ECS 238

BASIC SOLID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1:
1D & 2D LINEAR STRESS & STRAIN SYSTEM
BY
AIMI MUNIRAH BINTI JALILLUDDIN

CONTENTS
1

Learning Outcomes

Introduction

CHAPTER 1: 1D & 2D Linear Stress and Strain System

a

Stress

Strain

Factor of Safety

Stress Strain / Shear Stress - Strain Diagram

Deformation

Deformation of Composite Materials

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
1. Differentiate and compute the normal and shearing

stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)

2. Compute the deformation caused by normal and

shearing stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)

3. Solve the composite material problem using stress

and strain concept (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)

4. Solve theoretically OR graphically the plane stress

problem (CO1: PO3)

CHAPTER 1
1D & 2D LINEAR STRESS &
STRAIN SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
Direct Stress

Symbol:
Unit
: N/m2 (Pascal) or N/mm2
Formula: = P/A or F/A
Shear Stress
Symbol:
Unit
: N/m2 or N/mm2
Formula: = V/A
Strain
Symbol:
Unit
: Dimensionless
Formula: = L/L

INTRODUCTION
Load

Tensile Load (+ve)

Compressive Load (-ve)

Tensile Load (Tension )

Example: towing ropes
or lifting hoist
Compression
Example: column/pillar

REVIEW OF PHY190:
Equilibrium of a Particle
A particle is in equilibrium when the resultant of
all the forces acting on that particle is zero

EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
A rigid body is in equilibrium when the external
forces acting on it form a system of forces
equivalent to zero

If the resultant force is zero, and the

resultant moment about one axis is zero, then
the resultant moment about any other axis
in the body will be zero also.

VISUALIZATION OF
CONCEPT
F1 = 2kN

F2 = 2kN

Rigid body AB is in statically equilibrium under set of 2 forces.

Check whether true the rigid body is in statically equilibrium
Horizontal force = -2 + 2 = 0 kN (correct)
Say, cut the rigid body into 2 equal sections at X, as shown below;
F1 = 2kN

F2 = 2kN

F1X = ?
F1 = 2kN

F2X = ?
X

F2 = 2kN

But, rigid body AX and XB are also in statically equilibrium under the force.
Horizontal force = 0
Applying to rigid body AX;
-F1 + F1x = 0 -2 + F1x =0; F1x = 2 kN
Applying to rigid body XB;
-F2x + F2x = 0 -F2x + 2 = 0, F2x = 2 kN

Remember sign convention for direct forces,

+ve
-ve

+ve
-ve

DIRECT STRESS

DIRECT / NORMAL STRESS

Normal stress results from a uniformly or equally

applied direct force across a cross section.

The average normal stress in the member is obtained
by dividing the magnitude of the resultant internal
force F by the cross sectional area A.
Formula => = P/A
where P = load, A = cross section area
Unit : N/m2 = Pa, N/mm2
Cross sectional area

Force perpendicular to area

DIRECT / NORMAL STRESS

NOTE ON UNITS:

The fundamental unit of stress is 1 N/m2 and this is

called a Pascal (Pa).

This is a small quantity in most fields of

engineering so we use the multiples kPa, Mpa
and GPa.

Areas may be calculated in mm2 and units of

stress in N/mm2 are quite acceptable.

Since 1 N/mm2 converts 1 000 000 N/m2 then it

follows that the N/mm2 is the same as Mpa.

EXAMPLE 1
Determine the stress in a bar of 20 mm
diameter if it is subjected to an axial load of
30 kN in tension
A = x 202/4 = 314.16 mm2

30 x 103 N
= 95.5 N/mm2
314.16 mm2

EXAMPLE 2
Determine the stress in each of the bar in the
Figure below.
B

4 kN

C
3 kN

D = 10 mm
D = 15 mm

BC = 3 x 103 N
78.54 mm2

= 38.2 N/mm2

AB = 7 x 103 N
= 39.6 N/mm2
176.71 mm2

EXAMPLE 3
Determine max. average normal stress in bar when
subjected to loading shown.
Given: Bar width = 35 mm, thickness = 10 mm

Internal loading

SOLUTION

Normal force diagram

Average normal stress

BC =

PBC

30(103) N
=
(0.035 m)(0.010 m)
A

= 85.7 MPa

SHEAR STRESS

SHEAR STRESS
Shear stress is the

type of stress that

acts tangential to
plane

Shear stress,

Single shear

= Shear force, V
Area, A
Unit : N/m2 = Pa,

N/mm2
Double shear

SHEAR STRESS
Shear occurs typically:
1. When a pair of shear

cuts a material

2. When a material is

punched

3. When a beam has a

transverse load

4. When a pin carries a

load

SHEAR STRESS

SHEAR STRESS

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

DIRECT STRAIN

DIRECT STRAIN
Description: When a force is applied to an elastic
body, the body deforms. The way in
which the body deforms depends
upon the type of force applied to it.

A tensile force makes

the body longer

A compressive force
makes the body shorter

DIRECT STRAIN
Direct strain is the deformation per unit of the

original length. It has no units since it is a ratio of

length to length

Formula => = L/L

where L = change in length

L = original length

P
L

EXAMPLE 1
A metal wire is 2.5mm diameter and 2m long. A force
of 12N is applied to it and it stretches 0.3mm. Assume
the material is elastic, determine the following:
1. The stress in the wire,
2. The strain in the wire,

A = x 2.52/4 = 4.909mm2 =
= 12 N = 2.44N/mm2
4.909

0.3
2000

= 0.00015

SHEAR STRAIN

SHEAR STRAIN
Shear strain is defined as the ratio of distance

deformed to the height.

Formula => = x/L
where x = deformation
L = length

EXAMPLE 1
The plate is deformed into the dashed shape as
shown in the figure below. Determine the average
normal strain along side AB and average shear strain
in the plate relative to the x and y- axes.

SOLUTION
(a) Line AB, coincident
with y axis, becomes
line AB after
deformation. Length
of line AB is

AB = (250 2)2 + (3)2 = 248.018 mm

SOLUTION
(a) Therefore, average normal strain for AB is,

AB AB 248.018 mm 250 mm
(AB)avg =
=
250 mm
AB
= 7.93(103) mm/mm

Negative sign means strain

causes a contraction of AB.

SOLUTION
(b) Due to displacement of B to B, angle BAC

referenced from x, y axes changes to .

Since xy = /2 , thus
xy =

tan1

)
3 mm
= 0.0121 rad
250 mm 2 mm

FACTOR OF SAFETY
(FOS)

FACTOR OF SAFETY
Every

material has a certain capacity to carry

load, but it is unsafe to load a material to the full
capacity it would have no reserve strength.

This is dangerous because:

1. May experience a load greater than anticipated
2. Material may be defective

3. Construction may be faulty (fabrication/erection/

workamanship etc.)
4. Other unforeseen situation (calculation errors etc.)
Remedy: Apply a Factor of Safety (FOS) that provides

a margin for error and uncertainty

FACTOR OF SAFETY
Factor of Safety (FOS) =

Maximum Stress
Allowable Working Stress

Maximum stress is obtained from experimental testing

of the material
ALLOWABLE
STRESS

MAXIMUM OR
ULTIMATE STRESS

FACTOR OF SAFETY
FOS for normal stress = max/allow
FOS for shear stress = max/allow

In above equation, FOS will be greater or equal to 1.0 to

avoid potential failure.
ALLOWABLE
STRESS
MAXIMUM OR
ULTIMATE STRESS

ALLOWABLE STRESS
To determine area of section subjected to a
normal force, use
A=P
allow
To determine area of section subjected to a
shear force, use
V
A=
allow

EXAMPLE 1

SOLUTION

STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM

TENSION &
COMPRESSION TEST
Used primarily to determine the relationship

between the average normal stress and average

normal strain in common engineering materials
Before testing, 2 small punch marks identified along

specimens length
Measurements are taken of both specimens initial x-

sectional area A0 and gauge-length distance L0;

between the two marks

TENSION &
COMPRESSION TEST
Performing the tension or compression test
Set the specimen into a testing machine shown
below
The machine will stretch specimen at slow
constant rate until breaking point
At frequent intervals during test, data is
recorded of the applied load P.

Elongation = L L0 is measured using

either a caliper or an extensometer
is used to calculate the normal strain in
the specimen

TENSILE TEST
GAUGED
LENGTH
ELONGATED

GAUGED
LENGTH

L + L

= change in length/original length

= L/L

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Using recorded data, we can determine nominal or

engineering stress by

Assumption: Stress is constant over the x-section and

throughout region between gauge points

Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is found directly

from strain gauge reading, or by

Assumption: Strain is constant throughout region between

gauge points
By plotting (ordinate) against (abscissa), we get a
conventional stress-strain diagram

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Figure shows the
characteristic stressstrain diagram for steel,
a commonly used
material for structural
members and
mechanical elements

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Elastic behavior
A straight line
Stress is proportional to strain, i.e., linearly elastic
Upper stress limit, or
proportional limit; pl
If load is removed
upon reaching elastic
limit, specimen will
return to its original
shape

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Strain hardening
Ultimate stress, u
While specimen is elongating, its x-sectional area
will decrease
Decrease in area is
fairly uniform over
entire gauge length

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Necking
At ultimate stress, x-sectional area begins to
decrease in a localized region

As a result, a

constriction or neck
tends to form in this
region as specimen
elongates further

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Necking
Specimen finally breaks at fracture stress, f

51

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Ductile materials
Offset method to determine yield strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is
chosen.
2. From this point on the axis,
a line parallel to initial
straight-line portion of
stress-strain diagram is
drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve defines
the yield strength.

HOOKES
LAW

HOOKES LAW
Most engineering materials exhibit a linear

relationship between stress and strain with the

elastic region
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using
springs, known as Hookes law

E
E represents the constant of proportionality, also

called the modulus of elasticity or Youngs

modulus
E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.

HOOKES LAW
Most grades of steel have same modulus of elasticity,

Est = 200 GPa

Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that

indicates the stiffness of a material

Materials that are still have large E values, while

spongy materials (vulcanized rubber) have low values

IMPORTANT

Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a material

has linear-elastic behavior.
Also, if stress in material is greater than the
proportional limit, the stress-strain diagram ceases to
be a straight line and the equation is not valid

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY/
YOUNGS MODULUS,E
E, sometimes called as elastic modulus, is a

constant value of a material.

i.e. Steel has E = 200 GPa = 200 x 109 N/m2

We can measure this value by finding

the gradient of the stress-strain graph
over the elastic region

EXAMPLE 1
An aluminium rod specimen has an initial gauge length
of 254 mm before the tensile test. After been pulled by a
force of 165 kN, the gauged length increase to 300 mm.
Determine the modulus of elasticity of the specimen if the
rod diameter is 30 mm.
1. The elongation, L = 300-254 = 46 mm
2. Force required to elongate, P = 165 kN
3. Cross sectional area, A = /4 x 302 = 706.86 mm2
4. Direct stress, = P/A = 165 x 103/706.86 = 233.42 N/mm2
5. Original length = 254 mm
6. Strain, = L/L = 46/254 =0.1811

7. From Hookes Law , E = / = 1289 N/mm2 = 1.3 kN/mm2

EXAMPLE 2

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
Use thin-tube specimens and subject it to

torsional loading
Record measurements of applied torque and
resulting angle of twist

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
Material will exhibit linear-elastic behavior till its

proportional limit, pl
Strain-hardening continues till it reaches ultimate
shear stress, u

Material loses shear

strength till it
fractures, at stress of f

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
Hookes law for shear

G
G is shear modulus of elasticity
or modulus of rigidity
G can be measured as slope of
line on - diagram, G = pl/ pl
The three material constants E,
, and G is related by
E
G
2(1 )

POISSONS
RATIO

POISSONS RATIO
When a body is subjected to axial tensile force, it

elongates and contracts laterally

Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand

laterally when subjected to an axial compressive

force

POISSONS RATIO
Strains of the bar are:

long

lat

'
r

Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within

elastic range, ration of the two strains is a

constant value, since both are proportional.

lat
Poisson' s Ratio ,
long

POISSONS RATIO
is unique for homogenous and isotropic

material

Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation

cause lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice

versa

Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial)

directions

Poissons ratio is dimensionless, 0 0.5

EXAMPLE 1

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
CONCEPT

INTRODUCTION
Consider a volume of a cube under multi
tensile stresses acting on three surfaces.
Y

X
Z

Under those stresses, the cube deforms into a

rectangular paralelpiped, and its volume, V
V = ( 1 + X) ( 1 + Y) (1 + z)
= ( 1 + X ) ( 1 + y) ( 1 + z)
= 1 + x + y + z + xy + xz + xyz

Since xy , xz, yz and xyz are small

quantities, ignore those terms,
V = 1 + x + y + z
Changes in volume, V = V V = x + y + z
Volumetric strain , v = V/V = x + y + z
For a multi-stressed condition, each strain can
be expressed as follows;
x = x/E - yv/E- zv/E = x/E v/E(x + z)
y = y/E v/E(x + z)
z = z/E v/E(x + y)

v = x + y + z
= [ x + y + z ] / E ( 1- 2v)
If x = y = z =
v = 3/E ( 1- 2v)
Bulk Modulus, K = /v
E =(3/v)(1-2v) = 3K(1-2v)
K = E/(3(1-2v))
G = E/(2(1+v))
G = 3K (1-2v)/(2(1+v))

EXAMPLE 1
A steel bar 25mm x 15 mm in cross section is 300 mm long
and is subjected to a tensile force of 70 kN. Find the
change in the dimensions of the bar and the change in
volume. (Take E = 200 kPa)
y

70 kN

15 mm

300 mm

25 mm

SOLUTION
Longitudinal strain, = / E
= 70000 N/[(15 x 25)(200000)
= 0.00093
Lateral strain, y = z = vx = 0.00093 x 0.3
= 0.00028

Change in length = 0.00093 x 300 = 0.279 mm

Change in width = 0.00028 x 25 = 0.007 mm
Change in height = 0.00028 x 15 = 0.0042 mm
Volume of bar = 300 x 25 x 15 = 112500 mm3
Volume strain, v = x + y + z = 0.00037
Change in volume = Vv = 341.625 mm3

EXAMPLE 2
What is the stresses, , acting on the cube 1m side
shown below should be so that the change of the
volume is 0.05 %? Given that E = 200 Gpa, v = 0.3

SOLUTION
x = /E (1-2v) = y = z
v = x + y + z = 3/E (1-2v)
Change in volume = 0.05/100 V
= 0.05/100 (1) = v = 3/E (1-2v)

= 0.05/100 (E/3(1-2v))
= 0.05/100 (200000/3(1-2(0.3)) = 83.33 N/m2

DEFORMATION OF AN
AXIALLY LOADED
MEMBER

DEFORMATION UNDER
DIRECT FORCE
For constant x-sectional area A, and

homogenous material, E is constant

With constant external force P, applied at each
end, then internal force P throughout length of
bar is constant
Load-displacement relationship is:

PL
= AE

EXAMPLE 1
Composite A-36 steel bar shown made from two
segments AB and BD. Area AAB = 600 mm2 and
ABD = 1200 mm2.

Determine the vertical

displacement of end A and
displacement of B relative to
C.

SOLUTION

Internal force
Due to external loadings, internal axial forces in regions
AB, BC and CD are different.
Apply method of
sections and equation
of vertical force
equilibrium as shown.
Variation is also
plotted.

SOLUTION
Displacement
From tables, Est = 210(103) MPa.
Use sign convention, vertical displacement of A relative
to fixed support D is
6)
[+75
kN](1
m)(10
PL

A =
AE = [600 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]

[+35 kN](0.75 m)(106)

+ [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
[45 kN](0.5 m)(106)
+ [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
= +0.61 mm

SOLUTION
Displacement
Since result is positive, the bar elongates and so
displacement at A is upward
Apply load-displacement equation between B and C,

[+35 kN](0.75 m)(106)

PBC LBC
A = A E = [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
BC
= +0.104 mm
Here, B moves away from C, since segment elongates

DEFORMATION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES

DEFORMATION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
It is a common experience that materials

expand on heating and contract on cooling.

Consider a rod of a material has a length L at

any temperature TO, then it increases to a

length L + L when heated to a temperature T1
or decreases to a length L-L if T1 is less than TO.

The increase/decrease of material due to

temperature effect depends on coefficient of

thermal of material.

L at temperature TO

Expand
on heating
L

L
L at temperature T1 > To

Contract
on cooling
L-L
L at temperature < To

TYPICAL CIVIL ENGINERING

STRUCTURES EXPERIENCING THERMAL
EXPANSION/CONTRACTION

TYPICAL CIVIL ENGINERING

STRUCTURES EXPERIENCING THERMAL
EXPANSION/CONTRACTION
SMALL GAP
ALLOWING
EXPANSION
OF DECK
BRIDGE
DECK

APPROACH SLAB

BRIDGE DECK SLAB APPROACH CONNECTION SYSTEM

EXPANSION JOINTS

STRAIN DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
Due to change in length by L, therefore
the corresponding strain
= changes of length/original length
= L/L

L = original length x coefficient of thermal x

temperature changes
= L x x ( T1 To)

EXAMPLE 1
A steel rod, 20 mm diameter, and 1.5 m long, is constrained
between supports A and B. The material is stress-free at 270C.
Determine the stress in the material when the temperature
increases to 500C.
(Take E = 200 GPa. = 12 x 10-6/0C)
L = 1.5 m, = 12 x 10-6/0C
Temperature changes = 50 27 = 230C
Changes in length, L = 1.5 x 12 x 10-6 x 23
= 0.000414 m = 0.414 mm
Strain in the bar, = L/L = 0.414/1500 = 0.000276
From Hookes Law, = E
= 200 x 1o9 N/m2 x 0.000276
= 5.52 x 107 N/m2

PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION

PRINCIPLE
OF
4.3 PRINCIPLE
OF SUPERPOSITION

SUPERPOSITION

After subdividing the load into components,

the principle of superposition states that the

resultant stress or displacement at the point
can be determined by first finding the stress or
displacement caused by each component
load acting separately on the member.

Resultant stress/displacement determined

algebraically by adding the contributions of

each component
91

PRINCIPLE
OF
4.3 PRINCIPLE
OF SUPERPOSITION

SUPERPOSITION

Conditions
1.
The loading must be linearly related to the stress or
displacement that is to be determined.
2.
The loading must not significantly change the
original geometry or configuration of the member
When to ignore deformations?

Most loaded members will produce deformations so

small that change in position and direction of
loading will be insignificant and can be neglected
92

STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE AXIALLY
LOADED MEMBER

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER

For a bar fixed-supported at one end, equilibrium

equations is sufficient to find the reaction at the
support. Such a problem is statically determinate
If bar is fixed at both ends, then two unknown axial
reactions occur, and the bar is statically
indeterminate
+ F = 0;

FB + FA P = 0

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER

To establish addition equation, consider geometry of

deformation. Such an equation is referred to as a
compatibility or kinematic condition

Since relative displacement of one end of bar to the

other end is equal to zero, since end supports fixed,
A/B = 0

This equation can be expressed in terms of applied

loads using a load-displacement relationship, which
depends on the material behavior

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Equilibrium
Draw a free-body diagram and write appropriate equations of
equilibrium for member using calculated result for redundant
force.
Solve the equations for other reactions
Compatibility
Choose one of the supports as redundant and write the equation
of compatibility.
Known displacement at redundant support (usually zero), equated
to displacement at support caused only by external loads acting
on the member plus the displacement at the support caused only
by the redundant reaction acting on the member.
Express external load and redundant displacements in terms of
the loadings using load-displacement relationship
Use compatibility equation to solve for magnitude of redundant
force

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

From free-body diagram, we can determine the

reaction at A

97

EXAMPLE 1
A-36 steel rod shown has diameter of 5 mm. Its
attached to fixed wall at A, and before it is
loaded, theres a gap between wall at B and rod
of 1 mm. Determine reactions at A and B.

SOLUTION
Compatibility
Consider support at B as redundant. Use principle of
superposition,
(+)

0.001 m = P B

Equation 1

SOLUTION
Compatibility
Deflections P and B are determined from Eqn. 4-2
P =

PLAC
AE

B =

FB LAB
AE

= = 0.002037 m
= = 0.3056(10-6)FB

Substituting into Equation 1, we get

0.001 m = 0.002037 m 0.3056(10-6)FB
FB = 3.40(103) N = 3.40 kN

Equilibrium
From free-body diagram
+

Fx = 0;

FA + 20 kN 3.40 kN = 0
FA = 16.6 kN

EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 3

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

SOLUTION

DEFORMATION OF A
STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE AXIALLY
LOADED MEMBER
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
Stresses, strains and deformations in a bar are easily

obtained by applying the equilibrium (static) conditions

alone called statically determinate problem.

However, certain problems cannot be solved by statics

alone where extra equations are required in order to be

solved. This is called statically indeterminate problem.

Composite bar subjected to an axial is an example of

statically indeterminate problem where the bar is made

of more than one material.

Consider the followings for solving:

1. Total force in the bar must equal to the applied load.

2. Axial deformation and strain in each material must
also be the same.

VISUALIZATION :
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM
P

P1

P2
A2

A1

Force equilbrium , P = P1 + P2 (1)

= 1 A1 + 2 A2

VISUALIZATION :
COMPATIBILITY OF STRAIN
P

Shortening at once due to

perfect bonding assumption

=>

Shortening inside material 1 = shortening inside material 2

1 = 2
1/ E1 = 2/E2

VISUALIZATION :
COMPATIBILITY OF STRAIN
Steel
bar
Concrete block

Ls Lc

s c

EXAMPLE 1
A weight of 300kN is supported by a short concrete column of
square shape with sides of 250mm length. The column is strengthen
by four steel bars with a total cross-sectional area of 50cm2
a) If the modulus of elasticity for steel is 15 times that of
concrete, find the stresses in the steel and the concrete
b) If the stress in the concrete must not exceed 4MN/m2,what
area of steel is required to allow column to support a load of
600kN?

250mm

250mm

SOLUTION
Lc= Ls
c = s = s = c
Es Ec
s = Es . c = 15c
Ec
Ac = (25 x 25) -50 =575cm2
Fc + Fs = 300kN
cAc + sAs = 300kN
c(0.0575) + s(0.005)
=300kN
c= 2.27MN/m2
s=34MN/m2

Ac = (25 x 25) As
s = Es . c
= 15c
= 15(4)
=60MN/m2
cAc + sAs = 600 x 103N
c(0.0625-As) + sAs = 600 x 103N
As= 0.00625m2

EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION

EXAMPLE 3

EXAMPLE 4

SOLUTION

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL
1. A steel bar of rectangular cross-section, 3cm by 2cm. Carries an axial

load of 30kN. Estimate the average tensile stress over a normal crosssection of the bar.

2. A steel bolt, 2.5cm diameter, carries a tensile load of40kN. Estimate the

average tensile stress at the section a and at the screwed section

b, where the diameter at the root of the thread is 2.10cm.

TUTORIAL
1. A steel bar is 10mm diameter and 2m long. It is

stretched with a force of 20kN and extends by

0.2mm. Calculate the stress and strain of the steel
bar.

2. A rod is 0.5m long and 5mm diameter. It is stretched

0.006mm by a force of 3kN. Calculate the stress and

strain.

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL
Determine the stress at the base of a concrete cube of
1.2 m x 1.2 m x 1.2 m having a density of 2400 kg/m3. A
loading of 40 MN is imposed at the top centre of the
cube as shown.
40 MN

ground

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL

TUTORIAL

THE END