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Find the standard matrix for a reflection in the x-axis followed by a rotation through an angle of
2
3
2
in R and use it to find the image of
.
8
All the transformations we have looked at have been matrix transformations since they can be written
in the form T (~x) = A~x. They have also been linear.
Definition:
A transformation T : Rn Rm is linear if
T (~u + ~v ) = T (~u) + T (~v ), for all ~u, ~v Rn
T (a~u) = aT (~u), where a is a scalar, and ~u is any vector in Rn
1
Theorem 1:
Every matrix transformation T : Rn Rm is linear.
Proof:
Let A be the standard matrix for T .
Then T (~x) = A~x.
We need to check that T preserves scalar multiplication and addition.
T (~u + ~v ) = A(~u + ~v )
= A~u + A~v
= T (~u) + T (~v )
T (a~u)
= Aa~u
= aA(~u)
= aT (~u)
Theorem 2:
Every linear transformation is a matrix transformation.
Proof:
We define the standard basis of Rn to be the columns ~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~en of In .
Note: Any vector in Rn can be written as a linear combination of ~e1 , ~e2 , . . . , ~en .
2
u1
1
0
0
0
u2 0
1
0
0
ie. ~u = u3 = 0 u1 + 0 u2 + 1 u3 + . . . + 0 un = u1~e1 + u2~e2 + u3~e3 + . . . + un~en .
.. ..
..
..
..
. .
.
.
.
un
0
0
0
1
Let T : Rn Rm be a linear transformation.
T (~u) = T (u1~e1 + u2~e2 + . . . + un~en )
= u1 T (~e1 ) + u2 T (~e2 ) + . . . + un T (~en )
u1
u2
3.1 Determinants
In general a determinantis a function
that takes a square matrix as input and outputs a real number.
a b
For a 2 2 matrix A =
, the determinant is defined to be ad bc. This number is significant
c d
since it determines whether or not a matrix is invertible or not. If the determinant is 0, the matrix
is not invertible. The determinant also has some geometric significance in R2 and R3 when we are
dealing with 2 2 or 3 3 matrices. It also arises in a new formula for A1 , a new method for
solving linear systems and is useful in applications where we want to predict the future behaviour of
a system. (Section 3.5)
Evaluating
a11
If A = a21
a31
a 3 3 Determinant
a12 a13
a22 a23 , we define
a32 a33
det(A) = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a13 a22 a31 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33
(1)
We can rewrite this expression by factoring out the entries along the first row from each pair of terms:
det(A) = a11 (a22 a33 a23 a32 ) a12 (a21 a33 a23 a31 ) + a13 (a21 a32 a22 a31 )
We can now think of the determinant of a 33 matrix in terms of three determinants of 22 matrices.
a
a
det(A) = a11 22 23
a32 a33
a12 a21 a23
a31 a33
3
+ a13 a21 a22
a31 a32
Example 1
1 2 3
Find det(A) and det(AT ), where A = 0 1 5.
2 6 1
The sign (1)i+j in the cofactor can be determined quickly using a checkerboard diagram.
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
Returning to our computation of a 3 3 determinant, we can now express it in terms of the
cofactors of A. This is called the Cofactor Expansion of A along the first row of A.
a22 a23
a21 a23
a21 a22
det(A) = a11
a12
+ a13
a32 a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
= a11 c11 (A) + a12 c12 (A) + a13 c13 (A)
In general, we can use cofactor expansion along any row or column to compute the determinant
Definition:
The cofactor expansion of an n n matrix A along the ith row of A is
det(A) = ai1 ci1 (A) + ai2 ci2 (A) + . . . + ain cin (A)
and the cofactor expansion of A along the j th column of A is
det(A) = a1j c1j (A) + a2j c2j (A) + . . . + anj cnj (A)
Example 3:
3
1
0
If A = 2 4 3 , evaluate |A| by a cofactor expansion along the second column of A.
5
4 2
1
2
4. If A =
0
7
5.
6.
7.
8.
0 3
0 6
, find |A|.
3 0
1 5
0 1 5
Find det(B), where B = 3 6 9.
2 6 1
1 2
3
5
7
2
0 1 5
6
7
3 9
4 .
Find 4
3
1 2 2
3
5 1
3
7 9
a b c
ax by cz
3y
3z
If p q r = 6, find 3x
x y z
p
q
r
1 x x
Find values of x for which x 1 x = 0.
x x 1
0
7
6
3
1
.
det(A)
7
Proof:
Since AA1 = I, then det(AA1 ) = det(I) or det(A) det(A1 ) = 1, and since det(A) 6= 0, we have
1
.
det(A1 ) =
det(A)
Examples:
1. If det(A) = 2 and det(B) = 5, find det(A3 B 1 AT B 2 ).
2. (a) If A is a 2 2 matrix where |A| = 4, find det(3A), det(3A2 ), and det[(3A)2 ].
(b) Is A invertible?
Definition:
The adjugate of an n n matrix is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors, or
adj(A) = [cij (A)]T
where [cij (A)] is the matrix whose (i, j) entry is the (i, j) cofactor of A.
Example 4:
1
3 2
1
5 , find adj(A).
If A = 0
2 6 7
Theorem 5:
If A is an n n matrix, then A(adj(A)) = det(A)I.
1
Furthermore, if A is invertible, then A1 =
(adj(A)).
det(A)
Proof:
Example 5
Calculate the inverse of A, where A is the matrix in the Example 4.
Another use of determinants is in solving systems of equations. So far, we have seen two methods:
augmented matrices and coefficient matrices (if A is invertible).
Cramers Rule
If A is an invertible n n matrix, then the solution to A~x = ~b is
x1 =
|A2 |
|An |
|A1 |
, x2 =
, . . . , xn =
|A|
|A|
|A|
where Aj is thematrix obtained by replacing the entries in the j th column of A by the entries in the
b1
b2
matrix ~b = .. .
.
bn
Proof:
Let A be an invertible n n matrix where A~x = ~b.
adj(A)~
b or
Then ~x = A1~b =
det(A)
x1
c11 (A)
x2
c12 (A)
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
=
a11
a21
c21 (A)
c22 (A)
..
.
cn1 (A)
cn2 (A)
b1
..
b2
.
c2j (A) cnj (A) ...
..
..
.
. bn
c2n (A) cnn (A)
1
(c1j (A)b1 + c2j (A)b2 + . . . + cnj (A)bn ).
|A|
a12 b1 a1n
a22 b2 a2n
..
..
.. By a cofactor expansion along column
.
.
.
an2 bn ann
|Aj |
b1 c1j (A) + b2 c2j (A) + . . . + bn cnj (A)
=
= xj .
|A|
|A|
10
Cramers Rule is useful because it allows us to solve for a single component of ~x without computing
the rest.
Example 6
Use Cramers Rule to solve for x1 in the following system of equations:
x1 + 2x3 = 6
3x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 30
x1 2x2 + 3x3 = 8
11
Polynomial Interpolation
Suppose we are trying to describe the relationship between two variables x and y in terms of some
polynomial. We have a collection of experimental data points (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ). We would like
to fit this data to a polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c. The unknowns here are the constants a, b
and c. By substituting each of our data points, we obtain a system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns,
which we can then solve for.
Example:
Find a polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c that fits the following data points: (5, 3), (10, 5), (15, 6).
Solution:
By substituting the data points in for x and y, we obtain the following system:
a(5)2 + b(5) + c = 3
a(10)2 + b(10) + c = 5
a(15)2 + b(15) + c = 6
We could solve this using the matrix equation
1
a
25 5 1
3
b = 100 10 1 5
c
225 15 1
6
25 5 1
3
1
100 10 1
5
adj
=
25 5 1
225 15 1
6
100 10 1
225 15 1
1
50
7
= 10
0
The polynomial is
1 2
7
x + x.
50
10
12
a11
a12
a13
a11
a12
a13
0 a11 a22 a21 a12
a11 c11 + a12 c12 + a13 c13 + k(a21 c11 + a22 c12 + a23 c13 )
a21 a22 a23
= det(A) + k a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
= det(A) + k(0)
= det(A)
14