mount
Korab, on the Albanian border, is the highest point in the republic at 2,764 m
(9,068 ft). The Babuna Mountains are in the center of the country. They separate
the fertile Bitola Plain in the south from the Skopje Plain in the north and the fertile
steppe (treeless grassy plain) of the southeast.
The republics three largest lakes are Lakes Ohrid, Prespa, and Doiran. Lakes
Ohrid and Prespa are in the southwestern corner of the country, straddling the
borders with Albania and Greece. Lake Doiran is in the southeast, on the border
with Greece. The longest river in the FYROM is the Vardar River, which bisects
the republic as it travels from its origin in the northwest. Not one of the rivers is
navigable, and many are torrents that dry up during the summer dry season. A
hydroelectric power system in the Mavrovo Valley along the upper course of the
Radika River in the west provides electricity to Greece and the FYROM.
The relief in the catchment is predominantly hilly-mountainous and very varied
with average elevation of 793 m. High mountains in the northwest reach altitudes
of more than 2,500 m and about 2,000 in the eastern part. Valleys altitudes range
from 750 to 50 m above sea level.
7.2.3.
Climate
Different types of climate characterize FYROMs territory: continental, changed

conti-nental, sub-Mediterranean (changed maritime), mountainous climate, as well
as their various sub-types. The average annual air temperature vary between
12C to 14C in the region with a subMediterranean climate, 10C to 11C in the
region with a hot continental climate, 5C in the region with a subalpine
mountainous climate, and 0C in the region with an alpine mountainous
climate.The annual precipitation ranges between 500 mm in the central part to
more than 1,000 mm in west average between 600 to 900 mm.
53
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
7.2.4.

Geology
The territory of FYROM belongs to two regions; Rodopian region of ancient

mountains and ravines located in eastern part of the country and a region of
young (recent) mountains and ravines located in western and central part. The
FYROM possesses a variety of natural resources, including zinc, lead,
manganese, nickel, chromium, copper, iron ore, and tungsten. Mineral and
thermal springs are also common. Skopje suffered a devastating earthquake in
1963. The FYROM is located in an area of high seismic activity.

54
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
8.
8.1.

ECONOMY - PRODUCTION
Greece
Axios is very important for the agricultural and industrial development of the
central part of the province of Macedonia. Dynamics of the river flow affect the
activities in the delta region. Many occasional human activities intensify or stop
according to the river flow, such as sand extraction. Additionally, some
stakeholders are multiprofessional, e.g. many rice farmers (practicing intensive
agriculture) are also engaged in aquaculture (shellfish farming). These two
stakeholder groups are greatly interested in freshwater and their interests have
been contradictory several times in the past.
8.1.1.
Agricultural production
Farmers constitute the principal interest group in the Greek part of the Axios
basin. The primary crops that make up more than 85% of the total crops are
wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, barley, and cotton (Figs. 6a-f). Fruits and vegetables
are also cultivated. A particular characteristic is that in the Axios delta area almost
solely rice is cultivated, and the output of this area amounts to 60% of the entire
Greece production. The farming community is the largest consumer of Axios
water. There is no direct control by the Ministry of Agriculture or any other state
agency referring to the maximum allowed quantity of fertilizers and pesticides that
can be used in rice cultivation. However, in Greece as a total, fertilizers
consumption decreased from 696,000 t in 1990, to 457,500 t in 2000 (FAO 2002).
Figure 13: Primary animal breeding in the Greek part of the Axios
RIVER catchment (source: National Statistical Service of Greece)
and FYROM (source: FAO 2002)

55
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Figure 14: Primary crops in the Greek part of the Axios RIVER
catchment (source: National Statistical Service of Greece) and
FYROM (source: FAO 2002)
8.1.2.
Industrial sector
Industry plays an important role in the economy of the area. Enterprises situated
within the watershed total 3,735 which are mostly very small units. 182 are
classified as small units (personnel 1049), with a turnover of 300 million , whilst
medium and large units do not exist. These enterprises deal with textiles and
apparel production, food and beverages, and there are a few metal and chemical
factories. At this point, it should be considered that the degree of industrialization
of the catchment is relatively low compared to the delta plain (Thessaloniki
County) that includes 57,260 very small enterprises, 1,696 small enterprises, and
229 medium/large enterprises. Of these, approximately 1,300 units require
wastewater treatment (Tsagarlis 1998). The major industrial sector of the County
is located in the western part of Thessaloniki, in the so-called National Industrial
Site of Thessaloniki Prefecture, which includes more than 100 small-mediumlarge industrial units. Inside the site, wastewater treatment facilities have been
provided since in 1978 a WWTP was constructed. The industrial sewage is
processed and discharged in a channel. It has been estimated that large food
industries, located within the Industrial Site of Thessaloniki, can fully treat their
wastewater before discharging them into the river. However, many small and/or
medium size enterprises situated in Thessaloniki and other counties draining into

56
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

the inner Thermaikos Gulf have no wastewater treatment facilities, and their
sewage is directly released into rivers.
8.1.3.
Shellfish farmers
Shellfish (mussel) farmers is a group strongly dependent on the freshwater of the

Axios River, and in fact, the particulate matter supplied by the river. It has been
estimated that a single shellfish filters 70 g yr-1 of particulate matter, and uses
50% of it for growth (Widdows et al. 1979). The shellfish farming activity in the
delta is profitable, comprising 85% of the total Greek shellfish output. The
abundance of freshwater and particles near the Axios River mouth suggests that
shellfish grow faster, resulting in larger profits for the shellfish farmers. On the
other hand, scarcity of freshwater (and particulates) or contamination severely
affect shellfish farming, decreasing productivity.
Figure 15: Shellfish production in the Thermaikos Gulf

Source: Ministry of Agriculture

57
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
8.2.
8.2.1.

FYROM
Industry
Industry is the dominant economic sector in FYROM, accounting for 35% of the
gross national product (GNP) and 39.9% of employment in 1994 (NEAP 1996).
UNEP (2000) identified environmental hot spot conditions in five of the sites
visited during its field mission in FYROM: the ferro-alloy plant in Jegunovce, the
OHIS A.D. organic chemicals plant in Skopje, the lead smelter MHK Zletovo in
Veles, the lead and zinc Rudnici Zletovo mine in Probistip, and the electrical
power plant in Bitola. The overall risk assessment suggests that these sites
require urgent attention in order to halt serious hazards to public health and the
natural environment. Treatment of the industrial sewage takes place only in a few
factories. For example, in 1993, a wide range of industries discharged 420 million
m3 of wastewater, of which only 6% was treated (NEAP 1996). However, these
sites are more important as heavymetal sources. For nutrients emissions, the
most important point source is the fertilizer plant in the industrial zone of Veles.
The plant produces yearly 60,000 t of fertilizers, using sulfuric acid from the
neighboring smelter and imported phosphorites from Morocco. The plants
wastewater loadings of phosphorus and nitrogen are equivalent to those that
would be generated by population centers of 4.6 million and 0.4 million people,
respectively (UNEP 2000), which corresponds to 4,600 t for phosphorus and
1,600 t for nitrogen, annually.
8.2.2.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the second important economical sector in FYROM, accounting for

22% of the GNP. Nearly half of the total area of the country is used by agriculture,
split equally between cultivated areas and pastures. Concerning intensive
agriculture in FYROM, although the trends are decreasing, pollution is present.
Fertilizer use has been declining over the last 10 years; there was a rapid decline
in the 19901993 period because of the phasing out of input subsidies, import
constraints and the financial difficulties faced by farmers. Over the period 1994
2000, the consumption of total (nitrogen and phosphate) fertilizers decreased from
47,000 t to 39,000 t (FAO 2002). Nevertheless, fertilizer use remains quite high.
Pesticide consumption has declined dramatically over the past 10 years, i.e. from
2,706 t in 1983 to 659 t in 1993. Herbicide consumption has declined similarly.
Analysis suggests that there are few problems in FYROM regarding retention of
pesticide chemical residuals in vegetable products, partly because pesticide use
is much lower than in Western Europe, and partly because standards are
respected. Wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, and barley are the primary crops in
FYROM (Figs. 5a-e). Their production during the last decade shows relatively
small variations, and clear increasing or decreasing trends could not be identified.
8.2.3.
Livestock
Animal husbandry is intense in FYROM, with sheep, cattle, pigs, and hens
(poultry) representing the most important livestock (Figs. 6a-d). Throughout the
past decade, a slight decrease in livestock occurred, except for pigs, which exhibit
58
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

a 16% increase (FAO 2002). Pastures cover about 6,340 km2, corresponding to
10% of the land. Animal feeding requires high water availability, posing additional
pressure to water resources. Moreover, livestock manure is an important nonpoint source of nutrients, contributing to the enrichment of topsoils in nitrogen (Nsurplus). Organic fertilizer production totals about 3 million tonnes, which satisfy
about 30% of the countrys total fertilizer demand (NEAP 1, 1996).
8.3.
Bilateral Trade
The volume of trade between Greece and FYROM has increased considerably
over the past few years and in 2003 stood at 460 million euros, making FYROM
Greeces third largest trading partner in the Balkans, after Bulgaria and
Romania.The volume of trade for the first nine months of 2004 stood at 374
million euros against 327 million euros for the same period in 2003. In 2003
Greece exported goods to a value of 357.2 million euros with imports at 106
million euros, and according to initial estimates this trend is continuing into 2004.
The trade balance remains positive for Greece (250 million euros).
8.3.1.
Greek investment in FYROM
According to official statistics, over the past eleven years foreign investments in
the country have amounted to some 1 billion euros.Greek investments head the
list of invested capital - approximately 760 million euros and about 9000
employees.These investments are concentrated in the energy sector, financial
services in industry, cement and tobacco, food and beverages, mining and marble
extraction, off-the-peg clothing and commerce. Under the Hellenic Plan for the
Economic Reconstruction of the Balkans (HIBERB), a total of 74.840.000 euros
has been earmarked for FYROM for the five-year period 2002-2006.On 6th
November 2003 the Hellenic Parliament promulgated a Law on the Organisation
of the Foreign Ministrys International Economic Relations and Development
Cooperation Services, which includes a provision facilitating the flow of financial
aid to FYROM.
8.4.
8.4.1.
Axios-Vardars pollution: Impacts on economy

Greece
Economic development of the region is endangered by surface water pollution

and degradation of water resources. Water pollution may cause serious damages
to the terrestrial and aquatic flora, fauna, drinking water supplies and,
consequently, to humans. The quality of surface water does not always comply
with the relevant environmental regulations (WFD 2000/60), Water shortage,
especially in summer, is a common phenomenon and it becomes worse due to
decreasing groundwater reserves. However, pollution of shallow groundwater in
some areas occurs due to inadequate on-site prevention measures and/or
leaching of various contaminants from landfilling and agricultural activities.

59
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Local tourism
The coastal area east and southeast of the city of Thessaloniki was a traditional
tourist resort area for the local people during the 1950s and 1960s. The aesthetic
degradation of the coast (e.g. increased water turbidity, production of noxious
odors, pathogenic bacteria) inhibited swimming and recreation activities, moving
the population further away to the neighboring Chalkidiki peninsula. It is difficult to
assess the economic cost of this massive but gradual change. Apparently, certain
properties have been substantially devaluated, while gasoline consumption (to
reach clean coasts), traffic and automobile emissions increased. For example,
Bockstael et al. (1989) applied a travel cost model to estimate the amount that
individuals are willing to pay to travel farther or more often to sites with better
water quality; applying this technique to the Chesapeake Bay, they found that on
average a 20% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus inputs would generate
benefits of 35 million $ (in 1984 dollars) from increased public beach use.
Obviously, respective benefits could be obtained in the near future for the inner
Thermaikos Gulf, bearing in mind the Greek gross domestic product, if measures
were undertaken and water quality was improved.
Mussels
Changes in plankton community structure caused by nutrient over-enrichment
often result in phenomena called red tides. They are characterized by the
proliferation and occasional dominance of particular species of toxic or harmful
algae (NRC 2000). For this reason, they are more correctly called Harmful Algal
Blooms or simply HABs.Mussels affected by the DSP toxin were not released to
the market at the times when blooms occurred. However, several months later,
the mussels became non-toxic again, and finally the production was sold at lower
prices. The economic losses due to the toxic blooms have been estimated at 3
million per year.
8.4.2.
FYROM
In this case, economic development of the country is endangered by surface

water pollution and degradation of water resources,too. The pollution of the AxiosVardar River is caused mainly by the unregulated inflow of untreated domestic
and industrial wastewater, which is usually containing a large variety of toxic
inorganic and organic substances, microbes and excessive amounts of nutrients.
As a result, large-scale fish-kills occur rather frequently and direct drinking water
supply is unusable even for livestock. The quality of surface water in the FYROM
watersheds is usually in the range of 3rd to 4th class, in certain downstream parts
of the rivers of the 5th class and only some upstream parts can be classified as
1st and 2nd class water. Water shortage, especially in summer, is a common
phenomenon and it becomes worse due to decreasing groundwater reserves as
in the Greek part. The groundwater is generally considered to be of a good quality
and it is used for drinking water supply without any or only after a minimum
treatment. Nevertheless, pollution of shallow groundwater in some areas occurs
due to inadequate on-site prevention measures and/or leaching of various
contaminants from mining, landfilling, industrial and/or agricultural activities.
Groundwater resources are suspected to be polluted in areas near Skopje and
Veles.
60
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
9.
9.1.
9.1.1.

SOCIETY
Population-Demographics
Greece
Several towns are related to the Axios-Vardar river such as Giannitsa (26000)
,Kilkis (25000), Polikastro (13000), Goumenissa (7000) and Axioupolis (6500)
(census 2001). Nowadays, all communities and municipalities in the Axios
catchment (population 233500; census 2001) satisfy their drinking water needs
directly from the river or from groundwater. Census data show that the population
of the area is growing slightly. During the decade 19811991, population growth
was 4%, whereas during 19912001, the population increase was more than
20%. These figures suggest that water demand for urban use will increase in the
next years.
Greeks form the dominant ethnic group of the region. There are also immigrants
mainly from Albania and Bulgaria that work mainly in the agricultural and less in
the construction activities. The birth rate in 2003 stood 9,5/1,000 inhabitants
(14,5/1,000 in 1981). At the same time the mortality rate increased slightly from
8,9/1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9,6/1,000 inhabitants in 2003 (NSSG 2003).The
life expectancy at birth reach the 79 years.The prevalent majority of the
inhabitants(greeks) are baptised into the greek orthodox church.
9.1.2.
FYROM
According to the 2002 census, FYROM had 2,022,547 inhabitants. Slavs made up
64.2 per cent of the population, and ethnic Albanians a further 25.2 per cent. Other
groups in 2002 were as follows: Turks 3.9 per cent, Roma 2.7 per cent, Serbs 1.8
per cent, Bosniaks 0.8 per cent, Vlachs 0.5 per cent. The ethnic Albanians are
concentrated in western and north western part of the country where the best
agricultural land is. Slavs made up about 30 per cent of that areas population in
the early 1990s, but their numbers have decreased since the 2001 insurgency. The
two largest religious groups in FYROM are Orthodox Christians (about 67 per cent
of the total population) and Muslims (30 per cent).
The birth-rate fell from 14.6 live births per 1,000 in 1998 to 13.3 per 1,000 in 2003.
Over the same period the death rate per 1,000 people rose from 8.9. Life
expectancy after 1990 dropped due to a deterioration in health services and a fall
in living standards. WHO data for 2003 estimated life expectancy of 69 years for
men and 75 years for women. Roma complain of widespread ethnic discrimination.
They have the highest unemployment rate, the lowest personal and family
incomes, are the least educated and have highest mortality rates of any ethnic
group in the country (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 2006).
The economic life and almost all the important towns are related to Axios-Vardar
River or to one of its tributaries. Skopje, the capital of the FYR Macedonia
(600,000), most of the biggest or industrial cities as Kumanovo (105,000), Bitola
(90,000), Prilep (75,000), Tetovo (70,000), Veles (60,000), Gostivar (50,000), Stip
(50,000), Kavardarci (40,000), Kocani (35,000), Kicevo (30,000), Gevgelija
(25,000), and many other smaller towns and villages, with a total population of over
1,7 million inhabitants, are located in the Vardar watershed. Therefore any
61
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

improvement of the Vardar watershed may be considered as synonymous to the

improvement and the development of the whole FYROM.
9.2.
9.2.1.
Transportation infrastracture
Greece
The periphery of Central Macedonia has shown an intense development in the

international land, maritime and aerial transportations. The geographical position
of the Periphery in relation with the 2 National Motorways (Egnatia and PATHE),
the railroad system as well as the port and airport of Thessaloniki, give a
beneficial standpoint in its interconnection with FYROM ant the other Balcan
states.
The presence of the seaport of Thessaloniki, which is situated in a strategic
position between east and west, is a natural gate of the Balkan peninsula and a
node for the transit commerce of the inland. It covers a surface of 1,550,000
square metres and 15 million tons of cargo are transported from there annually.
Egnatia Motorway has an important role in the land transportational infrastructure.
The 670 km Egnatia Motorway is the only modern motorway (and by extension
the only transport) link spanning Northern Greece from its western to its eastern
border. The Egnatia Motorway was designed to the specifications of the TransEuropean
road
network
Nine major vertical axes provide links to Albania, FYROM, Bulgaria and Turkey,
and the whole system is served by 720 km of service roads.Two of them in Evzoni
and Niki are linked with FYROM.The airport is located 16 km from the centre of
Thessaloniki and it has international range.
9.2.2.
FYROM
Being in the north of Greece, the FYROM has 150 km of highways, 5500 km of
paved roads, 700 km of railways, and has access to the sea through the Greek
city of Thessaloniki. It is part of the major transportation corridor from Western
and Central Europe to Aegean Sea. Thessaloniki may be reached by car from
almost all the big towns, cities, industrial and agricultural centres of the FYROM in
less than 3 to 4 hours. The density of the road network in Fyrom is relatively low.
Because of the strategic position of the country in the Balkan peninsula, a road is
constructed between Skopje and the Greek border.The project is part of the
European corridor 10 North-South (E75): Tabanovce (Serbian border)-SkopjeBogorodica-(greek border).The part of the line Belgrade-Thessaloniki that crosses
FYROM is the most important one.
9.3.
9.3.1.
Health Infrastracture
Greece
The health infrastacture of the Province of Central Macedonia has not yet reached
a satisfactory level. The relevant indices concerning all the prefectures of the
62
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

region are quite low. Exception is the prefecture of Thessaloniki. It disposes high
standards health facilities which are concentrated in the city of Thessaloniki.
The province of Western Macedonia presents even greater lack in comparison
with the rest of the country. It is required quality improvementas well as
reformation of the related services. In the town of Florina there is infrastacture that
includes hospitals, health centers and a sanatorium.
9.3.2.
FYROM
In the 1980s the state had provided a guaranteed and comprehensive healthcare
service, which on paper continues. But, in reality, the quality of healthcare has
deteriorated since independence due to an acute lack of funds and shortages of
medical supplies. Compared with the private sector, the medical service is
seriously underpaid. Many doctors have found positions abroad, and medical
skills have stagnated due to lack of new technology. The situation is made more
difficult by the unclear division between military and civilian health structures.
Most of the funding for the state healthcare system comes from employers payroll
contributions to the Health Insurance Fund. The balance comes from transfers
from the state budget and from user fees. The IMF is pressing the authorities to
strengthen financial controls in the healthcare sector. Its concern is that wage
pressure and unfunded spending commitments will increase arrears.
9.4.
9.4.1.
Education Infrastracture
Greece
In the Periphery of Central Macedonia, the level of education infrastructure is

quite low. Exception is again the Thessaloniki prefecture where the level reaches
a sufficient level.
The 68,9% of the elementary schools operates without doubleshifts, i.e that
pupipls do not have to attend lessons the afternoon shift. The perspective ratio in
the whole country is 81,4%. The 56,8% of the highschools operate without
doubleshifts whereas in the whole country the ratio is 69,4%.(NSSG 1997).
In florina, operate the departments of elementary education teachers and infant
school teachers, correspondingly.Both are branches of the pedagogic faculty of
the Arstotle University of Thessaloniki. There is also a department of Balcanic
studies and three technical schools of the Technical University of Western
Macedonia.Those are the school of vegetable production, the school of animal
production and last but not least, the school of trade and qualitative control of
agricultural products.
9.4.2.
FYROM
FYROM inherited from Yugoslavia two universities, one in Skopje and one in
Bitola, both with a wide range of departments. The overall literacy was 94 per
cent. Since independence, the number of children completing primary education
each year has remained unchanged: it was 29,697 in 1990/91 and 29,939 in
2003/04, according to the State Statistical Office. The number of those completing
secondary education fell from 21,102 in 1990/91 to 15,704 in 1992/93 but
recovered to 23,621 in 2003/04. The number of university graduates fell from
63
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

2,500 in 1990/91 to 2,150 in 1994/95, but then rose to 4,178 in 2002/03. The
controversial issue in education is that of the right of ethnic Albanians to education
in their own language. At primary level 32.7 per cent were taught in Albanian in
2003/04, an adequate provision. At the secondary level the number of those
taught in Albanian more than doubled from 7,128 in 1994/95 to 18, 361 in
2003/04, still representing only 19.6 per cent of the total number of students
enrolled. In February 2004 the Tetovo University was legalised, which means that
the university which offers tuition exclusively in the Albanian language now
receives state funding along with the so-called <<Macedonian-language>>
universities in Skopje and Bitola. Previous governments had refused to set up a
separate university to teach in Albanian, or to secure a quota system for the
enrolment of ethnic Albanian students at the two state universities. Indeed the
Tetovo University was declared illegal in 1996 by the then SSDM-led government
in Skopje. A temporary compromise was reached in 2000 when the OSCE and
the EU supported the then creation of a private South-East European University
(SEEU), also in Tetovo. It opened in 2001 and offered teaching in Albanian, socalled <<Macedonian>> and English. However, the majority of ethnic Albanian
students remained registered at the (then still illegal) Tetovo University.
9.5.
Ecological Movement
The delta area is one of most important places for the migratory and endangered
species of birds in Greece. That is one of the reasons why the Hellenic
Ornithological Society (HOS) is quite active in this region. The objectives of the
Hellenic Ornithological Society (one of the largest non-profit ecological
organizations in Greece) are the study and protection of birds and their habitats,
the promotion of these aims at the European level in cooperation with related
European ornithological societies, and to inform and educate the public. It
supports further the scienti.c and monitoring activities and publishes reports and
statements about the natural conditions in the Axios River delta.
In addition, WWF Greece has expressed its interest in the area and has
conducted a two-year project for the protection of the Pygmy Cormorant and the
Whitefronted Goose in the delta area in co-operation with the Hellenic
Ornithological Society within the framework of the LIFE project. Furthermore, it
supports financially the Information Centre and with the HOS is one of the
supporters for a plan of establishing a Natural Park.
Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Kostas Voudouris,

lecturer in the Dept. of Geology of the Aristotle University of Thessanloniki for his
contribution in the section of hydrogeology and climate of the Axios river basin (first half
of chapter seven). His section was translated from greek to English by Vasilis
Vasilopoulos.
64
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,
10.

REFERENCES
1. Angeleski S., (2006) The role of the Euroregion in promoting and

reinforcing democratic stability and transfrontier co-operation in south
eastern Europe.
2. Karageorgis, A.P., Skourtos, M.S.,Kapsimalis, A.D. et al. (2005): An integrated
approach to watershed management within the DPSIR framework: Axios river
catchment and Thermaikos Gulf. Reg. Environ. Change (2005) 5:138-160.
3. Balopoulos E.T., Friligos N.C. (1993) Water circulation and eutrophication
in the north-west Aegean Sea: Thermaikos Gulf. J Env Sci Health A 28(6):
13111329
4. Charizopoulos E., Papadopoulou Mourkidou E., 1999, Occurrence of
Pesticides in Rain of the Axios River Basin, Greece, Aristotle University,
Pesticide Science Laboratory.
5. De Wit, M., Van Gaans P., Bleuten W., Bendoricchio G. and Behrendt H.
(2001). 'The contribution of agriculture to nutrient pollution in three
European rivers'. European Water Management, 2/2002 (published online).
http://www.ewaonline.de/journal/2002_02.pdf.
6. EEA (1999) State and pressures of the marine and coastal Mediterranean
environment. European Environment Agency, Environ Asses Ser, No 5,
137p.
7. Egnatia Odos S.A. www.egnatia.gr
8. Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com
9. FAO (2002) Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations,
FAOSTAT database. http://apps.fao.org/page/collections
10. Gilbert, A.J. 2001 The Rhine catchment evaluation framework and its
implications for EUROCAT. Paper presented at the EUROCAT/DEFINITE
Workshop, 8 October 2001, Amsterdam.
http://www.iia-cnr.unical.it/EUROCAT/project.htm
11. Gregory R. (2000) Using stakeholder values to make smarter
environmental decisions. Environment 42:3442
12. Hellenic-Bulgarian Cooperation on the Protection and Use of
Transboundary Watercourses. The EC Water Framework Directive (WFD)
2000/60, Sofia-Athens, 20/12/2003, Nomos + Physis.
13. Kampa E., Artemiadou V., Lazaridou-Dimitriadou M. Ecological quality of
the River Axios (N. Greece) during spring and summer, 1997.
14. Karageorgis A.P, Nikolaidis N.P., Karamanos H., Skoulikidis N. (2003)
Water and Sediment Quality Assessment of Axios River and its Coastal
Environment. Cont Shelf Res 23, 19291944
15. Kontogianni A., Skourtos M., Langford I., Bateman I., Georgiou S. (2001)
Integrating Stakeholder Analysis in non- market valuation of environmental
assets. Ecol Econom 37:123138
16. Lazaridou-Dimitriadou M. (1998) Control of ecological quality of the surface
waters of the Central and Western Macedonia using biological indices.
Final Report, General Secretariat of Research and Technology,
Thessaloniki, 79161 (in Greek)
17. Ledoux L., Turner K., 2003, European Catchments catchment changes and
their impact on the coast, Eurocat deliverable 3.1.
http://www.cs.iia.cnr.it/EUROCAT/project.htm
65
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

18. Levkov Z. (2001) Distribution of heavy metals in the river Vardar and their
influence on microflora and aquatic mosses. MSc thesis, St Cirilus and
Methodius Univ, Skopje, 203p
19. MedWet (1996) Mediterranean Wetland Strategy 19962006,
http://www.iucn.org/
20. Meladiotis J.(1984) Eastern Thessaloniki-Giannitsa plain geological
assessment. Focalisation on the region between the Axios and Gallikos
river. Dissertation, Faculty of Civil Engineers, (AUT).
21. Mercier, J., Sauvage, J. (1968): Sur la geologie de la Macedoine centrale :
les formations volcano-sedimentaire eocenes a pollens et spores de
Peonias.Pratiques de lAcademie dAthenes,p. 43.
22. NRC (2000) Clean coastal waters: understanding and reducing the effects
of nutrient pollution. National Research Council, National Academy Press,
Washington, DC
23. NEAP (1996) National Environmental Action Plan. Synthesis Report,
Ministry of Urban Planning, Construction and Environment, Skopje
24. Nikolaidis N.P., Karageorgis A.P., Kapsimalis V., Marconis G.,
Drakopoulou P., Kontoyiannis H., Krassakopoulou E., Pavlidou A., Pagou
K. (2004) AXCAT-Modeling of Thermaikos Gulf. National Centre for Marine
Research, EUROCAT Report, 50p
25. Papadopoulou-Mourkidou E., Karpouzas D.G., Patsias J., Kotopoulou. A.,
Milothridou A., Kintzikoglou K., Vlachou P. (2004). The potential of
pesticides to contaminate the groundwater resources of the Axios river
basin. Part II. Monitoring study in the south part of the basin. The Science
of the Total Environment
26. Papamichail D. (1992): Frequency analysis of water currents maximum
flows. Proceedings from Symposium Drought and Floods, Thessaloniki
17 & 18 of March 1992, GEOTCG.
27. Popovska C., Gesovska V., Ivanoski D. (2005).Floods in Upper Vardar
River Basin, Skopje, FYROM
28. Poulos S., G. Chronis, M. Collins, V. Lykousis 2000. Thermaikos Gulf
Coastal System, NW Aegean Sea: an overview of water/sediment fluxes in
relation to air-land-ocean interactions and human activities. Journal of
Marine Systems, 25, 2000, 47-76.
29. Skoulikidis N., Th (2002) Typological and qualitative characteristics of
Greek-interregional Rivers. Medit Mar Sci 3/1:7988
30. State Statistical Office, FYROM, SHORT - TERM MACROECONOMIC
INDICATORS II QUARTER, 2006
31. Stavrov J. (2004),The Vardar Valley Integrated Project .
32. The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC
33. The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)
(http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/water/wfd/index.htm)
34. Tsagarlis G. (1998).The wastewaters in Thessaloniki county. Report,
Environmental Protection Department, Thessaloniki
35. Tuneski A., Balafoutas G., 2004,Monitoring and Improving the Rivers in the
Vardar/Axios Watershed
36. UNEP (2000) Post-conflict environmental assessment- FYROM.
http://postconflict.unep.ch/
37. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2000c. Analytical
Results of UNEP Field Samples from Industrial Hot Spots and Refugee

66
13/11/2006
Bonazountas M.,

Sites in the Former Yugoslav Republic Macedonia. UNEP Balkans Techical

Report, Working Document, Switzerland, 12 pp.
38. Vasilikiotis G.A., Voulgaropoulos A.N., Stratis J.A., Michalopoulou B. &
Zachariadis G.A. (1991). Determination of chemical pollution parameters of
the river Axios in Northern Greece. J. Environ. Sci. Health, A 26(5): 621633.
39. Vouvalidis K., G. Syrides, K. Albanakis 2005. Holocene morphology of the
Thessaloniki Bay: Impact of sea level rise. Z. Geomorph. N.F., Vol. 137,
Berlin-Stuttgart, 147-158.
40. Vukelic Z., Zileska-Pancovska M., Vukelic-Sutoska M.(2000) V. Water
Management for Agriculture in Macedonia related to the environmental
awareness
41. Vukelic Z., Ordan C., Vukelic-Sutoska M.(2003) Innovations for Sustainable
Agriculture
42. Wool T.A., Ambrose R.B., Martin J.L., Comer E.A. (2001) Water Quality
Analysis Simulation Program (WASP) Version 6.0: Users Manual. U.S.
Environmental protection Agency, Athens, GA.

67
13/11/2006

Registration For Information Assessmenttt Fffor Ttthe Iiintttegralll Managementtt Offf Ttthe Axiiios - Vardar Riiiver Basiiin

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Registration For Information Assessmenttt Fffor Ttthe Iiintttegralll Managementtt Offf Ttthe Axiiios - Vardar Riiiver Basiiin

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Bonazountas M.

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES,

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Abstract The Axios-Vardar River constitutes the most significant source of

General Conditions ................................................................................. 7

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

8.3. Bilateral Trade ...................................................................................... 59

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Axios is one of the most important transboundary rivers in Greece, mainly

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Map 1: The Axios-Vardar river basin

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Membership: At its 2004 annual assembly, its membership was increased by

Recent and ongoing / planned activities

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Activities of the Euroregion Belasica during 2005

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE 2000/60

Necessity of the Directive

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

A high level of environmental protection

The precautionary principle

The elimination of pollution at source

The polluter pays principle

Costs and benefits

Preparation of the Directive

Meaning of the Directive

Key features of the Directive

The key features of the Directive are:

The concept of river basin management is introduced to all Member States

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

To overcome the previously piecemeal nature of water environment

Measures to conserve water quantity are introduced as an essential

The polluter pays principle is incorporated through a review of measures for

Public participation and the involvement of stakeholders is a key requirement

River Basin Management Planning

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Public Information and Consultation

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR

Ecological status is an expression of the structure and functioning of aquatic

Water Framework Directive 2000/60 Axios-Vardar river

The present Hellenic-FYROM research project deals with transboundary

REGISTRATION FOR INFORMATION ASSESSMENT FOR