Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Analysis
IMRAN AHMAD
Director Technical
SUMICO Technologies (Pvt) Ltd
+92 321 427 6092
imran.ahmad@sumico.com.pk
www.sumico.com.pk
Timings
1st Session
9000-1030
Tea Break
1030-1045
2nd Session
1045-1300
Lunch Break(Prayer)
1300-1400
3rd Session
1400-1530
Tea Break
1545-1600
4th Session
1600-1700
Basics of Vibration
Introduction:
What is Vibration?
What is Vibration?
What is Vibration ?
What is Vibration?
Dynamic Force
__________________
Dynamic Resistance
Vibration Fundamentals
How Much Vibration is Too Much ?
1. Use Absolute Vibration Levels
- Given by machine makers
- Published Vibration Severity Standards
eg. ISO 2372, VDI 2056, BS 4675
2. Use Relative Vibration Levels
ISO 10816-3
11
0.44
7.1
0.28
4,5
0.18
3,5
0.11
2,8
0.07
2,3
0.04
1.4
0.03
0,71
0.02
mm/s rms
rigid
flexible
rigid
flexible
pumps > 15 kW
rigid
flexible
15 kW < P 300 kW
rigid
flexible
inch/s rms
Foundation
large machines
Machine Type
integrated driver
external driver
motors
160 mm H < 315 mm
motors
315 mm H
Group 4
Group 3
Group 2
Group 1
Group
A
B
C
D
newly commissioned
unrestricted long-term operation
restricted long-term operation
vibration causes damage
ISO 10816-3
140
5.51
113
4.45
90
3.54
71
2.80
56
2.20
45
1.77
36
1.42
28
1.10
22
0.87
18
0.71
11
0.43
m rms
rigid
flexible
rigid
flexible
pumps > 15 kW
rigid
flexible
15 kW < P 300 kW
rigid
mil rms
flexible
Foundation
large machines
Machine Type
integrated driver
external driver
motors
160 mm H < 315 mm
motors
315 mm H
Group 4
Group 3
Group 2
Group 1
Group
A
newly commissioned
Just Tolerable
Just
Tolerable
Allowable
Just Tolerable
Allowable
Allowable
Good
Good
Good
15 kW<
Medium Machines
<75kW
Small
Machines< 15 kW
<300 kW
foundations
Group K
on special
Group M
Large Machines
with rigid and heavy
foundations whose
natural Frequency
exceeds
machine speed
Group G
45
28
18
11.2
7.1
4.5
2.8
1.8
1.12
1.71
0.45
0.28
0.18
Not
Permissible
10 times = 20dB
Not
Permissible
Not
Permissible
Vibration Characteristics
Amplitude
How Much
Frequency
How Often
Phase
When
Vibration Characteristics
Amplitude
Zero to peak or peak is the measurement from the zero line to the
top of the positive peak or the bottom of the negative peak.
Peak
1.414 x RMS
RMS
Peak to peak is the distance from the top of the positive peak to
the bottom of the negative peak. This measurement is used most
often when referring to displacement amplitude
Pk-Pk
2 x PEAK VALUE
Vibration Characteristics
Avg
0 to Peak
RMS
Average
Amplitude
Time t
Peak to Peak
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
is the distance that shaft moves in relation to reference point. The
total movement of the shaft is measured in Peak to Peak.
Velocity
is the displacement of the shaft in relation to time? It is measured
in RMS (Root Mean Square) or Peak.
Acceleration
is defined as the change in velocity over time. With this value we
want the maximum impact (Force) generated, so we use the Peak
or RMS measurement.
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
Pk-Pk
Velocity
mm/sec
RMS
Acceleration
gs
Pk
Vibration Characteristics
Displacement
mils
Pk-Pk
Velocity
inch/sec
Pk
Acceleration
gs
RMS
The three types of amplitude measurements used to display data are directly related
to each other
Changing from one amplitude unit to the next alters the way in which the data is
displayed
Ex15
0.35
1405
0.30
120
4
Acceleration in
in Microns
G-s
P-PPK
Displacement
RMS Velocity in m m/Sec
A8 - Example 15
-F 1H F an In board Horizo ntal
0.25
100
3
0.20
80
0.10
40
1
0.05
20
20000
40000
Frequ ency in CPM
00
0
Ro ute Spectrum
22-Aug-02 11:30:50
0.15
60
2
60000
Vibration Characteristics
Vibration Amplitude Measuring Units
Acceleration
Gs or in/s2
(180 deg phase lead)
Acceleration, a
Velocity
Velocity,
v=a/2 f
Mm/ses or inches/sec
(90 deg phase lead )
Displacement = a/4
2f 2
Displacement
m 0r .000inch or Mils
90 o
90 o
Time
Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
Vibration Characteristics
Frequency
Measure of the number of cycles of vibration that occur in a
specific period of time
Measured in Hz /CPM
Converted by a factor of 60
Frequency =
1
1 =
=
Period
T
Cycles
Second
Vibration Characteristics
2.
3.
1CPM = 1RPM
CPM / 60
Frequency/Turning Speed
Consider a motor has a rotational speed of 1485RPM, in terms of frequency this
equates to:
1485 CPM
24.75 Hz
1 Orders
(1rpm = 1cpm)
Vibration Characteristics
Frequency
The table below demonstrates the relationship between the
different frequency units over a range of frequencies.
1500
2250
3000
6000
12000
Hz
25
37.5
50
100
200
Orders
1.5
Stress = Displacement
0-600 CPM
Fatigue = Velocity
600-120,000 CPM
Force = Acceleration
Vibration Institute
recommendation
Vibration Characteristics
Significance of Frequency
A & B are
180 degrees
out of phase
1 Cycle = 360
90
A
B
B
A
A & B are
90 degrees
out of phase
Absolute phase
Absolute phase is the relationship of the Peak of vibration and a fixed reference Signal
(once per revolution)
Relative Phase
Absolute Phase
Phase lag angle between once per turn marker and
first positive peak in a vibration waveform
b
Absolute Phase
= a/b X 360o
Relative Phase
110
Velocity
signal B
Velocity
signal A
Significance of Phase
-
Conversion of Units
Metric Units
V = DF / 19,100
V = 3690A / F
A = DF2 / 70,470,910
D = 19,100V / F
A = VF / 3690
D = 70,470,910 / F2
Conversion of Units
English Units
V = DF / 19,100
V = 93,640A / F
A = DF2 / 1,790,000,000
D = 19,100V / F
A = VF / 93,640
D = 1,790,000,000 / F2
Time Waveforms
You can also look at vibration as the amount of Time it takes to complete a particular
cycle
If we examine the motion of a forcing function on a fan blade Heavy Spot over a period of
time a distinct signature will occur.
Time Waveforms
Unfortunately there are multiple sources of forcing functions that can emit from a
machine or component.
Thus resulting in the time waveform becoming complex in nature
Amplitude
T
im
e
Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency Domain
The frequency domain (Spectrum) plots the data as Amplitude in the (Y) axis and
Frequency in the (X) axis. This data is derived from the time domain mathematical
manipulation of the time waveform.
Recall the waveform and spectrum from the previous slide. If you tried to determine
all the frequencies from the waveform plot, you would need all day just to analyse
one point of data.
As the FFT plots the frequencies from the waveform for you the analysis of this data
becomes easier and reduces the amount of time needed for analysis of each point.
Harmonic - Orders
Therefore:
Harmonic cursors can be used to show non-synchronous and subsynchronous harmonics depending upon the energy of the primary
frequency
Synchronous Energy
3) Gearmesh
Non-Synchronous Energy
Sub-Synchronous Energy
Examples of sub-synchronous
energy are:
Belt Frequencies
Cage Frequencies
Energy in a Spectrum
Synchronous
N x RPM where N is an integer
Sub-synchronous
<1 x RPM
Non-synchronous
F x RPM where F is >1x RPM but not integer
Another component
Cage frequencies
Imbalance
Misalignment
Looseness
Gears etc
Another component
Antifriction bearings
Electrical
System resonances
Lines of Resolution
The number of lines of resolution selected are divided into the maximum frequency
scale (Fmax) to arrive at the bin width (BW).
The better the resolution the more accurate the frequency displayed
BW = Fmax/LOR
All the energy within the bin is summed up to give a single amplitude
frequency
Resolution
BW = Fmax / LOR
Bandwidth
Centre Frequency
Lines of Resolution
T A16
0.20
0.5
L 2 - T A 16
-M1H Mo to r O u tbo ard Ho rizo n tal
An alyze Sp ectru m
13-Mar-01 09:14:16
09:13:53
PK = .3852
.7078
L O AD = 100.0
RPM = 1497.
1496.
RPS = 24.95
24.94
PK Acceleration
Acceleration in
in G
G -s
-s
PK
0.16
0.4
0.12
0.3
0.08
0.2
0.04
0.1
0
0
400
800
F req u en cy in Hz
1200
1600
OVERVIEW
What is your present and future budget for equipment & training?
Environment?
INSTRUMENT TYPES
Vibration Transducers
Overview
and
Selection
Transducer Types
Seismic:- Bearing relative to space.
Velocity Pickups
Accelerometers
Shaft Contact Displacement Probes (including Shaft Sticks and Shaft Riders)
Seismic Transducer
VELOCITY PICKUP
Velocity Pickups
ADVANTAGES
Self- Generating
No On-board Electronics
Strong signal
Note :- There are two types of velocity pickups the above advantages do not apply to
piezoelectric velocity transducers.
SESMIC TRANSDUCERS
ACCELEROMETERS
AMP
AMP
Accelerometers - advantages
Rugged.
High stability.
Accelerometer Types
The three most common are :
Compression Type
Shear Type
Acoustic Shield
Seismic Mass
Piezoelectric Material
Preload Stud
Electric connector
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Amplifier
Disadvantages
Widely used
ICP Circuit
Piezoelectric Material
Seismic Mass
Preload Sleeve
Acoustic Shield
Piezoelectric Material
Seismic Mass
Electric connector
Post
Base
Mounting Stud
Receptacle
ICP Circuit
Disadvantage:
INTEGRATOR
Mass
Piezoelectric Disks
Base
Non-contact Pickups
MAGNETIC
FIELD
NON-CONTACT PICKUP
PICKUP
COIL
SHAFT
OSCILLATOR
DETECTOR
DC
GAP
METER
AMPLIFIER
SIGNAL SENSOR
DISPLACEMENT
SIGNAL - TO
ANALYSER OR
MONITOR
Shaft Sticks
Shaft Riders
Shaft Rider
PICKUP MOUNTING STUD
MACHINE HOUSING
NON-METALLIC TIP
SHAFT SURFACE
safety issue
Vibration Transducers
SensorsTransducersProbesWhat is it?
.It basically converts mechanical vibration
to an electrical signal
Accelerometer
Charge Type &
Line Drive
Constant Voltage &
Constant Current
Velocity Probe
Displacement
Shaft Riders
Proximity Probes
(Eddy Current Probes)
Accelerometers
Velocity Sensors
Radial Casing
Vibration
Axial Shaft
Vibration & Position
Monitoring Techniques
Relative Amplitude
100000000
10000000
1000000
Accelerometer
100000
10000
1000
Velocity Transducer
100
Prox. Probe
10
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Hz
Measurement Parameter
Acceleration
Velocity
Displacement
Monitoring Techniques
Vib
Acceleration
accentuates HIGH frequencies,
and attenuates LOW frequencies.
Acceleration
Velocity
flat treats all frequencies equally.
Velocity
Displacement
accentuates LOW frequencies,
and attenuates HIGH frequencies.
Displacement
Freq
Comparison of Transducers
Proximity Probes
Accelerometers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to install
Good for detecting high
frequency faults
No moving parts
Good dynamic/frequency
range
Small/light weight
Withstands high temperatures
Runout problems
Sensitive to shaft materials
Installation
Limited freq. range. No detection of
rolling element bearing faults
Temperature restrictions
External proximitor needed
Frequency Range
Relative Sensitivity
30
dB
20
10
Frequency Response of Sensor
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
2Hz
10KHz
Frequency [xf0]
Vibration Pickups
Shaft
Rotating
Speed
Journal
Bearings
instability
Blades
2x
Rolling Element
Bearings
Gear
3x
1 KHz
3KHz
25KHz
Sensitivity
Mounting
Pad
Dual Rail
Magnet
Stud
Mount
Flat
Magnet
Hand
Probe
Freq
1.5KHz
10KHz
32KHz
Frequency Range
What is the frequency range of yourInstrumentCables
Sensor Sensor Coupling
Cable length ?
Monitoring Techniques
Types of Bearings
Journal Bearings
Stationary Signals
Relative Low Frequency
Use Accelerometers
Although there are many different types of transducers available, the most common
type used for day to day data collection are Accelerometers.
Data Quality
Whether it is your job to collect the data and/or analyse the data it is important to
understand that the technologies will not give you the answer to a machines problem
unless you have collected meaningful, quality data
There are certain considerations that must be taken prior to any data being collected,
these are:
Variable speed machines - it is very important to collect data with the correct running
speed enter into the analyser
Transmission Path
In many cases the further you are away from the initial event the weaker the signal will
become, resulting in the data appearing to be lower in value.
In more extreme cases the impact can be lost amongst other machine noise by the time it
has reached your transducer, resulting in no detection of a machine problem.
Usually the best place to acquire data from a machine, is at the bearings.
This is because the bearings are the only part of the machine that connect
the internal rotating components to the stationary components (Casing)
Repeatable Data
This consistency will allow you to trend the machinery condition and properly judge the
progression of faults
In order to aid with repeatable data the analyser requests for data to be collected in
certain locations on the machine.
Measurement Points
A measurement point is defined as three alpha numeric digits along with their
respective definition
Measurement Points
The first letter of the Point Identifier refers to the type of machine being monitored
P = PumpF = Fan
The second character represented by a number indicates the location on the machine
M = Motor
The third letter refers to the orientation of the sensor or the type of processing being
done by the analyser
H = Horizontal
V = Vertical
Measurement Points
The following example shows how the numbering system changes as you cross from
one component to the next
2
1
This changes when the next component is required for data collection
Locating Turning
Speed
Turning Speed
When the turning speed has been located, the software will re-calculate all the
frequencies to this exact speed.
Once the turning speed has been set, it is now possible to determine what is
Synchronous/Non-synchronous and Sub-synchronous energy.
Turning Speed
BF I - Examp l e 6
-P2V PUMP O UT BO ARD VERT I CAL
Ex6
12
Ro u te Sp ectru m
30-Jan -96 15:14:51
O VRAL L = 13.52 V -DG
RMS = 13. 46
L O AD = 100. 0
RPM = 2987.
RPS = 49. 78
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
F req u en cy i n kCPM
120
140
160
EX3
1. 0
L o s - Examp l e 3
-P2V Pu mp O u tb o ard Vertical
An al yze Sp ectru m
15-No v-95 10:00:16
RMS = 1.27
L O AD = 100. 0
RPM = 737.
RPS = 12. 28
0. 8
0. 6
P2V
0. 4
Synchronous Energy
0. 2
0
0
6000
12000
18000
F req u en cy i n CPM
24000
30000
A route does not have to include all the equipment defined in that area
The order of the equipment in the route can differ from that of the database
Equipment can appear in more than one route BUT can not appear in the same route
twice
Route measurement points may not include all the points configured on the
equipment
Route measurement points do not have to be in the same order as they appear in the
database
Data is not stored at the route level but in the database with the measurement points,
there for routes can be deleted but will not loose data from the database
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
2
X
3
X
6
X
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
Imbalance
2
X
3
X
6
X
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
Imbalance
Misalignment
2
X
3
X
6
X
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
Imbalance
Misalignment
2
X
3
X
6
X
Looseness
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
Bearing
Band
1 1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
Bearing Band 2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
Imbalance
Misalignment
2
X
3
X
6
X
Looseness
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
Bearing
Band
1 1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Frequency Bands
Divide spectrum in frequency bands based on the
types of mechanical faults that might appear on the machine
1
X
Imbalance
Misalignment
2
X
3
X
6
X
Looseness
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
Bearing
Band
1 1
B
E
A
R
I
N
G
B
A
N
D
2
Bearing Band 2
9
3
0
X
R
P
M
3
0
5
0
X
R
P
M
Fault Diagnostics
Each type of machine fault or defect reveals a specific vibration characteristic in the
spectrum and time waveform domain that distinguish that fault from another.
Simply by gaining a basic knowledge of these patterns and applying a few rules of
thumb we can start to analyse machine vibration and prevent machine failure.
This section concentrates the characteristics / patterns and rules that apply to diagnose
machine faults such as:
Imbalance
Misalignment
Resonance
Looseness
Gears
Sleeve Bearings
Belts
Unbalance
Imbalance
Imbalance (Unbalance) occurs when the centre of mass differs from the centre of
rotation.
If the centre of mass changes on the rotor due to a heavy spot or some other
influence then a centrifugal force is produced. This results in the centre of rotation
being offset from the centre of mass causing the vibration to increase at the rotational
frequency.
Unbalance
Primary Types
Static or Forced
Dynamic
Coupled
Imbalance (Types)
Static Imbalance
Couple Imbalance
Dynamic Imbalance
Static Imbalance
The radial vibration readings are the highest amplitudes with the axial vibration
generally much lower in amplitudes
Static Imbalance will show a 0 phase shift across the rotor (vertical to vertical or
horizontal to horizontal) and 90 phase shift from vertical to horizontal at the same
bearing location
The phase angle will change the same amount the heavy spot changes if the system is
linear
Dynamic Imbalance
Rule of thumb
Two unequal/equal heavy spots 180 apart in separate planes on the same rotor or
located at some spacing other than 180.Amplitudes will differ or will be related to the
location and amount of heavy spot
Unbalance
Causes of Imbalance
Improper Assembly
Wear to components
Very little axial vibration in case of static imbalance but high in case of overhung rotor
Similar amplitudes between horizontal and vertical plains for static imbalance and differ in case of
dynamic imbalance
Static unbalance
Dynamic/coupled unbalance
0-180 out of phase on the same shaft for dynamic & 180 out for coupled
Overhung rotors often have both force and couple unbalance each of
which may require correction
Eccentric Rotor
Ex2
IF - Example 2
-F1H Fan Inb oard Horizo ntal
W aveform Display
02-Feb-00 15:13:51
0.8
PK = .5289
LO AD = 100.0
RPM = 2985.
RPS = 49.76
0.6
Accelerati on i n G -s
0.4
PK(+ ) = .8332
PK(-) = .8893
CRESTF= 2.38
0.2
-0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Changing the
units to velocity would reduce the amount of high frequency
-1.0
noise residing0 on 0.5the 1.0waveform
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Revolution Number
The trend data is a good way of determining if there has been a change in condition,
as this plots amplitude against time (where time is in days)
Ex2
1. 0
IF
-F 1H
- Examp le 2
F an In b o ard Ho rizo n tal
W avefo rm Di sp lay
02-F eb -00 15:13:51
0. 8
PK = . 5289
L O AD = 100. 0
RPM = 2985.
RPS = 49. 76
0. 6
Acceleration in G-s
0. 4
PK(+ ) = . 8332
PK(-) = .8893
CREST F = 2. 38
0. 2
-0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0
0. 5
1. 0
1. 5
2. 0
2. 5
3. 0
3. 5
4. 0
4. 5
5. 0
Revo lu tio n Nu mb er
What would happen to the data if the following occurred to the fan?
Misalignment
Misalignment
When two mating shafts do not share the same collinear axis then misalignment is
induced.
Misalignment is one of the primary reasons for premature machine failure. The forces
that are exerted on the machine and its components when in a misaligned state are
greatly increased from normal operating conditions
Misalignment
Misalignment
Angular Where the shaft centrelines cross producing a 1xTs peak axially
Offset Where the shaft centrelines are parallel but they do not meet producing a radial
2xTs peak
Misalignment
Misalignment
Misalignment
High axial levels of vibration at 1xTs(often .5-2 times the radial readings)
High radial levels of vibration at1xTs and/or 2xTs, 3x & 4x may also be present
Repeatable period sine waveform showing 1, 2,3,4 clear peaks per revolution
(Most likely M or W shape)
The primary cursor denotes the 1xTs peak while the harmonic cursors
indicate a larger 2xTs peak. This type of data is common to that of Offset
Misalignment
The primary cursor denotes the 1xTs peak while the data was taken in the
axial direction. This type of data is common to that of Angular Misalignment
40
Waveform Display
26-MAR-93 13:32:52
30
RMS = 17.00
LO AD = 100.0
RPM = 2996.
RPS = 49.93
20
PK(+ ) = 30.66
PK(-) = 26.81
CRESTF= 1.82
10
-10
-20
-30
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Revolution Number
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Misalignment
The waveform data shown above is predominantly showing one sinusoidal waveform
per revolution of the shaft.
Angular Misalignment
Parallel Misalignment
1x
2x
4x
Radial
Bent Shaft
Bearing Misalignment
Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not alleviate the
problem.
Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 180 phase shift side to side
or top to bottom
Looseness
Looseness
Looseness can be broken down into two main categories, Structural and Component
Structural looseness occurs when there is free movement within the machines support
structure causing excessive vibration. This can be a result of:
Loose support bolts to the components feet and supports
Cracked welds
Deterioration of the base itself.
Looseness
The 1xTs peak has been highlighted by the primary cursor and the relevant
harmonics have been displayed.
Multiple harmonics of 5xTs are shown indicating the impeller has come loose.
Displaying the waveform in velocity may help to show the random nonperiodic pattern.
M4441
1.2
0.8
PK(+) = .9797
PK(-) = .9874
CRESTF= 3.11
Acceleration in G-s
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
0
50
100
150
200
Time in mSecs
250
300
350
400
Here the trend plot is showing the parameter labelled as the 3-15xTs. This is
measuring the amount of energy from 3 orders to 15 orders, which is where
the harmonics of looseness will appear.
Mechanical Looseness
Phase analysis will reveal aprox 180 phase shift in the vertical direction
between the base plate components of the machine
Mechanical Looseness
Mechanical Looseness
Rotor Rub
Truncated waveform
Gear Boxes
Gear Defects
There are many different types of gears and gear combinations available for various
speed and power requirements.
Regardless of gear type they all produce the same basic vibration patterns and
characteristics when a defect is present
Spur Gears
Helical Gears
Bevel Gears
Spur Gears
Spur Gears are most commonly thought of when diagnosing gears. The teeth are
cut parallel to the shaft. These gears are good at power transmission and speed
changes but are noisier than other gear types.
High efficiency
Helical Gears
Helical Gears have teeth cut at an angle to the shaft. These gears are much
quieter than spur gears but due to the angular nature of the gear meshing, axial
thrust and therefore axial vibration is higher than those of spur gears
Sometimes to counter act the axial thrust these gears can be double up and
are known as Double Helical or Wishbone Gears
Quiet Operation
Bevel Gears
Bevel Gears are used to transmit power and speed to an output shaft
perpendicular to the drive shaft. These gears use a bevel design to transmit the
power better.
These gears are most commonly seen on right angle gearboxes (where the
input shaft is at 90 degrees to the output shaft)
Less efficient
Gear Analysis
The gear mesh frequency (GMF) refers to the frequency at which to mating
gears interact with each other and is the most commonly discussed gear
frequency.
However, GMF by itself is not a defect frequency. The GMF should always be
present in the spectral data regardless of gear condition. What is important is
the amplitude as this may vary depending upon gear condition or loading of
the gear.
Gears
Two mating gears will generate a frequency known as the GMF and will
show in the spectral data regardless of gear condition.
The GMF is simply defined as the number of teeth on a gear multiplied by its
turning speed
Example:
INPUT
OUTPUT
Input
= 1490RPM
Gear 1
= 44 Teeth
Gear 2
= 71 Teeth
Calculating the GMF for gearboxes that have multiple trains use the following.
Example:
INPUT
OUTPU
T
Input
1490RPM
Gear 1
teeth
Gear 2
teeth
= 15
Gear 3
teeth
Gear 4
teeth
= 19
= 21
= 54
OUTPU
T
Input
1490RPM
Gear 1
teeth
Gear 2
teeth
= 15
Gear 3
teeth
Gear 4
teeth
= 19
= 21
= 54
Gear Ratio 1
Speed Out
= 15 teeth / 21 teeth
= 1490 RPM x 0.714
= 0.714
= 1064.28 RPM
Gear Ratio 2
Speed Out
= 19 teeth / 54 teeth
= 1064.28 RPM x 0.351
= 0.351
= 374.47 RPM
GMF 1
GMF 2
= 22350 CPM
= 20221.32 CPM
= 1000
Gear 1
Gear 2
= 10 teeth
= 40 teeth
OUTP
Gear 3
UT
Gear 4
= 10 teeth
= 20 teeth
INPU
T
Gear Ratio 1
= 10/40
= 0.25
Shaft 2 speed
= 1000 x 0.25
= 250 RPM
Gear Ratio 2
Shaft 3 Speed
= 250 x 0.5
= 125 RPM
GMF 1
= 1000 x 10
= 10000 CPM
GMF 2
= 250 x 10
= 2500 CPM
= 10/20
= 0.5
Sidebands are equally spaced frequencies in the spectral data that materialise
either side of the main GMF peak.
The sideband frequency spacing is equal to either the turning speed of the
input gear or the turning speed of the output gear.
Gears
The sidebands are equally spaced at intervals of 310 CPM. This is indicating
the gear that rotates at 310 RPM is the one that is worn or damaged.
GMF
Sideband
s
Gears can produce different types of waveforms, the one shown below is
indicating gear wear.
As the defective teeth come into mesh the noise generated increases showing
an increase in amplitude in the vibration data
X401A
1.5
1.2
PK = .4580
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 311. (5.19 Hz)
0.9
Acceleration in G-s
0.6
PK(+) = 1.27
PK(-) = 1.13
CRESTF= 3.91
0.3
-0.3
-0.6
-0.9
-1.2
-1.5
0
3
Revolution Number
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Rolling element bearings have specific bearing failure modes that can be
observed in the spectral and waveform data.
Bearing frequencies differ from most other frequencies present within the
spectral data because unless the bearing has a defect there will be no
frequency peaks in the data relating to the bearing. Only if the bearing has
a defect will frequencies show in the spectral data.
Outer Race
Inner Race
CAGE (FTF)
Bearing defect frequencies are calculated based upon the geometry of the bearing
these calculations may include:
Contact angle
Defined within Machinery Health Manager there are over 100000 predefined
bearing stored in the CSI bearing warehouse
BEARINGS in CSI Warehouse:
c:\RBMsuite\SysData\CSI_CMP.WH
****************************************************
BRG ID Bearing Type
#B/R
FTF
BSF
BPFO
BPFI
12143
RHP 6218
11
0.418
2.967 4.598
6.402
24421
SKF 6313E
0.376
1.894 3.009
4.991
25372
SKF I-26313
19
0.433
3.568 8.219
10.781
Early stages of bearing wear may show better if viewed in acceleration in the
frequency domain
Followed by BSF
Followed by FTF
When a roller or ball defect is present from the start, BSF may well appear in the
spectrum WITHOUT any progression similar to these scenarios
Random HF to ultrasonic
5KHz to 60 KHz
Component Fn
30KCPM to 120KCPM
Defect Frequencies
Failure Mode 1
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 1
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
120K
STAGE 1
ZONE
A
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
30K
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 2
STAGE 2
120K
ZONE C
BEARING
ZONE C
COMPON.
BEARING
NATURAL
COMPON.
FREQ.
REGION
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
120K
ZONE B
ZONE
ZONE B
A ZONE BEARING
DEFECT
BEARING
A
FREQ.
DEFECT
REGION
FREQ. REGION
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 2
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
Bearing f
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
30K
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 3
(First calculable frequency of the bearing towards the lefthand side of the spectral plot). This is classed as advanced
stages of bearing wear.
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
STAGE 3
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
7x
8x
30K
120K
30K
BPFI
BPFI
BPFO
ZONE
A
3X
2X
1X
STAGE 3
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
Bearing f
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
ZONE
A
Failure Mode 4
2X
3X
RANDOM HIGH
FREQ. VIBRATION
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
STAGE 4
120K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
BPFO/BPFI
2x
3x
4x
5x
6x
7x
8x
30K
ZONE
A
120K
STAGE 4
ZONE C
BEARING
COMPON.
NATURAL FREQ.
REGION
30K
ZONE B
BEARING
DEFECT
FREQ. REGION
1X
ZONE
A
Bearing
This can show significant G-levels in the time waveform. This value is trended
in the software as the Peak-Peak value
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Plain Bearings
Rotating elements are not used in sleeve (plain) bearings; rather the shaft rides on a
layer of lubricating oil inside the bearing journal.
Plain Bearings
As there are no rotating components in the bearing that produce high frequency
noise (force) there is no need to monitor a high frequency range. Usually 10 to 15
orders of turning speed will be sufficient.
Sleeve bearings have specific defects that contribute towards bearing failure,
these are:
Excessive clearance
Excessive Clearance
When there is excessive clearance between the rotor and the bearing then this will
have an effect on the system vibration. When the bearings have excessive clearance
then a looseness occurs.
The spectral data shown below is indicating a sleeve bearing with excessive
clearance.
Oil Whirl
One of the major problems encountered with these types of bearings is the
possibility of hydraulic instability of the shaft within the bearing; known as oil
whirl or oil whip.
Oil Whirl is a result of turbulent flow within the oil resulting in the oil pushing
the shaft around of centre.
Oil Whirl
Whirl speed will lock onto rotor critical. If the speed is increased
the whip frequency will not increase.
Bearing Defects
Rolling Element
Plain Bearings
Peakvue
Peakvue
What is Peakvue
What is Peakvue?
Such as the Peak Value of an impact generated by a bearing defect in a time waveform
- (True Peak Value)
If you have a 21XX analyzer you have the capability to acquire Peakvue Data
The True Peak Value is obtained by concentrating on Stress Wave Analysis rather than
conventional vibration data.
These stress waves travel further than conventional vibration signals so a truer
indication of fault severity is obtained.
What is Peakvue
Stress waves accompany metal-metal impacting. These stress waves are short-term
(fractional to a few milliseconds) transient events, which introduce a ripple effect on
the surface machinery as they propagate away from the initial event.
If you think of a stone being dropped into a pool of water. The stone is
the initial impact generated by the fault. The effect of the stone being
dropped into the water cause a ripple on the surface of the water
which, spreads over a wide area.
Initial Impact
What is Peakvue
If a bearing has a sub-surface defect (early bearing wear), when a rolling element
passes over the defect it bends the race slightly and then as the rolling element
passes it restores back to its natural state.
This event causes a high frequency (1-50KHz) short duration stress wave.
Peakvue Processing
The detection of bearing and gear defects is one of the primary expectations of a
predictive maintenance program.
Peakvue stands for the Peak Value and is a technique that detects high frequency
stress waves generated from metal to metal contact, such as:
It is the detection of these high frequency stress waves that will aid with
analysis
In order to capture the stress wave signal the process requires the use of a filter to
remove all unwanted noise that can dominate the data
1. Conventional Vibration
Signals that are filtered
from the Peakvue Signal
Imbalance
Misalignment
Gears
Bearings
Resonance
The band pass filter removes all the data above and below the filter corner values
After the filtering process what should remain is the high frequency stress wave
activity that is occurring at the rate of the excitation such as from a bearing.
High
Full
Pass
Wave
Filter
Rectify
Digital
Peak
FFT
Impact
Detection
A comparison can be made of the sampling to show how data is collected through
both methods of data acquisition, normal and Peakvue.
The diagram below shows sampling of data using normal data collection.
Stress wave- this is
missed under normal
conditions
Instantaneous Samples
The diagram below shows sampling of data using Peakvue data collection.
Peakvue Samples
Peakvue measures the highest amplitude found in a stress waves (Pk Value) and
holds that data
The waveform data is then passed through a high pass filter to remove the
unwanted, low frequencies
This just leaves us with the high frequency impacting data (Peak) above the
machine noise level
The data is then brought back to fundamental frequency. (this allows analysis of
the data to be done quicker and easier)
(The waveform time length is determined by the lines of resolution divided by the f-max)
At minimum the surface should be clean (free of paint, dirt, etc.), stress waves are
easily attenuated.
Filters
Types of filter available
Filter Calculations
Filter Guidelines
Filters Options
One of the key elements in acquiring meaningful peakvue data is the selection of filters
Selecting the wrong type of filter will result in poor quality data
Each of the filters are designed to remove unwanted data out of the signal at the
appropriate levels
High Pass Filters remove all frequencies from the data below the filter setting but
allow the high frequency stress wave to pass through.
Looks for stress waves within a parameter defined by the filter setting. Frequencies
above and below this setting are removed from the data
Data passes
through filter
Data is filtered
out of the
signal
Data is filtered
out of the
signal
Filter Selection
To select the correct filter we need to consider the highest operational defect frequency
that we want to measure/detect. Then select the next available filter above that
frequency
E.g.
Filter Selection
We would then select the next available filter setting above the frequency
Available filters
500hz
20hz 150hz
1000hz
50hz 300hz
2000hz
100hz 600hz
5000hz
500hz 1khz
10000hz
20000hz
From our previous calculation of 1232Hz, What filter setting would we select?
Note: the meter will only allow you to select the next filter above
the specified Fmax.
Tip: use bandpass filters when the event of interest is the excitation of a structural
resonance, or the modulation of known frequencies such as gearmesh.
500hz Low speed machinery having <125hz. Bearing & gearing problems
1000hz Intermediate speed machinery (<2000 rpm) with gear mesh <300hz
10000hz High speed machinery with gear mesh up to 3000hz sensor must be
permanently mounted with a frequency response of 3db in the 30kHz or higher
range.
20000hz High speed machinery with gearmesh up to 6000hz. Sensor must be high
frequency and permanently mounted.
Tip: Use highpass filters when the objective is to detect stress waves which are emitted by metal
on metal impacting.
Consider:
Calculate what Filter setting would be required for both the motor and the fan
bearings?
Filters Available:
500 Hz, 1000Hz, 2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High
Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Motor.
BPFI = 4.855
Defect Frequency = (BPFI x 10) x Turning Speed (Hz)
Defect Frequency = (4.855 x 10) x 16.667
Defect Frequency = 809.18 Hz
Filters Available:
1000Hz 2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High
500 Hz, 1000Hz,
Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Fan
BPFI = 5.907
Defect Frequency = (BPFI x 10) x Turning Speed (Hz)
Defect Frequency = (5.907 x 10) x 22.5
Defect Frequency = 1329.07Hz
Filters Available:
500 Hz, 1000Hz, 2000Hz
2000Hz, 5000Hz, 10000Hz, 20000Hz. (High
Pass)
20-150Hz, 50-300Hz, 100-600Hz, 500-1KHz. (Band Pass)
Peakvue Data
Spectrums and Waveforms
Diagnostics Techniques
Peakvue - Spectrum
Peakvue - Spectrum
This is a Peakvue spectrum where high frequency stress waves are being detected
As stress waves are small in amplitude severity of the problem can be judged using
the time waveform
The waveform can resemble a spectrum as there is no negative half to the data
Peakvue - Waveforms
Waveforms can be confused with spectrums, as the waveform is only plotting the peak
value and does not show a full wave.
EX 1
0.6
A1 - Examp le 1
-D3P Tail Rol l No n D/S Peakvu e
An alyze W aveform
16-Mar-01 12:03:14
(PkVu e- HP 500 Hz)
PK = .0556
L OAD = 100. 0
RPM =
80.
RPS = 1.33
Acceleration in G-s
0.4
PK(+ ) = .5599
PK(-) = . 0397
CREST F = 14.25
0.3
0.2
4. Acceleration as
default units
-0. 1
0
6
Revo lu ti o n Nu mb er
L ab el: Easy
12
Peakvue - Diagnostics
However there are a few differences which can be a bit confusing at first, these are:
1. Do not try to locate 1xTurning Speed, as this is low frequency data and will be
filtered out.
Turning speed should be entered using the conventional spectral data.
2. Multiple harmonics are often present within a spectrum due to the way peakvue
samples the data.
These do not indicate Looseness
3. Spectral amplitudes are always low in amplitude but should not be used to judge
severity. Use the spectrum to diagnose the fault.
Peakvue - Diagnostics
Continued..
5. Ensure the same filter setting is used in both the spectrum and waveform.
6. Cage Defects show up well in peakvue data and is normally an indication the
bearing is under stress.
7. All low frequency faults are removed from the data and will not be seen in a
Peakvue spectrum and waveform
Peakvue - Diagnostics
1.Spectral data indicating a
defect at 5.463 Orders
3. Very Slow
RPM
2. Impacting also being
detected at 0.6G-s
Peakvue - Diagnostics
4.Fault Frequencies Indicate
a BPFI Defect
Alert Value
Fault Value
Inner Race
3.0g's
6.0g's
Outer Race
6.0g's
12.0g's
4.5g's
9.0g's
Cage frequencies
6
Inner race Amplitude (g's)
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.4
4.1
3.9
3.3
3.3
2.9
2.6
3.7
2.7
2.5
2.4
2.2
1.9
1.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
10
0.9
0.7
0.5
35
75
1.2
0.9
0.6
100
2.0
1.9
1.6
1.3
1
1.0
200
300
RPM
400
500
600
700
800
0
900
Acceleration g's
Peakvue Vs
Demodulation
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
What is Demodulation?
Demodulation looks for the ringdown that follows an impact, and tries to
measure how quickly it fades. In order to do this the Time Waveform has to
be manipulated in such away that the waveform data becomes useless
Initial Impact
Ringdown
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Peakvue samples the data much quicker enabling it to catch the very short
duration high frequency stress wave. It then holds that Peak Value throughout
its parameter.
Demodulation registers
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
The Process!
Standard Demodulation
High
Low
Full
Remove
Pass
Pass
Wave
DC
Filter
Filter
Rectify
Bias
A/D
FFT
Converter
Enveloping Stage
Full
Pass
Wave
Filter
Rectify
Digital
Peak
Impact
Detection
FFT
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Equipment
A conveyor system consisting of six rolls is driven by a motor/gearbox unit .
The motor speed is 1500RPM reduced through the gearbox giving the roller
speed to be 98.5RPM
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Due to the slow speeds Peakvue and Demodulation Filters were both set to
500Hz High Pass using 1600 Lines of Resolution
Ex1
0.016
0.07
Max Amp
. 0490
(18-Dec-01)
Direct Comparison
Demodulation
Between the Two
Spectra
Peakvue Spectra
0.06
0.012
0.05
PK Acceleration
Acceleration in
in G-s
G-s
PK
PK Acceleration in G-s
PvD - Exampl e 1
PvD - Exampl e 1
Ex1
-R1P Ro ller Bearin g Dri ve En d
-R1P Ro ller Bearin g Dri ve En d
0.05
Spectrum
m
An alyze Spectru
14:22:30
18-Dec-01 14:10:26
(Demoed-0.04
HP500
500Hz)
Hz)
(PkVu
HP
PK = 0.03
.0295
.1238
100.00
L OAD = 100.
97.
RPM =
99.
1.62
RPS = 1.64
0.02
0.04
0.008
0.01
Peakvue
0.03
0
18-Dec-01
14:10:26
0.02
0.004
0.01
Demodulation
18-Dec-01
14:10:26
0
0
0
50
50
100
100
F req u en
cy i n Hz
F req u en cy i n Hz
L ab el: Peakvu
500Hz500Hz
Hig h Hig
Pass
Demod e
u lated
h Pass
150
150
200
200
Peakvue Vs Demodulation
Ex1
PvD - Exampl e 1
-R1P Ro ller Bearin g Dri ve En d
Plo t
Sp an
Demodulation
Waveform
Acceleration in G-s
1.0
18-Dec-01 14:22
Peakvue Waveform
-0. 2
18-Dec-01 14:10
Revo lu ti o n Nu mb er
Electrical Defects
Electrical Defects
Rotor
Stator
The most common electrical frequency that materialises in the spectral data is the 2 x
Line Frequency.
For most industrial applications the line frequency used to supply motors is
50Hz (Europe).
Therefore the frequency of concern for most electrical faults would be 100Hz
(2xLf [Lf=line frequency])
2xLf
The waveform data from a 100Hz peak will show a sinusoidal pattern like the
waveform shown below
Ex7
1.5
Ex7 - Example 7
-M1H Motor Outboard Horizontal
Route Waveform
08-Nov -00 14:27:35
1.0
RMS = .5291
LOAD = 100.0
RPM = 2967. (49.44 Hz)
0.5
PK(+) = 1.50
PK(-) = 1.77
CRESTF= 3.31
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0
3
Revolution Number
Usually misalignment
would produce higher
force (Higher waveform
levels) than those from
electrical defects due
to the stress being
applied to the machine
Loose Connectors
This may be due to the rotor or stator bowing; due to heat build up.
The spectral plot below is indicating a 100Hz peak using Peakvue with a 1000Hz
filter.
Belt Defects
V-Belts
Timing Belts
Belt Defects
Belts are the most common low cost way to transmit power from one shaft to another.
Belt drives rely on friction between the belt and pulley to transmit power between
drive and driven shafts
Belt Tension (tension on the belt holds it tightly against the sheave)
However, belts can be easily damaged by heat, oil and grease and since belts slip
with in the sheaves they can not be used where exact speed changes are
required (except for timing belts)
Belt Defects
Belt defects can be considered non-critical faults by many maintenance groups due
to the relative ease of replacement requiring minimum downtime.
But belt defects are a major contributor to the overall vibration of the machine
resulting in premature failure of other machine components.
There are many different types of belt drive systems. This section covers the most
commonly used types of belt in industry today.
V-Belts
V-belts are the most common type of belts used. They are V shaped in crosssection, this allowing the belt to wedge against the side of the sheave.
This design allows the belt to be run faster than most other type of belt
applications with power transmission efficiencies as high as 95%
Belt Defects
Timing Belts
These are flat belts with equally spaced teeth that mesh with notches on the
pulley. Timing belts are different from other belt drives as they do not induce any
slip.
Most commonly used where constant velocity and strict timing application is
required.
Belt defects, such as cracks, broken or missing pieces, hard and soft spots can
generate vibration at the turning speed of the belt (1xbelt) and harmonics
Due to the length of the belt in relation to the pulleys (sheaves) the 1xbelt
frequency is sub-synchronous and very often the 2xbelt frequency may be
sub-synchronous as well
The predominant harmonic is typically the 2xBelt frequency and can be seen in
the radial plain in-line with the belts.
Just like two mating shafts, belt drive systems can also be misaligned in both angular
and offset directions.
When misalignment is induced into a belt drive system then the life of the belt is
significantly reduced as well as the overall vibration of the system increases.
Offset Misalignment
Angular Misalignment
Pulley misalignment results in high axial vibration at the shaft turning speed.
If the belt is also defected then 1xbelt frequency and harmonics may also
show in the axial direction
The fundamental belt frequency can be calculated using the following equation:
Where:
Ts = Turning Speed
PCD = Pitch Circle Diameter
Note: The PCD and belt length must be in the same units
A timing will belt will also have a specific frequency related to the number of teeth on
the pulley
Timing Belt Freq. = (Pulley Ts) * (# Pulley Teeth)
Motor RPM
= 1480 RPM
Pulley Diameter
= 300 mm
Belt Length
= 2000mm
The spectral data above is data taken of a motor from an Air Handling Unit.
The frequency highlighted by the primary cursor is showing the 1xTs of the
motor (1 Order)
1 x Belt Frequency
showing with
harmonics
Dominant 2 x Belt
Frequency
Resonance
Resonance
All assets contain natural frequencies that vary depending upon the stiffness and
mass.
Resonance can be considered to be a vibration amplifier, that takes the force level of
the periodic forcing function and amplifies it; which significantly increases the
movement of the asset.
Example of Resonance
The example shown represents the effect on amplitude of the forcing function when
in resonance.
Plot 3 shows the increase in amplitude of the forcing function when run at the
natural frequency this is resonance
Before Excitation
1
Frequency
Resonance Curve
Frequency
Amplified Signal
3
Frequency
Resonance
There are two factors that determine the natural frequency of an asset these are;
1.
2.
Stiffness The more rigid a structure the higher the natural frequency
Effects of Resonance
The ODS data is showing a steel frame structure deflecting at one corner in the
vertical direction due to a resonant condition.
Characteristics of Resonance
Characteristics of Resonance
Vastly different amplitudes of the forcing function from one direction to the
other (between Horizontal and Vertical Rule of thumb ratio is 3:1 difference)
Resonance is very speed sensitive (small changes in speed can show large
differences in amplitude of the forcing function)
Resonance can occur at any frequency but most commonly associated with
the 1xTs
180 phase change occurs when shaft speed passes through resonance
Resolving a Resonance
There are a number of alterations to the system that can be made to resolve a
resonance condition.
However if structural changes are to be made you need to be careful you dont
excite another natural frequency once the change has been made?
Once you are sure you have a resonant condition it can be corrected by one of the
following methods:
The spectrum is showing the 1xTs peak of the motor with amplitudes reaching
19mm/sec.
Very often this type of data can be mistaken for Imbalance as this defect can also
produce a high 1xTs peak.
The multi point plot allows the analyst to display several measurement points on the
same plot. Here we are showing all the radial points from the motor.
It is very clear that the amplitudes of the 1xTs peak are excessive in the
horizontal direction when compared to the vertical. This is a characteristic of a
resonant condition.
CAVITATION
Erosion of impeller vanes and pump casings may occur if left unchecked
If gap between vanes and casing is not equal, Blade Pass Frequency
may have high amplitude
FLOW TURBULENCE
Random low frequency vibration will be generated, possibly in the 50 2000 CPM range
SURGE
Analog
Analog integration integrates data in the time domain as collected , then performs FFT.
Digital
Accelerometer
Raw Signal
Amp
Integrator
1x, 2x
High Pass
Filter
Amp
Low Pass
Filter
Detector
P-P or RMS
AC
Output
Display
Reading
DC
Output
Time Signal
Absolute Vibration
with Free-Space
AC Signal
DC
Signal
Bandpass Measurement
Peak
RMS
Avg
Peak
to
Peak
Freq. = 1/Time
Freq. = Hz
= rev. per second
Detector
Apeak peak
T
ARMS
a
Apeak
RMS
For Sine waves only:
Apeak
T = averaging period
1
2
a
(t )dt
T 0
Apeak
Apeak peak
RMS
2 * ARMS
Frequency Analysis
Types of filters:
f
High-Pass filters
Low-Pass filters
Bandpass filters
Anti-aliasing filters
Vibration Amplitude ?
Lower
Freq.
limit?
Upper
Freq.
limit?
Freq / Orders?
BW = Fmax /LOR
The signal that comes to the analyzer is analog signal. It must be digitally sampled by
the analyzer. This process is a variation of FFT and is known as DFT.
For DFT the waveform is re-created in the analyzer by digitally sampling and then
transformed into the frequency domain.
To under stand the FFT digital sampling process ,we must have the under standing of:
L.O.R
Fmax
Length of Waveform
1. Aliasing -
2. Leakage -
-ve
..give discontinuities
when ends joined
2nd Sample
Use Hanning Window
+ve
-ve
Measured
Spectrum
Waveforms
Waveforms
Just like the spectral there are certain patterns and characteristics to look for when
conducting waveform analysis.
Once the characteristics have been identified, the analyst can rule out certain faults
e.g: if the waveform is periodic faults like Looseness, Bearing defects, Cracks could be
ruled out.
2.Periodic
5.Asymmetry 6.Modulation
3.Impacts
7.Restrictions
4.Discontinuities
Waveform Analysis
Time - seconds
Waveform Analysis
Periodicity
Waveform Analysis
Periodicity
Waveform Analysis
Asymmetry
Waveform Analysis
Impacting
Waveform Analysis
Distortion
Vibration Analysis
Complex
Waveform Analysis
Electrical vs Mechanical
Waveform Analysis
Noise
Waveform Analysis
Extended time
Waveform Analysis
Extended time
Waveform Analysis
Low frequency
Waveform - Beats
WIDEBAND SPECTRUM
F1
F2
ZOOM
SPECTRUM
A beat is the result of two closely spaced frequencies going into and out of
phase
The wideband spectrum will show one peak pulsating up and down
The difference between the peaks is the beat frequency which itself will be
present in the wideband spectrum
Crest Factor
Introduction
The Crest Factor is equal to the peak amplitude of a waveform divided by the
RMS value. The purpose of the crest factor calculation is to give an analyst a
quick idea of how much impacting is occurring in a waveform. Impacting is
often associated with roller bearing wear, Cavitation and gear tooth wear.
In a perfect sine wave, with an amplitude of 1, the RMS value is equal to .707, and
the crest factor is then equal to 1.41. A perfect sine wave contains no impacting and
therefore crest factors with a value higher than 1.41 imply that there is some degree of
impacting
Crest Factor
Crest Factor
Comparison of 2 Waveforms
In below figures we can see an example of the use of the Crest Factor. The
waveform in figure on left has a crest factor of 3.01. The waveform in figure on
right has a crest factor of 1.61. The data in figure on left represents a machine with
serious rolling element bearing wear, and the crest factor is relatively high due to
the amount of impacting occurring within the bearing. The data in figure on right
represents a machine with an unbalance, but no impacting related to bearing wear.
Crest Factor
Conclusion
The Crest Factor is a quick and useful calculation that gives the analyst an idea of how
much impacting is occurring in a time waveform. This is useful information that is lost if
one is only viewing a spectrum as the FFT cannot differentiate between impacting and
random noise. Impacting in a time waveform may indicate rolling element bearing wear,
gear tooth wear or Cavitation. Quite often, the Crest Factor is trended over time in order
to see if the amount of impacting is increasing or not.
Advance Analysis
Rotor Dynamics
Terminology & Introduction
Types of bearings
Tilting Pad
elliptical
grooved
HP Turbine
LP Turbine
Generator
Exciter
(LVDT/Potentiometer)
(Dual-voting)
Radial Vibration
XY Probes
(at each bearing)
Phase
(once per turn)
HP Turbine
Thrust
Collar
Turning
Gear
Eccentricity
Casing
Expansion
Generator
LP Turbine
Y
Differential
Expansion Probes
(LVDT)
Prox. Probe
Exciter
Y
Thrust
Eccentricity
Case expansion
Differential
expansion
Radial vibration
Speed
Phase
Temperature
Valve position
Differential Expansion
6210
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Valve
Position
6410
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Eccentricity
6220
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Case Expansion
6410
Speed/Phase
6312
Bearing
Vibration
6110
Thrust
At least two thrust sensors, for redundancy, and for voting logic, are installed
to measure axial rotor position
HP
LP
IP
HP
GEN
EXC
IP
Thrust bearing
Thrust
failures
bearing
can failures
result inare
extremely
one of the
costly
most
repairs or even
machine replacement
catastrophic failures
Eccentricity
Eccentricity
Tach
HP
IP
LP
GEN
EXC
Case Expansion
Differential Expansion
Upon start-up, due to mass differences, the rotor expands at a different rate
than the case
By mounting the D.E. sensors on the case, and then measuring the position of
the rotor, the result is the difference in position of the rotor relative to the case
Differential Expansion
Case Expansion
Tach
HP
IP
LP
GEN
EXC
Shaft Vibration
Rub
Bow
Imbalance
Looseness
Misalignment
Couplings
Runout
Fluid instabilities
Shaft cracks
Y
2
X
4
Machine Case
4
Emerson TIE Seminar May 2007
Displacement Probes
Extension
Cable
-24V
Com
Signal
Oscillator/
Demodulator
Connector
Probe
Also known as non-contact, eddy current probes, proximity probes
Integral
Cable
Mounting Blocks
API 670 gives examples of probe mounting blocks which employ a split clamp
housing design, as shown below. However, these can be a little difficult to use, so
alternative designs are available
10mm slots
for mounting bolts
Holes for
Mounting bolts
10
20
10
25
40
20
Clearance hole
for probe
60
60
Probe Installation
Internally Mounted Probes
Cable
Conduit
Cable
Ties
Cable
Conduit
Probe Holder
screwed into
Bushing
Reverse threaded
Probe
Probes can be mounted externally to the machine with the probe mounted through
the machine case or bearing housing, or they can be mounted inside the machine and
the probe leads exited through the machine case.
Probe Installation
Displacement Probes
The probe, integral cable, extension cable and oscillator/demodulator make up a tuned resonant
circuit.
In order to maintain a proper ratio between gap and voltage the various parts must be
calibrated and matched
Never indiscriminately substitute one cable type for another. The systems are matched and cable
length is critical
+
Probe in contact or
very near shaft
Linear Range
Typicall y 10 to 90 mils gap
(250 to 2250um)
Probe Sensitivity
= 200mV/mil
(8mV/um)
Gap
Gapping Probes
-10V DC
50mils
50mils
Probe cannot tell the difference between vibration and runout caused by defects such as
scratches, dents and variations in conductivity and permeability
Runout can be measured by observing shaft displacement at low speed (typically 300 to
600 RPM on a high-speed machine)
To avoid runout, ensure that the probe is always mounted to observe a smooth journal
surface
of the max. allowed peak-to-peak vibration or 0.25mils (6um) which ever is greater.
The gauss level of the probe surface should not exceed +-2 gauss with a
variation of less than 1 gauss.
Coast
Down
Stop
Process
Variable
Steady
State 2
Bump
In the night
Slow
Roll
Coast Down
Stop
Process
Variable
Step
Up
(holding)
Turbo-machines
Vibration vectors
Slow roll vectors
Orbit / Mode shapes
Synchronous amplification factor
Anisotropic Stiffness
Rotor position
Heavy Spot
Turbo-machines
Orbits
Shaft centerline (ASCL plots)
Polar or Nyquist plots
Position plots (Acceptance region)
Bode plots (Amplitude & phase vs RPM)
APHT plots for crack detection
(Amplitude & phase vs Time)
Amplitude
Phase
Frequency
Position
Form / Shape
Precession
Casing
Vibration
Relative Shaft
Vibration
Displacement
probe
Shaft
Basic Principles
Force
Vibration =
Dynamic Stiffness
K (stiffness)
M (Mass)
Rotor
Mass
F spring
K
Support
Stiffness
Vibration Vectors
Shaft rotation
270
Vibration
Sensor
75 um pp
V axis
o
225
phase lag
180
90
225o
75 um pp
Monitoring Basics
Roller bearings vs Journal Bearings
1. Are you able to get a repeatable measurement?
If machine is operating under a fix process condition (eg. Same speed & load)
you should be able to get a repeatable reading. If not ask WHY?
2. How can we tell if a machine is good or bad?
A good healthy machine should have a stable vibration amplitude under
the same operating and process condition.
When the machine condition deterioratesmost of the time we will
See an increases in vibration. Some situation you will see a decrease
in vibration.
Now we have a machine and when we measure its vibration 6 months ago
o
..it amplitude was 3 mils with a phase angle of 0 .
o
Today the vibration reading is still 3 mils with a phase angle of 180 .
Since vibration amplitude 6 months back and now remains constant is the machine
Good or bad?
What is the difference between a Vibration = 3 mils @ 0 and Vibration = 3 mils @ 180
6 mils
Change !!
ie. Increase by 2x
Precession
+
+
+
+
+
+
Blank = notch
Shaft
Rotation
Heavy spot
High spot
Shaft
rotation
+
Isotropic (Symmetric)
No Split Resonances
Circular 1X Orbit
Vibration not orientation dependent
Anisotropic (Asymmetric)
Resonances can be split
Elliptical 1X Orbits
Vibration depend on probe orientation
Slow Roll Vector is a constant (or very slowly varying) vibration vector that
represents the nondynamic vibration observed by the vibration sensor.
1X
Phase
Phase Slope
Uncompensated
270
90
Compensated
Amplitude (p-p)
180
Uncompensated
Compensated
Frequency (rpm)
Transient Information
Mode shapes
1st Mode
2nd Mode
HP Turbine
3rd Mode
LP Turbine
Generator
Exciter
Amplitude (pp)
Peak
Ratio
70%
SAFPR= a/b
Half-power Bandwidth
b
c d e
SAFhp= e-c/d
RPM
Amplitude (pp)
Phase
RPM
1st mode
Phase
2nd Mode
Heavy Spot
Amplitude (pp)
2nd mode
270
90
RPM
1st
Mode
Heavy Spot
180
1st mode
2nd mode
Bearing
Center
++
Shaft
Center
Overhung rotor
1st Mode
At rest
++
+
+
+
+
+
Shaft misalignment
CW
CCW
Shaft
Rotation
Shaft
Rotation
Driver
Driver
* However you will need to chose one direction and stick to it
Timebase Plots
Direct Orbit
Polar Plots
Bode Plots
APHT Plots
Trend Plots
XY Plots
Half Spectrum
Full Spectrum
Cascade
Waterfall
Sample 2
Also known as
Narrow band analysis,
constant bandwidth analysis
Half spectrum
Autospectrum
Spectras, Signature
Filtering
Filtering
Window Function
Window Function
Detectors
Detectors
FFT
FFT
/n =
Avg
FFT Spectrum 1
FFT Spectrum 2
FFT Spectrum
Raw Machine
Time Signal
Sample 2
Sample 1
Filtering
Filtering
+
Window Function
Detectors
FFT
Averaged Time Signal
Enhanced synchronous components while Non synchronous and
noise will be averaged out.
Reduced vibration effect from nearby machine.
Isolate specific machine components
TSA Spectrum
Amp
Rpm
Time
Hz
X Probe
Waveform
FFT
FFT
X Probe
half spectrum
Y Probe
half spectrum
Shaft
Rotation
Direction
Full Spectrum
Transform
1x
Reverse
Precession
-2x
-1x
+
Forward
Precession
2x
Orbits
AC, dynamic
motion or the path
of the shaft
centerline as seen
by the transducers
Orbits
The orbit represents the path of the shaft centerline relative to a pair of perpendicular, coplanar sensors.
Information:
Direct Orbits
Filtered Orbits
Compensated Orbits
Absolute Orbits
Unbalance
Indications of ...
MISALIGNMENT
Misalignments
With looseness
5:1 to 6:1
Up to 8:1
P. 8-8
8-8
Light Rub
Heavy Rubs
Rubs
Characterized by slight or
heavy truncations of the
orbit
A Parallel with
Waveforms
Rubs cause truncation both in the
time domain (waveform) and the orbit...
8-12
Oil Whirl
Similarity ?
Looseness or rub
Looseness
Rub
Whirl
8-14
Orbits
X
3
Average,
DC position
thefluid
shaft
Rotor should
rise inofthe
film
centerline
and load will influence final position
Shaft motion
loading on shaft
Eccentricity condition
Shaft alignment visualization
Shaft at
running speed
Bearing
Clearance Circle
Shaft at rest
Information: