1

1. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY USING PITOT TUBE APPARATUS

AIM
To determine the velocity of air using Pitot tube apparatus and draw the
velocity profile.
APPARATUS
Pitot tube, blower, U tube manometer, Blower
THEORY
Pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow. The basic
principle used in this device is that at the stagnation point the kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy.
CALCULATIONS
v 2 gH
Velocity

Where H = (h1 - h2) w
a
3
kg/m
v 130 h m/s
SPECIFICATIONS

Substituting the values of w =1000 kg/m3 a =1.16

PROCEDURE
1. Mount the Pitot tube stand to a traversing mechanism on a suitable location
and adjust the Pitot tube such that the total traverse covers the entire length
of the flow region understudy.
2. Connect the two pressure taps of the Pitot tube to the manometer limbs.
3. Rotate the Pitot tube such that the difference in manometer liquid level is
maximum. Now the Pitot tube is aligned to the flow. Note the angle and
difference in the level of manometer liquid.
To measure the velocity at another point, traverse the Pitot tube (up and down)
and then rotate the Pitot tube such that the difference in manometer liquid level
is maximum. This is the flow direction in the new position. By noting the
difference in angular position, the flow direction is determined with reference to
a new point.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sl
no.

Probe
position in
x cms

Probe
position in
y cms

Pitot tube
pressure(m of
water)
h1
h2

Difference
h
meters of
water

Velocity
V m/s

SAMPLE CALCULATION(SET NO)

h1 and h2 are the height of manometric fluid with h1>h2.the pressure difference
h=h1-h2 m of water.
Density of water=1000 kg/m3
Density of air=P/RT kg/m3
Velocity= 130 h
w
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE H=(h1-h2)(
) m of water
a
RESULT

INFERENCE

2. VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM

AIM
To verify Bernoullis theorem for liquid.
APPARATUS
a. Apparatus for the verification of Bernoullis theorem
b. Collecting tank
c. Stop watch
PRINCIPLE
Bernoullis theorem states that for a streamlined, steady, friction less and
incompressible fluid flow, the sum of pressure head, velocity head and potential
head (elevation) is a constant.
i.e. Pressure head (p/) + velocity head (v2/2g) + elevation (z) = Constant
Where,
p = the pressure, N/m2.
y= the specific weight, N/m3.
v = Linear velocity of flow m/s.
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2.
z = Elevation from datum line, m.
Water at a constant head from a tank is allowed to flow through a horizontal
pipe line of varying cross section. The pressure heads Hp 1 HP2 etc. are noted from
piezometers (say five) fitted at cross sections A 1 A2, etc. By measuring the actual
discharge, the actual velocities of flow at A1 A2, etc. are calculated.
The actual discharge, Qa = aR/t (m3/s).
Where,
a = area of measuring tank in m2.
R = rise of water in the measuring tank in m.
t = time in seconds to collect water for a rise of R metres in the measuring
tank.
The velocity of flow at the cross section A1 is given by
V1 = Qa/ A1 (m/s)
The velocity head, Hv1 = V12 / 2g (m of water)
Assuming that the pipe line has negligible frictional loss in flow, Bernoullis
equation for the horizontal pipe at cross section A1 can be can be verified as:
Pressure head Hp1 + velocity head Hv1 = constant (in let head H)
OBSERVATIONS
Constants
1. Measuring tank size, a m2.
2. The rise (R m) for which the time t is noted to collect water in the
measuring tank.
3. The areas of cross section A1 A2, etc. of the pipe
Variables
1) The piezometer readings Hp1 Hp2 etc. in m of water.
2) Time t seconds required to collect water for a height of R m in the
measuring tank

TABULATION
Sl. No

H(m) t(s)

V12/2g

Sl No

Sl No

P1

P1

+ P2+
V1 /
2g
2

P2

V22/2g

V32/2g

P3
V2
2
/
2
g

P3

+
V32
/2
g

P4+V42/
2
g

P4

V42/2g

P5+V52/
2
g

P5

P6

V52/2g

2
P6+VAvg.
6 /
Head
2
gavg)

Qa
(m3/s)

V62/2g

HeadLo
s
s
HHavg

PROCEDURE
1. Open the inlet valve to the supply tank and allow water to fill up to a maximum
head of H m.
2. Open the outlet valve of the apparatus to have flow through the testing pipe.
Then regulate both the inlet and outlet valves so that the head H is maintained
constant. This condition is reached only if the inlet is equal to outlet.
3. Note the time in seconds to collect water for a rise of h m in the measuring tank
as t
4. Note the pressure head Hp at the areas of cross sections A1, A2, etc.
5. Repeat the experiment for medium and low heads in the supply tank.

5
CALCULATION
The cross sectional area of piezometer tape and their relative distance from the
inlet in the converging and diverging dust is as follows

Section

Dimension

Area

RESULT
Head loss is found to be very small and the average head loss is found to be
________
Hence the Bernoullis theorem is verified
INFERENCE

3. METCENTRIC HEIGHT AND RADIUS OF GYRATION OF FLOATING BODIES

AIM
To determine the metacentric height and radius of gyration of the given
floating body
APPARATUS
a) Float tank with about 3/4th full of water,
b) Float with arrangement to measure the tilt due to displacement of a small
weight
c) Stop watch.
PRINCIPLE
The float is tilted for an angle of from its horizontal position by placing a small
extra weight w on one side of the deck of the float at a distance of x cm from the
centre of the deck. The metacentric height, GM (the distance between centre of
gravity and the metacentre) is calculated as
GM

wx

W w tan cm

Where,
w= the small extra weight in gms added on the deck.
W = the weight of the float in gm.
X = the distance of weight w from the centre, measured along the deck, in
cm.
= the average of angle of tilt (L + R)/2 measured in degrees.
L and R are the angles of tilt measured, when the weight w is placed on duck
at distance of x cm from centre to the left and right sides respectively. The radius of
gyration of the float is calculated by noting the time for one free oscillation of the
float.
Radius of gyration k

t GMg
2

cm

Where,
tm = The mean time for one 'Oscillation in seconds.
GM = Metacentric height in cm.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the float in the float tank having water for about 3/4 height. Bring the float
into horizontal position by screwing the tilt-adjusting nuts inward or outward, so that
the plumb line passes through the zero mark of the tilt measuring device.
2. Place a small weight w, on one side (say left) of the float deck at a distance of x 1
(cm) from the centre of the deck. Note the L shown by the plumb line.
3. Move the weight w, to the other side (right) of the deck for a distance of x 1 cm
from the centre and note the tilt shown by the plumb line as R
4. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 for four more distances and one more small weight w2,
5. Remove the weight and allow the float to oscillate. Note the time t (s) taken f 10
cycles of oscillations.

OBSERVATIONS
Constants
1) Weight of the float, W gm.
Variables
1) Extra small weights w1, and w2 in gm.
2) Distances of small weights from centre of deck x 1 x2 and x3 cm measured
towards the left and right sides.
3) Angle of tilt L and R in degrees.
4) Time noted, for 10 oscillations of float as t in seconds
TABULATION
For w1 = 250 gm
Sl No
x(cm)
L
R
m
GM(cm)
K(cm)
t(sec)

For w2 = 500 gm
Sl No
x(cm)

GM(cm)

K(cm)

t(sec)

SAMPLE CALCULATION

RESULT
The mean
The mean

value of metacentric height

For 250 gm =
For 500 gm =
value of radius of gyration
For 250 gm =

8
For 500 gm =
INFERENCE

4.REYNOLDS APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATION FOR LAMINAR AND

TURBULENT FLOWS
AIM:
To determine the nature of flow through a transparent pipe using Reynolds
apparatus.
APPARATUS:
Reynolds apparatus, stopwatch
PRINCIPLE:
Reynolds no, Re=VD/;
Where,

V=Average velocity of flow through the tube,

D= Diameter of the tube,
= density of the fluid,(1000 kg/m3)
=Dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
= kinematic viscosity
For small flows, the dye stream moves as a straight line through the tube, showing
that the flow is laminar. As flow increases, the Reynoldss number increases, since
, and D are constant and V is directly proportional to the rate of flow. With
increasing discharge, a condition will be reached at which the dye stream wavers
and then suddenly breaks up and then diffuses or disperses throughout the tube.
This shows that the flow has changed to turbulent flow.
For flow through tubes,
For Re <2000(approx), flow will be laminar
2000<Re<4000, flow will be transitional
Re>4000, flow will be turbulent.
PROCEDURE:
1. Allow water in the supply tank and maintain a constant head with the help of
the overflow arrangement.
2. Regulate the gate valve at the end of the transparent tube to obtain the
required flow
Reynolds number.
3. Measure the flow rate with the collecting tank
4. Adjust the valve regulating the colored dye from the container such that a fine
streak of dye emerges from the needle projected in to the transparent tube.

9
CALCULATIONS
Collecting tank area, A = 0.30.3 m2
Time taken for R cm rise=t sec
Flow rate Qa = AR/t (m3/sec)
Flow rate Q = a V
where,
a=area of the tube in m2
V = velocity of water in the tube
Re= VD/
Where Re = the Reynolds No.
= density of the fluid,
=Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
TABULATION
Serial No.

Time
Qa = AR/t
taken for (m3/s)
x cm rise

1
2
3
4
5
6

RESULT

INFERENCE

Velocity
V=Qa/a
(m/s)

Reynolds
Nature
No.
flow
Re= VD/

of

10

5.CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER
AIM
a) To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of given Venturi meter for different rates of flow.
b) To calibrate the instrument (by determining the constants K and n, assuming the actual
discharge Qa = KHHgn)
c) To plot the following graphs:
i) Cd Vs HHg
ii) Log Qa Vs Log HHg (to find K and n)
iii) Qa Vs HHg (using K and n values)
APPARATUS
a) The given Venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe line with pressure tapings connected to a
differential mercury manometer,
b) Measuring tank and
c) Stop watch.
PRINCIPLE
Water is allowed to flow through the meter at different rates ranging from zero to the maximum
and the corresponding pressure differences shown in the manometer are noted. The actual discharge, Qa
is determined using the measuring tank and the stop watch.
Actual discharge, Qa = aR/t cm3/s.
Where
A = Area of measuring tank in cm2
R = Height differences in piezo meter in cm.
t = the time Taken to collect water for a height difference of R cm, measured in seconds
The theoretical discharge through the meter is calculated using the relationship:
cm3/s
where,
A A 2 gH w
Qt 1 2
A1 = the area at inlet side in cm2.
2
2
A1 A2
A2 = the area at throat in cm2.
Hw= the head difference noted in the manometer, converted to cm of
water.
[Hw = HHg x 12.6 = (H1 H2) x 12.6 cm of water]
The coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa / Qt
To calibrate the meter, the equation Qa = Cd x Qt is written as
Cd A1 A2 2 gH w
Qa
A12 A2 2
= K * HHgn cc/s
After taking logarithm on both sides, log Qa = logK + n*logHHg, the graph
ln K vs In Qa is plotted. From the straight line graph, the y-intercept gives log k and the slope of the line
gives n. The calibration graph Qa vs H Hg is then drawn. Here, H Hg is the difference (H1 - H2) in reading
shown on the mercury manometer. This enables to find the Qa values directly corresponding to the
manometer reading.

OBSERVATIONS
Constants
`
1) Measuring tank size (a cm2).
2) The rise (R cm) for which the time t is noted to collect water in the measuring tank.

Sl No

11
3) A1 and A2, the inlet and throat areas of cross-section of venturimeter, in cm2.
Variables
1) The pressure difference HHg in cm of mercury in the manometer.
2) Time t seconds required to collect water for a rise of R cm in the measuring tank
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the two limbs of the mercury manometer to the inlet and throat of the Venturi meter.
2. Allow water to flow through the meter and vary tile rate of flow to the maximum level in order
to find the highest possible head difference (HHg)' Divide the value into approximately
equal seven divisions in order to fix the steps in the pressure differences for the seven sets of
readings.
3.Adjust the inlet valve to get the required pressure difference in the manometer
4.Note the time in seconds to collect water for a rise of h cm in the measuring tank
5.Repeat the experiment for different manometer readings by adjusting the inlet valve and tabulate
the observations.
TABULATION
Manometer
reading
cm of Hg

HHg
h1-h2
cm
of Hg

Time
for
10cm
rise

Venturimeter
head
Hw=HHgx12.6

Qa
(cm3/s)
(cm3/s)

Coefficient
ofdischarge
Cd=Qa/Qt

HHg(cm)
Qa=K[H]n
(cm3/sec)

SAMPLE CALCULATION

RESULTS
INFERRENCE
6. CALIBRATION OF ORIFICEMETER

LogHHg

12
AIM
a) To determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of given Orifice meter for different rates of flow.
b) To calibrate the instrument (by determining the constants K and n, assuming the actual
discharge Qa = KHHgn)
c) To plot the following graphs:
i) Cd Vs HHg
ii) Log Qa Vs Log HHg (to find K and n)
iii) Qa Vs HHg (using K and n values)
APPARATUS
a) The given Orificemeter fitted in a horizontal pipe line with pressure tapings connected to a
differential mercury meter,
b) Measuring tank and
c) Stop watch.
PRINCIPLE
Water is allowed to flow through the meter at different rates ranging from zero to the maximum
and the corresponding pressure differences shown in the manometer are noted. The actual discharge, Qa
is determined using the measuring tank and the stop watch.
Actual discharge, Qa = ah/t cm3/s.
Where
A = Area of measuring tank in cm2
h = Height differences in piezo meter in cm.
t = the time Taken to collect water for a height difference of h cm, measured in seconds 3
The theoretical discharge through the meter is calculated using the relationship:
The theoretical discharge Qt,
3
A1 A2 2 gH w cm /s
Qt
where
2
2
A1 A2
A1 = the area at inlet side in cm2.
A2 = the area at throat in cm2.
Hw= the head difference noted in the manometer, converted to cm of water.
[Hw = HHg x 12.6 = (H1 H2) x 12.6 cm of water]
The coefficient of discharge Cd = Qa / Qt
To calibrate the meter, the equation Qa = Cd x Qt is written as
C d A1 A 2 2 gH w
Qa
A12 A2 2
= K * HHgn cc/s
After taking logarithm on both sides,
ln Qa = lnK + n*logHhg, the graph
ln K vs In Qa is plotted. From the straight line graph, the y-intercept gives log k and the slope of the line
gives n. The calibration graph Qa vs H Hg is then drawn. Here, H Hg is the difference (H1 - H2) in reading
shown on the mercury manometer. This enables to find the Qa values directly corresponding to the
manometer reading.
OBSERVATIONS
Constants
`
1) Measuring tank size (a cm2).
2) The height (h cm) for which the time t1 and t2 are noted to collect water in the measuring tank.
3) A1 and A2, the inlet and throat areas of cross-section of orifice meter, in cm2.
Variables
1) The pressure difference HHg in cm of mercury in the manometer.
2) Time t seconds required to collect water for a height of h cm in the measuring tank

13
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the two limbs of the mercury manometer to the inlet and throat of the Orifice meter.
2. Allow water to flow through the meter and vary tile rate of flow to the maximum level in order
to find the highest possible head difference (H Hg)' Divide the value into approximately equal seven
divisions in order to fix the steps in the pressure differences for the seven sets of readings.
3. Adjust the inlet valve to get the required pressure difference in the manometer
4. Note the time in seconds to collect water for a rise of h cm in the measuring tank
5. Repeat the experiment for different manometer readings by adjusting the inlet valve and
tabulate the observations.
TABULATION

Sl No

Manometer
read
ing
cm of Hg

HHg
h1-h2
cm of
Hg

Time
for
10cm
rise

Orificemeter
head
Hw=HHgx12.6

Qa
(cm3/s)

Qt
(cm3/s)

HHg(cm)
Qa=K[H]n
(cm3/sec)

RESULTS

INFERRENCE
7.CALIBRATION OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH
AIM:

Co-efficient
of discharge
Cd=Qa/Qt

14
1. To determine the coefficient of discharge Cd of the given V-notch for different
discharges.
2. To calibrate the notch, (by determine the constants K &n) assuming the actual
discharge Qa =K.Hn
3. To plot the following graphs
a.Cd Vs H
b. Log Qa Vs LogHw(to find the K &N values)
c.Qa Vs Hw (using K&n Values)
APPARATUS:
The triangular notch experimental set up, measuring tank, hook gauge and stop
watch.

PRINCIPLE:
Sometimes it is necessary to measure the discharge of water flowing canals
or in Laboratories
dealing with large quantities of water .In such cases water are allowed to pass over
particularly shaped opening built across the flow such that the top of the opening is
above the surface of the flowing water on the upstream side. Such an opening is
termed as a notch. This may be generally triangular or rectangular shaped. Water
flow over notch is ranging from zero to maximum possible level and corresponding
head over notch shown in hook gauge is noted.The actual discharge is determined
using the measuring the tank and stop watch.
The actual discharge, Qa = (a*h)/t m3/s
Where,
a = area of measuring tank in cm2
h =level difference of the water in the measuring tank in centi meter,
t = time to collect Water for a height of h meter. measured in seconds(tm =
60to 120s)
The theoretical discharge through the triangular notch is calculated using the
relation

Where,

15
H=Head over the notch in cm of water
Coefficient of discharge, Cd=Qa/Qt
=angle of notch in degrees.
To calibrate the notch we have Qa=CdQt=KHwn cc/s
Taking logarithm on both sides,
log Qa= log K +n* log Hw
The graph ln H Vs log Qa is a straight line. The y intercept gives log K and the Slope
of the line gives n. After finding K & n values, the calibration curve Qa Vs H is
drawn. Therefore for any value of H with in the range shown on Hook gauge will get
Qa directly from the curve.
PROCEDURE
1. Allow the water to fill in the notch tank till it tends to over flow &take the sill
level reading H1, using hook gauge provided.
2.Increase the discharge of the notch at the maximum possible level and take
their hook gauge reading H2 .The maximum head over the notch H=H2 H1 and
divide this value in to approximately 7 equal parts in order to fix the steps in the
head over notch for the seven sets of readings.
3. Adjust the discharge so that we may get the first set of readings. Note the
hook gauge reading H 2
4. Allow the water to collect in the collecting tank and note the time required
for a rise of h meter of water in the measuring tank.
5. Repeat the experiments for different heads by adjusting heads by adjusting
the discharge.
TABULATION-TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Angle of notch
= -------Sill level reading H1=---------- meter
Area of the collecting tank A =-------- m2
Sl
No

Hook
gauge
Reading
(
in
Meters)
H2

Head
over the
Notch
H=H2- H1

Time for
x cm
rise of
water in
sec

Qa
m3/sec

Qth
m3/sec

Cd=Qa/Q
th

16

COMPUTATION
1. Area of cross section of collecting tank, a
2. Actual discharge
Qa = A h/t
3. Theoretical discharge, Triangular notch

= ---------m2
= -------m3/sec

= --------m3/sec
4. Coefficient of Discharge Cd = Qa / Qt = --------------ANALYTICAL METHOD
Sl .no

Log Qa

Log H

CALIBRATION CHART

SL .NO

Head of water in m

Qa m3/sec

SAMPLE
CALCULATION
Triangular Notch
Initial hook gauge
reading H1=---------m
Final hook gauge reading H2=----------m
Head over notch H=H2-H1

17
Angle of triangular notch= --------
Theoretical discharge Qth= 8/15 2g

tan (/2) H5/2 = ----------m3/sec

Area of collecting tank A = --------- m2

Rise of level in collecting tank in meters of water, x= --------m
Time taken for x m rise = ----sec
Actual discharge Cd=Qa/Qth
Analytical method to determine calibration constants (K&n)
We have Qa =K (H)n, taking log on both sides ,
ln Qa =ln Kn ln H may be written as
Where y =ln Qa
a = ln K, y intercept, a/b=n=slope of the straight line .
And x=ln H
Equation (1) can be written as,
y=N.a + bx Where N=No.of readings .
xy=ax + bx2
Solving the above equations K and n can be obtained
CALIBRATION CHART
The series of values Triangular notch in meters of water in equal intervals in the
possible range measurement is considered using the values obtained for K&n (from
graph or analytical method). The discharge Qa is found out by the relation Qa
=KHn. Writing the values of Qa corresponding to the values of H is called calibration
chart and curve Qa Vs H is called calibration curve.

18
Standard shape of curves for Triangular Notch
RESULT:
A calibration chart for the given V- notch is prepared and the Calibration curve is also
plotted.
Average Value of Cd =

INFERENCE

8.CALIBRATION OF RECTANGULAR NOTCHES

AIM:
1. To determine the coefficient of discharge Cd of the given notch for different
flow rates.
2. To calibrate
the notch, (by determine the constants K &n) assuming the
actual discharge
Qa =K.Hn
3. To plot the following graphs
i. Cd Vs H
ii.
log Qa Vs log H (to find the K &H values)
iii.
Qs Vs H (using K & n Values)
APPARATUS:

19
The Rectangular notch experimental set up, measuring tank, hook gauge, stop
watch.

PRINCIPLE:
Sometimes it is necessary to measure the discharge of water flowing canals
or in
Laboratories dealing with large quantities of water .In such cases
water are allowed to pass over a particularly shaped opening built across the flow
such that the top of the opening is above the surface of the flowing water on the
upstream side. Such an opening is termed as a notch. This may be generally
triangular or rectangular shaped. The actual discharge is determined using the
measuring the tank and stop watch
The actual discharge, Qa= (a*h)/t m3/s
Where,
a = area of measuring tank in m2
h =level difference of the water in the measuring tank in meter,
t = time to collect water for a height of h meter.
The theoretical discharge through the notch is calculated using the relation
Qt =2/3 L (2g) H3/2
Where,
L= Length of notch in m.
H=Head over the notch in m of water
Coefficient of discharge, Cd=Qa/Qt
To calibrate the notch we have Qa=CdQt=KHn
Taking logarithm on both sides.
log Qa= log K +n log H
The graph log H Vs log Qa is a straight line. The y intercept gives log K and the Slope
of the line gives n. After finding K & n values, the calibration curve Qa Vs H is
drawn. Therefore for any value of H with in the range shown on hook gauge will get
Qa directly from the curve.
PROCEDURE
1. Allow the water to fill in the notch tank till it tends to overflow &take the sill level
reading H1, using hook gauge provided.
2.Increase the discharge of the notch at the maximum possible level and take their
hook gauge reading H2
The maximum head over the notch H=H 2 H1 and divide
this value in to approximately 7 equal parts in order to fix the steps in the head over
notch for the seven sets of readings.

20
3. Adjust the discharge so that we may get the first set of readings. Note the hook
gauge reading H 2
4. Allow the water to collect in the collecting tank and note the time required for a
rise of h meter of water in the measuring tank.
5. Repeat the experiments for different heads by adjusting heads by adjusting the
discharge.
TABULATION
1. RECTANGULAR NOTCH
Length of notch L=
Sill level reading H1=---------- m
Area of the collecting tank A =-------- m2
Sl
No

Hook
gauge
reading
H2

Head
Time for x Qact
Qth
over the cm rise of m3/se m3/sec
Notch
water in sec
c
H=H2- H1

Cd=Qact/Qth

COMPUTATION
1.

Area of cross section of collecting tank, a = ---------cm2

2.
Actual discharge
Qa = V/t = -------cm3/sec
3.
Theoretical discharge, Rectangular Notch Qt =2/3 L 2g
3
--------cm /sec
4.
Coefficient of Discharge = Qa / Qt = --------------ANALYTICAL METHOD
Sl .no

Log Qa

Log H

H 3/2 =

21

CALIBRATION CHART
SL .NO

Head of water in m Qa m3/sec

AMPLE
CALCULATION
Rectangular
Notch
Length of notch, L=
--------m
Initial hook gauge
reading H1=----------

m
Final hook gauge reading H2=----------m
Head over notch H=H2-H1
Theoretical discharge Qth= 2/3 L

2g

H3/2 = ----------m3/sec

Area of collecting tank A = --------- m2

Rise of level in collecting tank in meters of water, h= --------m
Time taken for h m rise = ----sec
Actual discharge Cd=Qa/Qth
Analytical method to determine calibration constants (K&n)
We have Qa =K (H) n, taking log on both sides ,
log Qa =log K+n log H may be written as
----------------------- (1) Where y =ln Qa
C = log K=y intercept

22

A/B = n = slope of the straight line.

And x=log H
From the same,K and n can be obtained
CALIBRATION CHART
The series of values Triangular/Rectangular notch in meters of water in equal
intervals in the possible range measurement is considered using the values
obtained for K&n (from graph or analytical method). The discharge Q a is found out
by the relation
Qa =KHn writing the values of Qa corresponding to the values of H is called
calibration chart and curve Qa Vs H is called calibration curve.
Standard shape of curves for Rectangular Notch.

RESULT:
A calibration chart for the given rectangular notch is prepared and the Calibration
curve is also plotted.
Average Value of Cd =
INFERENCE

23

9.DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS OF ORIFICE

AIM
To determine the hydraulic coefficients, coefficient of discharge (C d), coefficient of
velocity (Cv) and coefficient of contraction (Cc) of the given orifice fitted on a tank
and to draw the graph Cd vs. H, Cc vs. H, Cv vs. H.
APPARATUS
Water tank fitted with orifice experimental setup, Piezometer fitted on the tank to
measure the head over the orifice, Measuring tank, Meter scale, Stop watch.
PRINCIPLE
Coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as the ratio of the jet at the Vena
Contracta to the area of orifice i.e. Cc = Area of jet at Vena Contracta / Area of the
orifice
In practice the Cc varies from 0.613 to 0.69 depending on the size and shape
of the orifice and head under which the water is flowing. Coefficient of velocity (C v)

24
is defined as the ratio of velocity of the jet at the Vena contracta to the theoretical
velocity of the jet.
The theoretical velocity of the jet is given by (2g H)1/2
Where
H =Head under which the water is flowing.
Actual velocity at vena contracta
Cv

=
Theoretical velocity at vena contracta

The value of Cv varies from 0.95- 0.99

Depending upon the size of the orifice and the head under which the liquid is
flowing, Cv is determined using the formula

Where x = Horizontal distance from the Vena Contracta to the measuring point
on the
jet in cm
y = the vertical distance from the centre of the orifice to the measuring
point on
the point in cm
H = Head of water over orifice in cm
Coefficient of discharge is determined in the same experimental set up. By
keeping steady flow and noting the time for h cm rise of the water in the tank
gives actual discharge, Qact.
Actual discharge, Qact = A h / t cm3/s
Where, A = Area of collecting tank
T = time taken for h cm rise of water in collecting tank
Theoretical discharge, Qt = a

2gH

cm3/s

Where a = area of orifice in cm2

H = Head over orifice in cm
Therefore Cd = Qact / Qt
Cc can be determined by using the equation
Cc =Cd / Cv
Cv > Cc > Cd
Specification
Area of the orifice, a = --------m2
Area of tank, A
= -------- m2
PROCEDURE
1. Open the supply valve and fill the water in the orifice tank. Allow water to flow
through the orifice and note the maximum head.
2. Divide the head approximately 7 steps for 7 sets of reading and adjust the inlet
valve for steady flow and obtain a steady head H in the measuring tank twice as

25
t1 & t2.if difference exceeds 10% take third reading which comes within the
range
3. Bring the hook gauge at the Vena Contracta and note x and y. Then move the
gauge to another point on the center of the jet, at the farthest possible and
note X1 and Y1 readings
4. Close the drain gate valve of the collecting tank and note the time for say, 5cm
rise in the tank
5. Repeat the experiments for various head and tabulate observations.
TABULATION
X0 , Co-ordinate at the VenaContracta in X direction = -------m
Y0, Co-ordinate at the VenaContracta in Y direction = -------m
Sl.N
o

head
of
Water
H cm

X1 Y1
X1-X0
cm cm

Y1- Y0

Time for h
in cm rise
of water in t
sec

Actual
discharg
e
Qa
m3/sec

Theoritica
l
discharge
Qt
m3/s

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Hook gauge headings at Vena Contracta X0 = --------- m
Y0 = ---------- m
Horizontal distance X for Vena Contracta = X1 - X0 = -------m
Vertical distance Y for Vena Contracta = Y1 - Y0 = ---------m
Time for h cm rise of water = ---------sec
Qa (Actual discharge)= (Area of tank x h) / time =(A x h)/t m3/sec
Qt (theoretical discharge) =a x (2gh) 1/2
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qa / Qt

Cv

Cc

26
Coefficient of velocity, Cv = X /(4YH)1/2
Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Area of jet at Vena contracta /Area of Orifice
Graphs:- Cd Vs H , Cv Vs H , Cc Vs H

RESULT
The values of hydraulic coefficients Cd = -------Cv = -------Cc = -------INFERENCE

27

10.DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS OF MOUTH PIECE

AIM
To determine the hydraulic coefficients, coefficient of discharge (C d), and to draw
the graph Cd vs. H
APPARATUS
Water tank fitted with mouth piece experimental setup, Piezometer fitted on
the tank to measure the head over the mouth piece, Measuring tank, Meter scale,
Stop watch.
PRINCIPLE
Actual discharge, Qact =

Ah/t

cm3/s

Where, A = Area of collecting tank

T = time taken for h cm rise of water in collecting tank
Theoretical discharge, Qt = a 2gH cm3/s
Where a = area of mouth piece in cm2
H = Head over mouth piece in cm
Therefore Cd = Qact / Qt
Specification
Area of the mouth piece, a = --------m2
Area of tank, A
= -------- m2
PROCEDURE
1. Open the supply valve and fill the water in the mouth piece tank. Allow water to
flow through the mouth piece and note the maximum head.
2. Divide the head approximately 7 steps for 7 sets of reading and adjust the inlet
valve for steady flow and obtain a steady head H in the measuring tank twice as t1
& t2.if difference exceeds 10% take third reading which comes within the range
3. Bring the hook gauge at the Vena Contracta and note x and y.
4. Close the drain gate valve of the collecting tank and note the time for say, 5cm
rise in the tank
5. Repeat the experiments for various head and tabulate observations.
TABULATION
Co-ordinate at the Vena Contracta in X direction = -------m
Co-ordinate at the Vena Contracta in Y direction = -------m

28

Sl.N
o

head
of
Water
H cm

X1 Y1
X1-X0
cm cm

Y1- Y0

Time for h
in cm rise
of water in t
sec

Actual
discharg
e
Qa
m3/sec

Theoretic
al
discharge
Qt
m3/s

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Hook gauge headings at Vena Contracta X0 = --------- m
Y0 = ---------- m
Time for h cm rise of water = ---------sec
Qa (Actual discharge)= (Area of tank x h) / time =(A x h)/t m3/sec
Qt (theoretical discharge)=a x(2gh)
Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Qa / Qt
RESULT
The values of hydraulic coefficients Cd = -------INFERENCE

Cv

Cc

29

11. STUDY OF LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW-MAJOR LOSSES

AIM:
To study the flow in pipes and determine the losses due to pipe friction, Darcys
coefficient and Chezys co-efficient of friction for the given pipe.
APPARATUS:
Experimental setup such as pipelines, manometer, collecting tank, stopwatch and
scale.
Specifications:Length of the pipe L = --------cm
Diameter of the pipe D = --------cm
Area of the collecting tank A = -------cm2
PRINCIPLE:
Due to pipe friction, there will be head loss and is denoted by Hf for a known pipe
length
of L.
Head loss, Hf = 4fLV2/(2gD) cm (Darcy-Weisbach Eqn)
The actual discharge Qa through the pipe is determined by noting the time for
collecting x cm rise of water, Qa = A(x/t) c.c/sec.
A = Area of the collecting tank.
t = Time to collect x cm of water.
V=Qa /(D2/4) cm/sec.
D = Diameter of the pipe through which fluid flows
L = Length of the pipe.
By noting Hf from the manometer, Darcys coefficient of friction can be calculated.
Hf = X x12.6 cm of water.
X = Manometer pressure difference in cm of Hg.
Chezys co.efficient V=C m i
m=hydraulic mean radius
i= loss of head per unit length i.e. H/l

C 2.236V

Db

PROCEDURE:
1. Select the pipe and make sure the fluid is flowing only through this pipe.
2. Open the manometer cocks on this pipe.
3. Allow the water through the pipe at maximum opening of the valve and note the
head difference X in the manometer.
4. Adjust the outlet valve to get the required pressure difference in the manometer.
5. Note the time in seconds to collect x cm rise of water in the collecting tank.
6. Repeat the experiment for different flow rate.

30
7.

Do the above experiment for the second pipe also.

TABULATION:
Sl
N
o

Manometer
readings in cm
H1c
H2
H=H
m
cm
2-H1
left
right cm
side
side

SAMPLE CALCULATION

RESULT:

INFERENCE

Time for
X
cm
rise
of
water t
sec

Qa=
AX
t
cm3/se
c

V=
F=
Qa
Hf g d
2
d / 2 L V2
4
cm /s

ReNo
=
vd

V2
2g
cm

31

12. UDY OF LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW- MINOR LOSSES

AIM:
To study the flow in pipes and to determine the minor losses due to coefficient of
pipe fittings and loss of head (Bend, Elbow, Sudden expansion and sudden
contraction)
APPARATUS:
Experimental setup such as pipelines, manometer, collecting tank, stopwatch and
scale.
Specifications:
Diameter of the pipe D = --------cm
Area of the collecting tank A = -------cm2
PRINCIPLE:
The loss of head in the various pipe fittings like Bend & Elbow is generally given by
HL = k V2 /2g
Where V =mean velocity of flow in the pipe.
k = coefficient of pipe fitting.
The actual discharge Qa through the pipe is determined by noting the time for
collecting x cm rise of water, Qa = Ah/t c.c/sec.
A = Area of the collecting tank.
t = Time to collect h cm of water.
V=Qa /(D2/4) cm/sec.
D = Diameter of the pipe through which fluid flows
In case of sudden expansion the loss of head is given by
He = k (V1 V2)2 / 2g
V1 = velocity of flow before expansion (smaller pipe)
V2 = velocity of flow after expansion. (Bigger pipe)
In case of sudden contraction the loss of head is given by
Hc = k V22 /2g
V2 = velocity of flow after contraction. (Smaller pipe)
By noting HL from the manometer, coefficient of pipefitting can be calculated.
HL = X x12.6 cm of water.
X = Manometer pressure difference in cm of Hg.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the pipe and pipefitting and make sure the fluid is flowing only through
this pipe.
2. Open the manometer cocks only for the selected pipefitting.
3. Allow the water through the pipe at maximum opening of the valve and note the
head
difference X in the manometer.
4. Adjust the outlet valve to get the required pressure difference in the manometer.

32
5. Note the time in seconds to collect x cm rise of water in the collecting tank.
6. Repeat the experiment for different flow rate.
7. Do the above experiment for the other pipefitting also.
TABULAR COLUMN

EXP

Manomet
er
reading
H1
H2

BEND
ELBOW
SUDDEN
EXPANSIO
N
SUDDEN
CONTRACT
ION

SAMPLE CALCULATION

RESULT:

INFERENCE

HEA
time
D
for 10
LOSS
cm
rise

dischar
ge

velocit
y

Velocity
coefficient

Loss
coefficie
nt

Mea
n