Chapter1:TheBalkansfromPrehistorytotheByzantineEmpire

ForamodernobserverintheBalkans,tracesoftheregionsprehistoryandearly
historyarereadilyfound.Some,likethetells(sitesofancientsettlementswhere
successivelayersofhomesitescreatedlargeartificialhills)oftheBulgarianplains,the
LionGateatthefortressofMycenaeinGreece,orthemagnificentremainsof
DiocletianspalaceinSplit,Croatia,canbeseenwiththenakedeye.Otherscanbe
heard,suchastheGreek,Albanian,andRomanianlanguageswhoseprogenitorswereall
spokenontheBalkanPeninsulainclassicaltimes.Stillotherscanbetasted,foralthough
itishardtobelievethattheyarenotindigenousgiventheirimportancetothelocal
cuisine,olivesandwinegrapeswerebroughttotheBalkansbyprehistoricsettlersmore
than3000yearsago.EvensomeofthemodernpoliticalproblemsoftheBalkanscanbe
linkeddirectlytoclassicaltimesmostrecentamongthesebeingtheongoingdispute
betweenGreeceandtheRepublicofMacedoniaastowhichstatehastherighttoclaim
thelegacyofAlexandertheGreat.
EvidenceofhumanhabitationintheBalkansdatesbackalmost50,000years,and
anatomicallymodernhumansappearedhere,aselsewhereinSouthernEurope,somewhat
morethan35,000yearsago,inaperiodarcheologistscalltheUpperPaleolithic.These
earlyhumanslived,asthearcheologicalrecordreveals,insmallandmobilegroups,
hunting,exploitingthebountyoflakesandseas,gatheringwildplants,andfashioning
stonetools.PatternsoflifeontheBalkanPeninsulaweresimilartothoseelsewhereon
thecontinentatthistime,thoughpopulationsappeartohavebeensparser,foralthough

theregionwasforthemostpartsparedtheglaciationthataccompaniedthelastIceAge
inEurope(whichendedaround10,000BCE),itlackedthepopulationsoflargemammals
thatroamedthenorthernpartsofthecontinentandcouldsupportlargerhuntinggroups.
HumanactivityinEuropeduringtheMesolithicperiod(approximately10,000
BCEtoapproximately7,000BCEintheBalkans)displaysagreatdealofcontinuitywith
thatofearliertimes.Howeverataroundthistimehuntergatherergroupsbegantosettle
intosomewhatmorepermanenthabitations.OnterracescutintothebanksoftheDanube
RiverbetweenwhatisnowSerbiaandRomania,atasitecalledLepenskiVir,
archeologistshavediscoveredremarkablywellpreservedfoundationsofearlyshelters.
Illustration#2Theoldest,datingfromaround7000BCE,incorporatebothwoodand
stoneandwereprobablycoveredwithskins.Althoughthebuildersdidnotyetmake
potterynordidtheypossessdomesticatedcrops,thecareandefforttakeninthebuilding
processindicatethatthesesettlersalreadypossessedanappreciationofplaceand
sufficientorganizationalandtechnologicalskillstoaltertheirlandscapeinaconscious
way.Thesesamepeoplealsohadthedesireandleisuretocreatesculpturalworks,both
abstractandanthropomorphic,whicharepresumedtohavehadritualsignificanceof
somekind.
AtruerevolutioncametotheBalkansintheperiodbetween7000and6500BCE
(thebeginningofwhatiscalledtheNeolithicperiod).Threecrucialinnovationshave
beendocumentedatsitesscatteredwidelyovertheregion:sustainedcultivationofthe
land(excavationshaverevealedtracesofdomesticatedwheat,barley,peasandbeans),
firedclaypotteryforstorage,cookingandceremonialuse,andnewdomesticated

animals,particularlygoatsandsheep,whichjoinedanimalsdomesticatedsomewhat
earlierincludingcattleandpigs.Theseinnovations,crucialastheywere,donotmean
thateverythingchangedbetweentheMesolithicandNeolithicperiods.Toolscontinued
tobefashionedofflakedstone,andthenewlyagriculturalsocietiescontinuedtohunt,
fish,andgathertheforestbountythathadearlierbeentheirsolesourceofsubsistence.
GiventhesparsepopulationoftheregionintheMesolithicperiodandthefactthatthese
innovationsfirstappearedinthesouthernBalkansandspreadtowardsthenorth,itseems
likelythattheoriginalagriculturalistsconsistednotofindigenouspeoplesbutratherof
colonistswhoarrivedfromtheMiddleEastthroughAsiaMinor,wherethesesame
processeshadbeeninitiatedperhapsamillenniumearlier.Thisdoesnotnecessarily
meanthatindigenouspopulationsdisappearedcompletely,buttheweightofevidenceis
thatintheBalkanregionstheywereforthemostpartabsorbedbynewcomers.
LittleisknownabouttheinteractionsoftheNeolithicpeoplesoftheBalkans
eitherwithintheirowncommunitiesoracrosscommunities.Itisclearthatintheperiod
fromabout6000to4000BCEtheNeolithicinhabitantsoftheBalkanstendedtobuild
andrebuildtheircommunitiesonasinglesite.Theremainsofthesesites,calledtells,
canstillbeseentodayasraisedmoundsformedbythesuccessivelayeringofsimple
woodandmudhuts.Thelargestofthem,suchasKaranovoinBulgaria,arealmost40
feettallandshowevidenceofmoreorlesscontinuoushabitationforsome2000years.
Builtonopensitesnearfloodplainswherethemostfertilesoilslie,theylack
fortifications,anindicationthatorganizedwarfarewasnotyetaproblem.Presumably,
populationswerestillrelativelysparseandtherewasenoughroomforall.

Thiswasalsoaperiodofincreasingoftechnologicalchange.Evidencefrom
excavationsindicatesthatpotterywasfirstproducedinsmallquantitiesbynon
professionalpottersandusedforlimitedceremonialpurposes(theremainsofburnt
incensehavebeenfoundinsomepots,forexample).Laterinthisperiodspecialized
pottershadbeguntowork,asignthatadevisionoflaborhadbeenwovenintothefabric
oflife;potsaremoreabundant,theyarebetterandmoreconsistentlymadeandareused
forabroadervarietyofpurposes,includingcooking.Theincisedorpainteddesigns
employedonpotterywerehighlyconsistentwithinspecificgeographicareas,implying
thatgroupsofpeopleintheNeolithiclandscapecultivatedparticularpatternsthatserved
tosetthemofffromneighboringgroups.Inadditiontocreatingpotteryforstorageand
cooking,Neolithicpeoplesalsoproducedmanyclayfigurinesintheshapeofanimalsand
humans.Itislikelythatthesehadritualsignificance,probablyconnectedtoan
increasingconsciousnessofNeolithicmenandwomenoftheiruniqueplaceintheworld,
butwewillneverknowthepreciseroletheseobjectsplayedtheirspiritualworld.We
can,however,marvelatthesheerartistryexhibitedbyourdistantancestors.illustration
#3
Potterywasnottheonlymaterialusedtocreateobjectsforpurposesofritualand
decoration.Byaround5000BCEinwhatistodayBulgarialocalpopulationshad
developedtechniquesfortheminingandsmeltingofcopperandgold.Theyhadnotas
yetinventedthetechnologyneededtocreateharderalloyssuchasbronze,however,so
theobjectstheymadewerenotsufficientlysturdytoreplacestoneintoolsandweapons.
Rathertheyappeartohavebeenprimarilyornamentalorritualisticincharacter.

Forreasonsthatremainunclear,traumaticchangesoccurredthroughoutmuchof
theBalkanregionaround4000BCE.Longinhabitedsiteswereabandoned,ornamental
workinclayandmetalappearsmorerarely,andtherearesignsofageneral
depopulation.Althoughsomegrandexplanationsforthisphenomenonhavebeen
proposed,includingthetheorythatindigenouspeoples,claimedtohavebeenpeaceful
andfemaleled,sufferedinvasionatthehandsofwarlike,maledominatedtribesofIndo
Europeanspeakers(carriersoftheancestrallanguageforallbutahandfulofthemodern
Europeanlanguages),nohardevidencecanbefoundtosubstantiatethem.
Whateverthereasonsforthisrelativedarkage,however,arecoverybeganin
around3500to3000BCE,bywhichtimesignificantalterationshadoccurredinthe
lifestylesofthepeoplesinhabitingtheBalkanPeninsula,particularlyitssouthern
portions.Theywerespurredbytheintroductionofnewcrops,newtechnologies(and
perhapsnewpeoplesaswell),thatarrivedmostprobablyfromAnatolia.Themanmade
landscape,atleastinthecoastalregions,begantotakeitsmodernformwiththe
introductionofsuchcropssuchastheoliveandthegrape.Theoilderivedfromthe
formerandthewinefromthelatterhave,fromthenuntilnow,formedmainstaysofthe
dietalongthecoastsofthePeninsula.Technologiesapplicabletowararrivedtogether
withmorebucolicimports.Balkansmithslearnedtocreatemetalalloysthatcouldbe
usedinweapons,andindigenousmetalworkingtechniquesdiedout.
Settlementswerenolongerconstructedonopenfloodplainsbutratherinmore
defensiblehilltoppositions,anindicationthatwarfarehadbecomeendemic.Inthe
northernBalkans,adjacenttotheBlackSea,steppepeoplesappearedwhose

domesticationofthehorseandtheoxgavethemanewdegreeofmobility.Doubtless,
societiesbecamemorestratifiedastheybecamemorecomplex,anditisreasonableto
supposethathierarchiesofpowerwereintheprocessofbeinginstitutionalized.
Certainly,insomewhatlaterperiodswefindevidencethatwarriorgroupshadcometo
takeadominantposition.Membersofthewarriorelitewereburiedtogetherwiththeir
weaponsinindividualgravesquitedifferentlyfromthewaynonwarriorsweretreated.
Thoughthegravesusuallyholdmales,gravesoffemalewarriorshavealsobeenfound.
Fewtracesofthesocietiesdescribedaboveremainedapparentinlaterperiods.
Thetechnologiestheydevelopedwouldcontinuetoberefinedandemployed,andthe
cropsanddomesticanimalstheyintroducedremaincrucialtotheBalkaneconomiesand
cuisinestothisday.ButlaterinhabitantsofthePeninsulalostallmemoryoftheirdistant
ancestors,whosepresenceinthelandscapecouldbesensedonlyintheraisedtellsand
theoccasionalgravesitethatfarmersundoubtedlyturnedup.Itwasnotuntiltheearly
20thcenturythatconsciousattemptsweremadebyarcheologiststorecoverwhathadbeen
analmostcompletelyforgottenchapterinBalkanprehistory.
Fromabout2000BCEforward,however,weentertheagenotofprehistorybutof
history,atleastinthesouthernmostpartsofthepeninsula.Althoughagreatdealwould
laterbeforgottenordistorted,thedeedsandlivesofatleastsomemembersoftheoldest
literateBalkancivilizations(MycenaeanonthePeninsulaitselfand,evenearlier,Minoan
ontheislandsofCreteandThira),remainedinthecollectivememory,andwere
registeredintheclassicalGreekstoriesoftheMinotaur,thelostcityofAtlantis,andthe
TrojanWar,aswellasinvisiblesitesincludingtheLionGateatMycenae(completedin

around1250BC).Still,asisthecasefortheNeolithicperiod,thebulkofourknowledge
ofearlyBalkancivilizationshascomethroughmodernarcheologicalresearch,whichhas
providedawealthofdetailabouttheirmaterialandspirituallife,oftencorroborating
eventsandpracticesthathadbeendescribedinmythsandlegends.
ThefirstcivilizationintheBalkanPeninsulaaboutwhichweknowafairamount
wasthatofMycenae.Attheirheight,inthe13thcenturyBCE,theMycenaeanscontrolled
muchoftodaysGreece,especiallyalongthecoastalregionsaswellastheislands.The
remainsofMycenaeanroads,dams,andbridges,theirdistinctivetholos(beehive
shaped)tombs,andtheenormousstoneblocksoftheirpalacewalls,builtsufficiently
welltohavestoodforoverthreethousandyears,indicatethattheMycenaeanrulerswere
abletocommandlargenumbersofworkersandskilledengineers.Mycenaeancraftsmen
excelledinfinerwork,producingspectaculargoldenobjects,highqualitybronze
weaponsandtools,carvedfiguresinivory,andelegantpotteryvessels.illustration#4
TheMycenaenswerealsoexplorers,whoseboatscarriedthemaroundthelongcoastsof
theAegeanSeaandalsothroughtheBosporustotheWesternshoresoftheBlackSea.
Mycenaeancivilizationendedrelativelysuddenlyandviolentlyinaround1200BC,
thoughwhocarriedoutthisdestructionremainsunclear.
TheclassicalGreeks,whosecivilizationbegantotakeforminthe8thcentury
BCE,surmisedthattheMycenaeansweretheirdistantancestors.Theyidentifiedthe
colossalruinsoftheircitieswiththedwellingplacesofgreatheroesAchilles,
Agamemnon,OdysseuswhohadlivedinthedayswhenGodsstillwalkedtheearth,
hadusedbronzeweaponsandtoolsasopposedtothemoremodernironones,andwho

musthavehadsupernaturalhelptobuildtheirmonumentalpalaces.Butbecausethe
classicalGreekscouldnotreadtheMycenaeansLinearBscript,andbecause,despite
theirenquiringcastofmind,theydidnothavehadanyinterestinarchaeology,therewas
nodirectcommunicationbetweenthetwocivilizations.Littlewasknownaboutthe
MycenaeansuntiltheGermanarcheologist,HeinrichSchliemann,attemptingtoprove
thattheHomericstorieswerefactuallybased,begantodigatMycenaeinthemid1870s.
illustration#5Schliemannwasconvincedthatthegoldenobjectshediscoveredat
MycenaedatedfromthetimeoftheHomericheroes.Laterarcheologists,however,have
demonstratedthattheypredatetheperioddescribedinTheIlliad.Theyalsowereableto
show,bydecipheringtheLinearBalphabet,thatthesepeoplehadusedaversionof
Greek,provingthatMycenaeancivilizationwasindeedanantecedenttothatofthe
classicGreeksofthe8thto4thcenturiesBCE.
ClassicalGreekcivilizationflourishedinAtticaandthePeloponnesefromthe8th
centuryBCEandreacheditspeakwiththemarvelousculturalandpoliticalachievements
ofAthensinthe5thcenturyBCE.Buildingonearliertraditionsincludingthoseofthe
BalkanPeninsula(Mycenae)aswellasonNorthAfrica(Egypt)andtheNearEast,the
classicalGreekscreatedacivilizationthatformsthebackboneofpracticallyalloflater
Westernculture.Asopposedtotherelativelylargeandcentralizedstateofthe
Mycenaens,classicalGreecewasdividedintosmallcitystatesthatsometimesbanded
togetherinalliancesandattimesfoughtdestructivecivilwars.Formuchoftheclassical
period,themostpowerfulandinfluentialcitystatewasAthens,anditissimply
impossibletoimagineaWesternworldwithoutthelegacyofAtheniancivilization:the

philosophicalquestionsposedbySocrates,Plato,andAristotle,theGreekmythsand
Homericepicsrecordedduringtheclassicalperiod,thetragediesofAeschylus,
SophoclesandEuripedes,thecomediesofAristophanes,thearchitecturalandsculptural
monumentsoftheAcropolis,illustration#6thestatecraftandrhetoricofAthenian
democracy,andthehistoricalwritingofThucydidesandHerodotus.Forourpurposes,
perhapsthemostimportantofthesephenomenaisthelast,fortheperipateticHerodotus
leftthemostextensiveextantdescriptionsofthebarbarianpeopleswholivedtothe
north,thatis,intheBalkansproper.
ThesepeopleshadpresumablycontinuedtoliveduringtheheightofMycenaean
civilizationastheyhadformillennia.ForthoughtheMycenaeansexploredthecoasts,
theydidnotpenetrateintotheBalkanPeninsulabeyondtheirbaseinmainlandGreece.
Rather,theimportantinfluencesontheBalkansnorthofGreeceinthisperiodcame
primarilyfromthesteppestotheEastandfromthemetalworkingculturesofthe
CarpathiansandTransylvaniatothenorth.TheseBalkanculturesborrowed
metallurgicaltechnologiesdevelopedintodaysGermanyalongwithweaponsand
fightingtechniquesderivedfromthesteppepeopletotheEast.Thebronzeweaponsthat
havebeenfoundinwarriorgravesindicatetheskillandbeautyoftheworkofthe
Carpathianmasters(illustration#7Cunliffe,293).Findsofsimilarobjectsfromtodays
RomaniaandYugoslaviashowthatinthisperiod(around2000to1500BCE)the
influenceofthisculturehadspreadwellintothenorthernBalkans.
TheclassicalGreeks,unliketheMycenaeans,foundedpermanentcoloniesalong
thewesternshoresoftheBlackSeaandbegantocomeintoextensivecontactwiththe

inhabitantsoftheBalkaninterior.Bythemid7thcenturyBCE,therewereGreek
settlementsontheAegeancoastofThrace,andalongtheWesternshoresoftheBlack
SeaasfarasthemouthoftheDanube.ThesewereprimarilytradingdepotswhereGreek
luxurygoodswereexchangedforgrainandslaves,buttheyhadasignificantinfluenceon
thelifeofthepeoplesoftheinterioroftheEasternBalkansandBlackSeasteppes,whose
economycametobeatleastpartiallydependentontradewiththeGreeks.Alreadyby
the7thcenturyBCE,someinhabitantsoftheBlackSeasteppeswereapparentlyengaged
incommercialagriculture,supplyinggraintoAthensinexchangeforGreekproduced
luxurygoods.
InhisHistory(writteninthemid5thcenturyBCE),Herodotusdescribedthe
variousbarbariantribesthatlivedinandaroundtheBalkans,anditisfromhis
descriptionsthatalmostallofoureyewitnessknowledgeoftheseilliteratepeoples
derives.HisprimaryinterestsweretheScythians,thecatchallnametheGreeksgaveto
thenomadicandseminomadicinhabitantsofthesteppestothenorthoftheBlackSea,
andtheThracians,whoseterritorystretchedfromtheAegeanSeaintodaysnorthern
GreecetotheBlackSeacoastoftodaysBulgaria.(Sidebar1,i)FromHerodotuss
account,aswellasfromthephysicalevidenceofwarriorgravesthataresimilaracrossa
widearcofterritoryfromThracetotheBlackSeasteppes,archeologistssuspectthatthe
warrioreliteofthesesocietiesmayhavebeenofdifferentethnicstockthantheoriginal
ThraciansorScythians.
TheThraciansremainedanindependentgrouponthefringesofGreekcivilization
throughtheclassicalperiod,whichendedafterthedisastrouscivilwarsofthelate5thand

early4thcenturyBCE.TheywouldbefullyHellenizedbytheMacedonians,whoserise
toprominencebeganin360BCEwhenPhilipbecamekingafterthedeathofhisolder
brother(killedinbattlewiththeIllyrianswhoborderedMacedoniaonthenorth).Philip
transformedMacedoniafromaprovincialkingdomatthefringesoftheGreekworldto
itsundisputedleader.Asopposedtothecitystatesoftheclassicalperiod,Macedonia
wasacentralizedstateunderakingwhowasthepolitical,religious,andmilitaryleader.
Indeed,whenhewasassassinatedin336BC,KingPhilipwaspresidingoveramarriage
ceremonyatwhichhisownstatuewastobeparadedalongwiththatofthe12major
Greekgods.Untilrecently,littlewasknownabouttheachievementsofMacedonian
civilization,whichwasalwaysconsideredderivativeofclassicalGreece.Excavationsin
the1970snearthetownofVerginainGreekMacedonia,however,yieldedspectacular
finds,includingaroyaltombidentifiedashavingbelongedtoPhiliphimself.These
excavationsindicatethatfarfromsemibarbarianwarriors,theMacedonianswerefitting
heirstotheirGreekforebears,producingexceptionalfrescoesandspectaculargolden
objects.illustration#8
MacedoniassignificanceincreasedduringtheshortbutgloriousreignofPhilips
sonAlexander,whosefirstachievementsincludedvictoriouscampaignsintheBalkans,
whichhisarmiestraversedallthewaytotheDanube.ControloftheBalkans,however,
wasoflittleimporttoAlexander,whofocusedondreamsofconquestinAsia.By334
BCEhewasreadytosetoffonthestringofbrutalcampaignsthatwouldgivehimthe
titletheGreatandwhoseultimateresultwouldbetospreadHellenisticcivilization
overmuchoftheNearEast.AfterAlexandersdeathin323BChiskingdom

disintegrated,andMacedoniaproperlostitscentralpositioninGreece,particularlyafter
itsterritorieswereplunderedbymaraudingCeltsintheearly3rdcenturyBCE.
Inadditiontomemoriesoftheirmilitaryexploits,theMacedoniansalso
bequeathedtotheBalkansaterritorialdisputethatcontinuestothisday.The
MacedoniansinPhilipandAlexanderstimeclearlyspokeGreek.However,itisnot
clearwhethertheoriginalMacedonians,whomtheAtheniansofHerodotussdaystill
regardedassemibarbarians,wereGreekbyorigin.Morelikely,theyrepresentedan
amalgamationofsomeothergroupwithGreekcolonistswhohadmovedtotheareain
earlyclassicaltimes.Bethatasitmay,inmoderntimesGreekpoliticianswouldusethe
GreekMacedonianhistoricalconnectiontojustifyGreekclaimstotheentireterritory
thatcouldbecalledMacedonia,includinglandsthattodaylieinBulgariaandthe
RepublicofMacedonia.Whenitbecameindependentin1991,theRepublicof
MacedoniaattemptedtocreateitsownconnectionwiththegloriousMacedonianpast,
usingtherisingsunthatwasthesymbolofancientMacedoniaasitsnationalemblem.
illustration#9Duringtheensuingdiplomaticdispute,Greecesubjectedthelandlocked,
fledglingcountrytoablockade,andtriedtopreventitfromusingofthename
Macedonia,insistingthatitbecalledTheFormerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia
(FYROM)inofficialinternationalcontexts.
TheCeltswerenottheonlygroupofbarbarianstotakeadvantageofthepower
vacuumthatfollowedtheweakeningoftheMacedoniankingdomafterAlexanders
death.PerhapsthemostimportantoftheseweretheIllyrians.UnliketheThracians,the
Illyrians,thoughdefeatedbyPhilipandAlexander,wereneverassimilatedtoGreek

civilization.TheycontinuedtolivetothenorthofMacedonia,inwhatistodayAlbania,
aswellas,perhaps,DalmatiaandBosnia.AswiththeMacedonians,theIllyrianshave
leftacontroversiallegacyintheBalkans.Thoseancientwriterswhodiscussedthe
Illyriansdidnotdifferentiateamongthevarioustribeswholivedintheregiontheycalled
Illyria.Asaresult,itisimpossibletoknowwhetherallthepeopledescribedasIllyrian
inclassicalsourceswereinfactrelatedtoeachotherandifsohow.Wheretheyonce
livedwouldbeimmaterialwereitnotforthefactthat20thcenturyAlbanianhistorians
haveattemptedtoproveadirectlineofdescentbetweentheIllyriansandtodays
Albanians.Iftrue,thiswouldmaketheAlbanians,alongwiththeGreeks,theoldestof
theindigenousBalkanpeoplestosurvivetothepresentday,and,moreimportant,itcould
allowtodaysAlbanianstostakehistoricclaimstoareasoftheBalkanswhere,inthe
modernperiod,Albanianpresencehasbeenlimited.Giventhefrequencywithwhich
historicalclaimstoterritoryhavebeenusedforthepurposesofterritorialexpansionin
theregion,suchassertionsarepotentiallyexplosive.Notsurprisingly,historiansand
archeologistsfromneighboringcountriesremainskepticalofAlbanianclaims,conceding
thatwhilesomeoftheIllyrianswereprobablyancestorsoftodaysAlbanians,thiscannot
besaidforallthepeopleswhowereoncecalledIllyrians.
Inanycase,therewasunquestionablyanIllyriankingdomcenterednearLake
ShkoderintodaysAlbaniainthe3rdand2ndcenturyBCE.Likemanyothertribalbased
groupsthatinhabitedterritoriesadjacenttothoseofricherandmorestableBalkan
societies,theIllyrianslivedfromacombinationofsubsistenceagricultureandpiracy.
TheywereaconstantthorninthesideoftheMacedoniansaswellasthestateofEpiros

inWesternGreece,buttheyalsoservedasalliesandmercenariesforthosekingdoms
whenthepricewasright.TheIllyrianscontinuedtocauseproblemsfortheexpanding
RomanRepublic,whichbecametheleadingpowerintheregionbysecondhalfofthe3rd
centuryBCE.
AccordingtothehistorianPolybius,inaround230BCEtheRomanSenatesent
emissariestoQueenTeuta,theIllyrianleader,toforcehertoreininIllyrianpirateswho
wereattackingRomanshippingintheSouthernAdriatic.Teutarefusedtointervene,
whichgavetheRomansapretexttoinvadeIllyriain229BCE.(Sidebar1,ii)The
RomansandIllyrianswouldskirmishmanytimesoverthesucceedingdecades,before
RomeachievedfinalvictoryovertheIllyriansin167BCE.Aswascustomary,the
Romansdividedthebootyoftheconquest(saidtohaveincluded27poundsofgoldand
19ofsilveraswellas220Illyrianpiratevessels)amongtheirsoldiers,allies,andthe
treasury.Still,foratleasthenext150years,tribestheRomanscalledIllyrianscontinued
toliveasemiindependentexistenceintheDalmatianandHerzegovinianmountains.
EvenaftertheirfinalincorporationintotheRomanEmpire,theirnamelivedoninthe
RomanprovinceofIllyricum,anamethatwouldberevivedbyNapoleonwhenhe
conqueredtheregionin1806.
AsopposedtotheGreeks,whoconfinedtheirsettlementstothecoasts,the
RomanscolonizedthecoastandtheinterioroftheBalkans.Asaresulttheirpresence
wasfeltalmosteverywhereonthePeninsulaandremainsvisibletoday.Amongthecities
theyfoundedorenormouslyexpandedwereEmona(Ljubljana),Singidunum(Belgrade),
Serdica(Sofia)Philipopolis(Plovdiv),Salonae(Split),Dyrrhachium(Durrs).Roman

remains,someinanexcellentstateofpreservation,canbeseenintheseandmanyother
partsoftheBalkans,providingcontemporaryinhabitantsoftheregionwithaclearvisual
linktotheRomanpast.illustration#10ThegreatestRomanengineeringfeatinthe
regionwastheconstructionofthe520milelongViaEgnatia,thefirstmajorroadthey
builtoutsidetheItalianpeninsula,whichlinkedDyrrhachiumintodaysAlbaniawith
Byzantium(Istanbul),latertobecomethecapitaloftheEasternRomanEmpire.Along
withamorenortherlyroutethatfollowedrivervalleysfromEmonathroughSingidunum,
Serdica,Philipopolis,andAdrianople(Edirne),theseroadshaveremainedthemainlines
oflandcommunicationthroughtheBalkans.Intheearly21stcentury,aEuropeanUnion
projecttoconnectIstanbultotheAlbaniancoastbymodernhighwayalongtherouteof
theoldEgnatianWayservesasatestamenttothewisdomofRomanengineers.
TheRomansalsocolonizedtheBalkansextensively.Althoughmostoftheregion
wouldloseitsRomancharacterinthewakeofthebarbarianinvasionsthatbeganinthe
4thcenturyCEandculminatedwitharrivaloftheSlavsinthe6thand7thcenturiesCE,
somecoastalcitiesoftheAdriatic(Dubrovnik,Split,Zadar)stillcontainedLatin
speakingpopulationsuntiltheRenaissance.Curiously,theRomanpresencelasted
longestinwhathadbeenamarginalpartoftheEmpire:theDacianprovinces,whichafter
TrajansvictoryovertheDaciansin106CEbecameRomesfarthestflungterritoryto
thenortheast.TheRomanskilledoffthelocalnobility,exiledorenslavedmuchofthe
nativepopulation,andencouragedcolonizationoftheprovincebysettlersfromother
partsoftheempire.illustration#11AlthoughbarbarianinvasionsforcedtheRomansto
pullbacktotheDanubesome150yearslater,thecolonists,whopresumablymingledin

timewiththeremainingDacianpopulation,remainedbehindtobecometheancestorsof
todaysRomaniansaswellas,perhaps,theancestorsoftheVlachs,nomadicherderswho
speakaLatindialectandcanstillbefoundsprinkledthroughouttheBalkans.
AlthoughtheBalkanPeninsulawasneveracentralfocusofRomanpolicy,some
keyeventsoftheearlyImperialperiodtookplacethere.ItwasalongtheEgnatianWay
thatthearmiesofJuliusCaesarandPompeimaneuveredin48BCE,beforefightingtheir
decisiveengagementinThessaly.ThebattleofPhilipi,foughtbetweenCaesarsheirs
OctavianandMarcAntonyandhisassassinBrutusalsotookplaceintheBalkans.
EmperorDiocletian,whoseeconomic,military,andadministrativereformsattheendof
the3rdcenturyCEtransformedtheEmpire(underDiocletianforthefirsttime,theEmpire
wasdividedintoaWesternandEasternhalf,withmostoftheBalkansinthelatter),was
borninIllyria,anditwastoIllyriathatheretiredin305.InSplithebuildhimselfan
enormouspalacethatisstillinusetoday,anamazingexampleofthewaysinwhichlocal
populationshavecontinuedtoemploythetraditionsbequeathedthembytheRomans.
Illustration#12AlsobornintheBalkanswastheEmperorConstantine,thoughhisriseto
powerbeganinBritain.InaseriesofmilitarycampaignsbeginningwiththeBattleat
MilvianBridgenearRome(312CE)andculminatingwithhisvictoryatChrysopolisin
AsiaMinor(324CE),ConstantinereunitedtheEmpire.Inthecourseofthesecampaigns
healsobecameaChristian,thoughthereismuchevidencethathisChristianitywasrather
unorthodox,mixingthestillnotfullyformeddoctrinesoftheChurchwithapagancult
devotedtothesungod.Nevertheless,heencouragedthechurch,donatedenormoussums
foritsexpansion,anditwasasaChristianthathetookupresidenceinhisnewlyfounded

capitalConstantinople,whichwasformallydedicatedin330CE.Builtonthesiteofan
olderGreeksettlementcalledByzantion(whichhadbeencolonizedasearlyasthemid7th
centuryBCE)thecityislocatedinasupremelystrategicpositionathwartthelandandsea
routesconnectingEuropeandAsia.illustration
Constantinesdecisiontolocatetheseatofhispowerinthecityheconstructed
wastohaveamomentousimpactontheRomanworld.Itsignifiedaturningawayfrom
theWest,fromLatinandpaganRome(whichrapidlydeclinedintopolitical
insignificanceafterbarbarianssackeditrepeatedlyinthe5thcentury),towardtheGreek
andChristianEast.Thecityitselfexpandedrapidlyandhadsoonoutgrownthewalls
Constantinehadlaidout.UndertheEmperorTheodosiusintheearly5thcentury,massive
wallswereconstructedtoprotectthecityfromattacksfromtheNorth.Theywouldserve
theirpurposeforoveronethousandyears.BythereignofJustinian,whichbeganin527,
ConstantinoplewasthelargestcityinEurope,withapopulationapproachinghalfa
million.ItwasatthisperiodthatmanyofthemostfamousearlyByzantinemonuments
werebuilt,includingtheChurchofHolyWisdom(HagiaSophia(illustration#14and
sidebar1,iii),andtheundergroundcisternmeanttoallowforthestorageofsufficient
watertoseethecitythroughalongsiege.
ThecivilizationcenteredinConstantinoplewasacuriousamalgamofoldand
new.Thiscanbeappreciatedfirstofallinthenamesthathavebeenusedtodescribeit.
ThoughtheempireisconventionallycalledtheByzantine,itsinhabitantsneverusedthe
term,callingthemselvesinsteadRhomaioi(Romans)andconsideringthemselvesthe
heirsofthemoribundWesterncity.Theywere,however,thoroughlyHellenizedheirs,

downtotheiruseofGreek,whichreplacedLatinasthemainlanguageoftheempireby
themid6thcentury.Thoughtheempirewouldsufferupsanddowns,includingtimes
whenpracticallyallofitsterritorieswerelostanditappearedthatthecapitalitselfwas
certaintobedestroyed,itmanagedtoretainitsintegrityuntiltheimperialcitywas
capturedbyWestEuropeancrusadersin1204.mapAfterthiscatastropheitwasableto
rebound,thoughneverfullyrecover,beforeitsfinaldestructionbytheOttomansin1453.
Theempiresstrengthderivedfromitsuniqueblendofsecularandreligious
institutionalpower.ItwasfirstandforemostaChristianstate,whosebasicdoctrines
weredefinedbythechurchfathers,thechurchcouncils,andthedecisionsofthevarious
Byzantineemperors.Althoughduringtheearlycenturiesthechurchwasrackedby
heresiesanddoctrinaldisagreements,afterthefinalvictoryofthoseinfavoroficon
worshipin843,thedoctrineoftheEasternOrthodoxChurchwasessentiallyfixed.By
comparisontoCatholicism(nottomentionlaterProtestantism),Orthodoxywasastatic
religion,whichplacedgreatstockinliturgyandritualandtendedtobelessconcerned
withindividualachievements.IntheByzantineschemeofthings,theemperor,chosenby
God,wasmorepowerfulthananyWesternruler.Itwastheemperor,notthepatriarch
(thetitlegiventothespiritualleaderofeachbranchoftheOrthodoxchurch),who
presidedoverchurchcouncilsandexpoundeddogmaticpronouncements.Thiswastrue
evenbeforeChristianitybecamethestatereligion(whichoccurredinaround380),for
ConstantinehimselfsummonedandpresidedoverthefirstchurchcouncilatNicaeain
325.WhileCatholicpopescouldmakeeventhemostpowerfulCatholickingsbendto
theirwillattimes,theByzantinepatriarchwasappointedbytheemperorandcouldbe

dismissedbyhim.Whenone11thcenturypatriarchtriedtochallengethisarrangementhe
wasarrested,beaten,andthrownintoprisonwherehediedbeforeatrialcouldoccur.
AlthoughmuchdidchangeandevolveinByzantinesocietyinthecourseofits
millenniumlongexistence,oneofthegreatillusionspropoundedbythiscivilizationwas
thatchangewasunnecessaryandevenimpossible.Harmony,order,precedent,symmetry
andstasisweresupremevalues,ascanbeappreciatedintheclassiclinesofabuilding
likeHagiaSophia,thebeautifullypreservedmosaicsinRavenna(illustration#15),the
incantatorymelodiesofByzantinechurchmusic,ortheadvicegiventheemperorbyan
11thcenturycourtier(sidebar1,iv).Orderwaspreservednotmerelybyacomplexseries
ofsecularandreligiousrituals,butalsothroughtheeffortsofanenormousbureaucracy.
AByzantinehandbookdescribingImperialprotocolfromtheendofthe9thcentury
describesthepositionsandrolesofmorethan500officialswhoweretoattendformal
receptionsinthepalace.Ifoneaddstheadministrativepersonnelinprovincialcities,
theremusthavebeenthousandsofpeopleontheImperialpayroll.Thesemenwere
generallyhighlyeducated,bothintheologyandintheGreekclassics.Indeed,muchof
thelegacyofclassicalGreecewaspreservedthroughtheByzantineeducationalsystem.
ImperialbureaucratsfrequentlyviedwiththeEmpiresmilitaryleaders,whowerebased
primarilyinoutlyingterritorieswheretheyhadextensivecivilandmilitarycontrol.At
theheightofByzantinepower,fromthe9thtothe11thcenturies,theirrelationswere
generallyharmonious,butinlaterperiodslocallordsbegantotakeanincreasingly
independentlineleadingtoagradualweakeningoftheempire.Bothbureaucratsand

militarymenweresupportedbythelaboroffarmers,whomadeupthebulkofthe
population.
AlthoughlittleisknownaboutagriculturalpracticesintheByzantineEmpire
(onlyone6thcenturyagriculturaltreatisesurvives),theyhadapparentlychangedlittle
fromtheclassicalperiod.Farmersworkedprimarilyontheirownsmallplots,producing
sufficientfoodtosupporttheirfamiliesandtopayavarietyoftaxes(illustration15.5).A
considerablenumberofpeasantsworkedonlandbelongingtomonasteries,andinlater
periodsmanyworkedontheextensiveestatesofprovinciallords.Inthecities,craft
industrieswereregulatedbyguilds,includingorganizationsforbutchers,fishmongers,
bakers,producersofsilkgoods,jewelry,perfumes,andsoforth.Notsurprisinglyinsuch
anorderlystate,priceswerestrictlycontrolled.
AlthoughagoodportionoftheBalkanPeninsulawouldbelostduringvarious
ebbsofByzantinepower,theImperialCityanditsculturewouldneverthelessexerta
crucialinfluenceondevelopmentsintheBalkansbetweenthe7thcentury,whenthe
SlavicinvasionsdestroyedalmostallvestigesofRomanurbanlifeinthecentraland
northernBalkans,andthe13thcentury,bywhichtimealloftheSlavicinvadershad
convertedtoChristianity,manytotheOrthodoxritualoftheGreeks.