Generalisation and Qualification

An important element of academic writing is hedging. This involves generalisation and

qualification. Statements must be cautious and tentative - and sometimes critical - about data.
As Skelton (1988) neatly observed, It is important for students to learn to be confidently
uncertain. The information below describes ways of qualifying or moderating a claim.
Qualification
1. Verb Use - Tend
The classic verb for qualifying (or defending) a generalisation is the verb tend:
Consumers have less confidence in the economy.
Consumers tend to have less confidence in the economy.
2. Using Exceptions
To add qualification to a statement, we can also use exceptions:
With the exception of
likely to improve greatly.
Apart from
Except for

a few oil-rich states, national economies in Africa are not

Distance
Distance is a way of removing yourself from a strong - and possibly unjustified - claim. Compare
these sentences:
Consumers have less confidence in the economy.
Consumers seem to have less confidence in the economy.
Consumers appear to have less confidence in the economy.
It would seem/appear that consumers have less confidence in the economy.
An alternative strategy is to distance yourself from the data by showing in some way that it is
soft. For example:
The limited data available suggests that
fatalities.
In the view of some experts,
According to this preliminary study,
Based on informal observations made by police officers,

a lower speed limit may reduce

Weaker Verbs
Claims can be reduced in strength by choosing a weaker verb. Compare the following:
Deregulation caused the banking crisis.
Deregulation contributed to the banking crisis.

(stronger)
(weaker)

Combined Qualifications
Often, of course, several types of qualification are combined in order to construct a defensible
statement.
Here is an example, starting with a big claim:
The use of seat belts prevents physical injuries in car accidents.
Now see what happens when the following qualifications are added.
prevents reduces
reduces may reduce
+ in some circumstances
+ certain types of injury
+ According to simulation studies

(weaker verb)
(adding probability)
(weakening the generalisation)
(weakening the generalisation)
(adding distance)

So now we have:
According to simulation studies, in some circumstances the use of seat belts may reduce certain
types of physical injuries in car accidents.
This sentence is a nice example of the writer being confidently uncertain. (Of course you need
to be aware of excessive qualification since this may result in your saying almost nothing).
Qualifying Statements - Balancing Criticism with Praise
You can qualify your criticism by combining a positive and negative evaluation.
Tesdell
provides
a small
topic.
offers
minor
preliminary

piece of research on a(n)

interesting

relevant
important

However, the studysuffers from a number of limitations.

exhibits several weaknesses.
can be criticised on several counts.
raises as many questions as it answers.
Predictive Statements
Generalised predictions are based upon past experience and information. Therefore, there is a
close link between the past and the future and this is important to note in the use of verb tenses.

Qualification
Probability Qualifications
There are several ways of expressing probability in written academic English.
1. Modals
Notice how the claim progressively weakens in these three sentences:
A reduced speed limit will result in fewer injuries.
A reduced speed limit may result in fewer injuries.
A reduced speed limit might/could result in fewer injuries.
2. Adverbs/Adjectives
In these examples, the phrases weaken in strength:
It
It
It
It
It
It
It

is
is
is
is
is
is
is

certain that/
very probable/likely that
almost certain that
probable/likely that
possible that
unlikely that
very unlikely/highly improbable that

There is
injuries.
There is
There is
There is
There is
A
A
A
A

a strong possibility that

a
a
a
a

reduced
reduced
reduced
reduced

a reduced speed limit will result in fewer injuries.

a reduced speed limit will result in fewer

good possibility that

definite possibility that
slight possibility that
remote possibility that
speed
speed
speed
speed

limit
limit
limit
limit

will certainly/definitely/undoubtedly result in fewer injuries.

will probably/likely result in fewer injuries.
will perhaps/possibly result in fewer injuries.
is unlikely to result in fewer injuries.

Quantity Qualifications
A generalisation can be defended by qualifying the subject with quantity qualifications:
Generalisation - Consumers have less confidence in the economy.
Many consumers have less confidence in the economy.
A majority of consumers have less confidence in the economy.
In most parts of the country, consumers have less confidence in the economy.
A number of consumers have less confidence in the economy.
Frequency Qualifications
A generalisation can be defended by qualifying the subject with frequency qualifications:
Generalisation - Job prospects are worse for older workers.
Job prospects are generally worse for older workers.
Job prospects are often worse for older workers.
Job prospects are seldom worse for older workers.

Task - Weaker Verbs

Underline the verb making the weaker claim.

1.

The results indicate/establish that there is a link between smoking and lung

cancer.
2.

Table 9 suggests/shows that Venezuelan scientists may need help with writing

English.
3.

The results given in figure 4 validate/support the second hypothesis.

4.

The quantities displayed in the table have been assumed/shown to be about 98%

accurate.
5.

In their earlier work, they failed/neglected to take ambient temperature into

account.
Task - Weaker Verbs
Underline the verb making the weaker claim.
1.

The results indicate/establish that there is a link between smoking and lung

cancer.
2.

Table 9 suggests/shows that Venezuelan scientists may need help with writing

English.
3.

The results given in figure 4 validate/support the second hypothesis.

4.

The quantities displayed in the table have been assumed/shown to be about 98%

accurate.
5.

In their earlier work, they failed/neglected to take ambient temperature into

account.
Task - Weaker Verbs
Underline the verb making the weaker claim.
1.

The results indicate/establish that there is a link between smoking and lung

cancer.
2.

Table 9 suggests/shows that Venezuelan scientists may need help with writing

English.
3.

The results given in figure 4 validate/support the second hypothesis.

4.

The quantities displayed in the table have been assumed/shown to be about 98%

accurate.
5.

In their earlier work, they failed/neglected to take ambient temperature into

account.

Task - Weaker Verbs

Underline the verb making the weaker claim.
1.

The results indicate/establish that there is a link between smoking and lung

cancer.
2.

Table 9 suggests/shows that Venezuelan scientists may need help with writing

English.
3.

The results given in figure 4 validate/support the second hypothesis.

4.

The quantities displayed in the table have been assumed/shown to be about 98%

accurate.
5.

In their earlier work, they failed/neglected to take ambient temperature into

account.
Task - Weaker Verbs
Answer Key
1.

indicate

2.

suggests

3.

support

4.

assumed

5.

neglected

Task - Weaker Verbs

Answer Key
1.

indicate

2.

suggests

3.

support

4.

assumed

5.

neglected

Task - Weaker Verbs

Answer Key
1.

indicate

2.

suggests

3.

support

4.

assumed

5.

neglected

Task - Weaker Verbs

Answer Key
1.

indicate

2.

suggests

3.

support

4.

assumed

5.

neglected