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Soap is a salt that is formed from the reaction between an alkali and a fatty acid, RCOOH
source:http://pernille.typepad.com
-sodium palmitate
-sodium stearate
-sodium laurate
-sodium oleate
Stage 1
The two parts of the oil or fat (ester) molecules are separated by heating the oil
with alkaline solution through the hydrolysis process.
In this process, the oil or fat (ester) molecule is broken up into fatty acid and
glycerol by water in the presence of alkali which acts as a catalyst.
Example:
Stage 2
The fatty acid that is released in Stage 1 reacts with alkali to form sodium salt
fatty acid which is soap
Example:
What is detergent?
Is a salt that is produced from the reaction between an alkali and a sulphonic acid.
Detergent is also the sodium salt of sulphonic acid. Examples:-sodium alkyl
-sodium dodecyl sulphate ( sodium lauryl sulphate)
-Sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared through a neutralisation reaction between an alkyl sulphonic
acid with a sodium hydroxide solution.
Soap molecules can reduce the surface tension of water to allow it to wet a material's
surface better.
The soap molecule dissolves in water and reduces the surface tension of water. Water
wets the dirty surface.
The hydrophylic region dissolves in water.
The hydrophobic region dissolves in dirt such as grease.
The tail region emulsifies and breaks up the grease into small drops.
When shaken, the water molecules will attract the soap ions and cause the grease to
detach from the surface of the material.
The soap bubbles to help float the grease emulsion in the water. When rinsed, the
grease will be removed with the water.
My Soap Survey...
1.Shokubutsu
Comments: Uses Potassium Laureate, and Streareth as its soap agent. Also uses orange
peel oil Tetrasodium EDTA as fragrance.
2.Detol
References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
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Tuesday, December 13, 2011
FoodAdditives
The Purpose of Food Additives
Oriental Rota Prawn Crackers: Contains artificial colouring and MSG as flavour enhancer.
References
http://greenanswers.com/q/66107/food-agriculture/beverage/how-do-additives-hurt-environment
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
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Medicine
Traditional Medicine
Source: usually comes from plants (herbs) or animals.
Traditional medicine
Modern Medicine
small amount of the product on the inside of the elbow on one arm only. Wait a
few days. If the area remains clear, proceed with using the herbal product.
Sleepiness
Everyone's body is different, and some people are more sensitive to herbs than
other people. Herbs used to treat anxiety, depression and insomnia may cause
excessive daytime sleepiness in certain individuals. These herbs include
chamomile, valerian and kava kava, with valerian and kava being the most
likely culprits. Avoid driving or using machinery until you're sure of the effects
of the herb.
Drug Interactions
Drug interactions are serious side effects of herbal medicine. Many commonly
used medications interact with herbs. Herbs may amplify the effect of the
medication, as in the case of sedatives, anesthetics, and blood thinners.
Others may block the drug from working. This can lead to dangerous
consequences.
Interaction with General Anesthesia
One of the most common side effects of herbal medicine is its interaction with
pharmaceutical drugs. Of particular danger is the interaction between herbs
and anesthetics. Many people undergo general anesthesia for outpatient
procedures and diagnostic tests as well as major surgical procedures. Certain
herbs, such as kava kava and valerian, may magnify the effect of sedatives and
general anesthetics.
Patients must tell their anesthesiologist about all herbs, supplements,
vitamins, pharmaceutical medications and alternative remedies they are taking
to avoid dangerous drug interactions. TheAmerican Society of
Anesthesiologists advises patients not to take herbal remedies two weeks
prior to receiving any anesthesia because so many herbs can interact with
anesthetics as well as cause other complications during surgical procedures.
Many doctors also advise against taking dietary supplementsprior to surgery
for the same reason.
Liver Inflammation
Echinacea, one of the most popular herbs used to boost the immune system
and battle colds, may also cause liver inflammation when it interacts with
certain pharmaceutical compounds. Echinacea may also prevent certain
medications used to treat lupus and other immune-system disorders from
working.
Modern
1. The inability to truly cure, which results in 40% of the American population suffering from a serious
chronic disorder.
2. Adverse side effects, which result in 180,000 deaths per year.
Examples
High blood pressure (hypertension). Modern medicine uses various drugs to drop the blood
pressure - without considering why the body had elevated it in the first place.
Angina - Modern medicine uses drugs to "cover-up" the symptoms of angina and other
forms of heart diease, without telling you you can actually reverse the damage that is causing it!
High Cholesterol - modern medicine uses drugs to artifically force lower cholesterol levels,
without thinking about WHY the body raised them in the first place (clue: it is a defensive
mechanism!)
Depression - modern medicine dopes adults and (increasingly) kids with toxic drugs to
cover up pyschiatric / psychological issues that are caused by malnutrition, plain and simple.
(specifically, a chronic lack of omega-3 fatty acids)
DRUG ABUSE
Usual Drugs Abused
Tobacco
Alcohol
Heroin
Marijuana
References
http://www.mum.edu/physiology/hazards.html
http://www.natural-health-information-centre.com/modern-medicine.html
http://herbs.lovetoknow.com/Side_Effects_of_Herbal_Medicine
http://drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
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Saturday, September 3, 2011
Ammonia
Uses
Haber Process
Ammonia is commercially produced by the Haber Process. This is a flow chart to show the stages in
the manufacture of ammonia, starting with the raw materials.
Ammonium Fertilisers
examples of ammonium fertilisers:
Ammonium phosphate
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
Fertiliser
Ammonium Sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4
Ammonium Nitrate,
NH4NO3
Molar mass
(14+(1)4)2+32+(16)4=132
14+(1)4+14+(16)3=80
Percentage of
nitrogen in 1 mol
You should calculate the percentage of nitrogen content in each fertiliser and compare which one has
higher percentage of nitrogen content. You'll know which fertiliser from the list is more effective.
From this example, ammonium nitrate is more effective.
PreparationofAmmoniumNitrate
Aim:Toprepareammoniumnitrate
Material:1moldm3ammoniasolution,NH3
Material : 1 mol dm-3 ammonia solution, NH3(aq), 1 mol dm-3 nitric acid, NO3, red litmus paper.
Apparatus : 250 cm3 beaker, glass rod, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, wire gauze, filter funnel, filter
paper, measuring cylinder, dropper, asbestos tile.
Procedure :
1. Measure 50 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 nitric acid, HNO3, with a measuring cylinder and pour into a 250 cm3 beaker.
2. Add 1 mol dm-3 ammonia solution, NH3 (aq), drop by drop from a dropper into the nitric acid, HNO3, while
stirring until an excess amount is used (when ammonia is smelt).
3. Pour the mixture into an evaporating dish.
4. Boil the mixture until it evaporates to form a saturated solution.
5. Cool the saturated solution to room temperature until crystal salts form.
6. Filter and rinse the crystals with a little cold distilled water.
7. Dry the salt crystals on a filter paper.
Analysis : Neutralisation occurs between nitric acid, HNO3, and ammonia solution, NH3(aq), and can
be represented by the chemical equation below:
2NH3(aq) + HNO3 NH4NO3
Conclusion : Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, salt can be prepared from the reaction between nitric acid,
HNO3, and ammonia solution, NH3(aq).
Discussion :
1. The mixture formed in the beaker can be tested from time to time with red litmus paper. The adding of ammonia
solution, NH3(aq), drops are stopped when the red litmus paper turns blue.
2. The chemical equation of the reaction between ammonia aqueous solution and nitric acid, HNO3, can be written
as below:
HNO3(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) NH4NO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
However, only about 2% of the dissolved ammonia forms ammonium and hydroxide ions.
References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
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SulphuricAcid
Its Uses
Contact Process
Sulphuric Acid is manufactured through the contact process. This is a flow chart to show the steps in
the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process, starting from the raw materials until you
finally get the sulphuric acid.
Sulphur Dioxide
This is one of the by-products of the Contact Process. It causes environment pollution. But before
that, let us see the main sources of sulphur dioxide.
Now that we know the sources of sulphur dioxide, let us see the effects of sulphur dioxide towards
human health.
Skin irritation
Eye irritation
may cause Cancers such as lung cancer, stomach cancer or brain tumours
Acid Rain
AcidrainhasapHbelow5.6duemainlytothereactionofwatervapourwithsulfurdioxideandtheoxidesof
nitrogen.
Sulfurdioxidereactswithwatertoformsulfurousacid(H2SO3):
SO2(g)+H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq)
Sulfurdioxide(SO2)canbeoxidisedgraduallytosulfurtrioxide(SO3):
2SO2(g)+O2(g)>2SO3(g)
Sulfurtrioxide(SO3)reactswithwatertoformsulfuricacid(H2SO4):
SO3(g)+H2O(l)>H2SO4(aq)
source: http://www.nzdl.org
EffectsofAcidRain
References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-http://www.nzdl.org
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Wednesday, June 1, 2011
CompositeMaterials
Definition
Composite materials are produced from the combination of two or more different compounds such as
alloys, metals, glass, polymers and ceramic.
Uses
Composite
Materials
Reinforcement
Concrete
Superconductor
Fibre Glass
Fibre Optics
Composition
Properties
Uses
Cement
Gravel
Sand
Water
Iron or Steel
Niobium
Germanium
Strong
High textile
strength
Cheap
- Construction
materials
Zero resistance
Functions only
under extremely
low temperatures
Silica
Sodium carbonate
Calcium
carbonate
Glass
Copper
Aluminium
Good insulator
of heat and
electricity
- Transportation
Telecommunication
s
- Astronomy
industry
- Medical field
- Protective apparel
for astronauts and
firefighters
Photochromic
Glass
Molten silica
Silver cloride
Ceramic Glass
Produced by
exposing glass that
contains certain
amounts of metal
Enables
information to be
transmitted in light
form at light speed
Dark in colour
when exposed to
light and bright
when in the dark
- Electrical cables
- observe internal
organs without
surgery
- Optical lenses
- Glass windows
- Cooking materials
- Rocket heads
Plastic
strengthened with
glass fibres
to ultraviolet rays
and heating it at
high temperatures
Plastic
Glass
Very strong
Light
Easily formed
Withstands
corrosion
- Helmets
- Body of cars and
aeroplanes
- rods
Fibre Glass
Glass fibreisformedwhenthinstrandsofsilicabasedorotherformulationglassisextrudedintofibreswith
smalldiameterssuitablefortextileprocessing.
Glassisunlikeotherpolymersinthatithaslittlecrystallinestructureandcanbeconsideredasubstance
frozeninitsamorphousstage.Thepropertiesofthestructureofglassinitssoftenedstageareverymuchlikeits
propertieswhenspunintofibre.
AdvantagesofPhotochromicGlassasSpectacles
ThemainadvantageisthattheywilldarkenintoasunglasswhenexposedtoU.V.light,thusobviatingtheneed
tocarryaseparatepairofsunglassesforprotectionagainstharmfulU.V.raysfromthesun.
Secondly,theyprovideabettervisualhealththroughUVprotectionthantraditionalprescriptionsunglasses.