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[f(t)] F(s)
f(t).e
0
A. Fungsi Step
F(t) = 0 untuk t < 0
= A untuk t > 0
A
0
A
F(s) A.e st .dt e st |
0
s
0
=
A
(0 1)
s
A
s
B. Fungsi Pulse
F(t) = 0 untuk t < 0 & t >T
= A untuk 0 t T
A
0
st
.dt
A.e st .dt
0
A
.e st | T
0
s
A
(e st 1)
s
A
(1 e st )
s
Fungsi Unit Step : f(t) = 1 (t) F(s) = 1/s
C. Fungsi Impulse
f(t)
A
lim
to 0 to
=0
F(s)
st
A
o)
lim
(1 e
t
s
t 0
0
d
[A(1 e sto )]
lim dto
d
to 0
(tos)
dto
A
s
s
=A
Fungsi Unit-Impulse : f(t) = (t)
F(s) = 1
D. Fungsi Ramp
A t.e- st .dt
0
e st A.e st
A.t.
|
dt
s 0 0 s
A st
.dt
e
s 0
A
s2
E. Fungsi Eksponensiil
F(t) = o untuk t < 0
= A e t untuk t 0
F(s)
A.e t .e st .dt
0
( s)t
Ae
.dt
0
A (s )t
e
|
0
s
A
(0 1)
s
A
F. Fungsi Sinus
f(t) = A sin t
F(s) A.sin.si st .dt
0
e jt e jt
A.
.e st dt
2j
0
A jt st
jt st
e
.e
)dt
(e .e
2j 0
A (j s)t
(j s)t
e
)dt
(e
2j 0
A 1
1
(j s)t
(j s)t
[
e
e
]
0
2j j s
j s
A 1
1
[
]
2j s j s j
A s j s j
.
2j
s 2 2
A. 2
s 2
G. Fungsi Cosinus
f(t) = A cos t
F(s) = A.
s
s 2
2
: waktu yang diperlukan untuk mencapai setengah dari nilai akhir pada waktu pertama
kali
: waktu yang diperlukan untuk naik dari 10 90%, 5 55%, atau 0 100% dari nilai
akhirnya.
Untuk sistem underdamped : 0 100%
Untuk sistem overdamped : 10 90%
Maximum overshoot (Mp,%) : nilai puncak (peak) maksimum dari kurva respons yang diukur dari satu.
Maximum per cent overshoot = c(tp) c(~)
c(~)
Settling time
x 100%
: waktu yang diperlukan untuk mencapai dan tetap di dalam sebuah range nilai akhir
yang ditetapkan oleh persentase absolut dari nilai akhir (biasanya 5% atau 2%).
- cukup cepat
c(t) = 1 e -n t( cosdt +
1 2
t = tr c(tr) = 1, maka:
c(tr) = 1 e -n tr( cosdtr +
sin d tr)
1 2
karena e -n tr 0 maka :
cos d tr +
sin d tr = 0
1 2
atau
tan d tr = -
1 2
DEFINISI SUDUT :
atau
tan d tr
Jadi,
tr =
1
tan 1 ( d )
d
d
= _
POLE-POLE KOMPLEKS :
B.
dc
e-n tp = 0
1-
dt t = tp
sin d tp = 0
d tp = 0, , 2, 3,
d tp =
tp =
d
C.
sin )
1 2
-( / d)
e-(/
1-2 )
SETTLING TIME :
e-nt
c(t) = 1 1-
Kurva-kurva 1 ( e-nt /
(t 0)
1 - 2 ) :
1
n
n
ts = 3T = 3 =
3
n
untuk nilai lebih besar, ts meningkat hampir linier; dan nilai min = 0,76 ( un-tuk 2%)
atau min = 0,68 (untuk 5%)
Nilai biasanya ditentukan dari syarat maksimum overshoot yang diijinkan. Sedangkan
settling time (ts) ditentukan terutama oleh undamped natural frequency (n).
Hal ini berarti, durasi periode transient dapat tanpa mengubah overshoot maksi-mum, yaitu
dengan mengatur n.
Untuk mendapatkan respons yang cepat : n harus besar. Untuk membatasi overshoot
maksimum (Mp) dan membuat ts kecil : seharusnya tidak terlalu kecil.
Faktor redaman di antara 0,4 dan 0,8, maka overshoot maksimum (%) untuk step respons
adalah di antara 25% dan 2,5%.
Kurva Mp versus :
2
n
s(s2 )
n
Contoh :
R(s)
E(s)
C(s)
1 2
5 1 (0,6)2
=4
= . n = 0,6 . 5 = 3
= tan -1
= tan-1 (4 / 3)
= 0,93 rad
tr =
3,14 0,93
4
= 0,55 sec
Peak Time (tp) =
3,14
= 4 0,785 sec
d
(/ )
d
(3/4)x3,14
= 0,095
= 0,095 x 100%
= 95 %
Setting time (Ts) =
4 4
1,33 sec (u/ kriteria 2%)
3
3 3
1 sec (untuk kriteria 5%)
3
The water level is not too high; or it will run to waste via the overflow.
The water level is not too low; or it will not cover the bottom of the tank.
The outcome of this is that the water runs out of the tank at a rate within a required range. If the water runs out at too
high or too low a rate, the process it is feeding cannot operate properly.
At an initial stage, the outlet valve in the discharge pipe is fixed at a certain position.
The operator has marked three lines on the side of the tank to enable him to manipulate the water supply via the inlet
valve. The 3 levels represent:
1.
2.
The lowest allowable water level to ensure the bottom of the tank is covered.
The highest allowable water level to ensure there is no discharge through the overflow.
3.
4.
By controlling the flow of water into the tank, the level of water in the tank is altered. The change in water
level is known as the Controlled Variable.
5.
6.
The level of water trying to be maintained on the visual indicator is known as the Set Value (also known as
the Set Point).
7.
The water level can be maintained at any point between 1 and 2 on the visual indicator and still meet the
control parameters such that the bottom of the tank is covered and there is no overflow. Any value within this
range is known as the Desired Value.
8.
Assume the level is strictly maintained at any point between 1 and 2. This is the water level at steady state
conditions, referred to as the Control Value or Actual Value.
Note: With reference to (7) and (8) above, the ideal level of water to be maintained was at point 3. But if the
actual level is at any point between 1 and 2, then that is still satisfactory. The difference between the Set
Point and the Actual Value is known as Deviation.
9.
If the inlet valve is closed to a new position, the water level will drop and the deviation will change. A
sustained deviation is known as Offset.
It is worth repeating these points in a slightly different way to reinforce Example 5.1.2:
In simple terms the operator's aim in Example 5.1.1 is to hold the water within the tank at a pre-defined level.
Level 3 can be considered to be his target or Set Point.
The operator physically manipulates the level by adjusting the inlet valve (the control device). Within this
operation it is necessary to take the operator's competence and concentration into account. Because of this, it is
unlikely that the water level will be exactly at Level 3 at all times. Generally, it will be at a point above or below
Level 3. The position or level at any particular moment is termed the Control Value or Actual Value.
The amount of error or difference between the Set Point and the Actual Value is termed deviation. When a
deviation is constant, or steady state, it is termed Sustained Deviation or Offset.
Summary of terminology
Basic Controller
The Basic Controller for an application can be visualized as
a comparator for comparing the measured value with the set point, calculating the
difference or error between the two.
a control unit to calculate the output magnitude and direction to compensate the
deviation from the desired value.
a output unit converting the output from the controller to physical action, a control valve,
a motor or similar.
Modes of control
An automatic temperature control might consist of a valve, actuator, controller and sensor detecting the space
temperature in a room. The control system is said to be 'in balance' when the space temperature sensor does not
register more or less temperature than that required by the control system. What happens to the control valve when
the space sensor registers a change in temperature (a temperature deviation) depends on the type of control system
used. The relationship between the movement of the valve and the change of temperature in the controlled medium
is known as the mode of control or control action.
There are two basic modes of control:
On/Off - The valve is either fully open or fully closed, with no intermediate state.
Continuous - The valve can move between fully open or fully closed, or be held at any intermediate position.
Variations of both these modes exist, which will now be examined in greater detail.
On/off control
Occasionally known as two-step or two-position control, this is the most basic control mode. Considering the tank of
water shown in Figure 5.2.1, the objective is to heat the water in the tank using the energy given off a simple steam
coil. In the flow pipe to the coil, a two port valve and actuator is fitted, complete with a thermostat, placed in the water
in the tank.
Continuous control
Continuous control is often called modulating control. It means that the valve is capable of moving continually to
change the degree of valve opening or closing. It does not just move to either fully open or fully closed, as with on-off
control.
There are three basic control actions that are often applied to continuous control:
Proportional (P)
Integral (I)
Derivative (D)
One of the most used controllers is the Proportional Controller (P-Controller) who produce an
output action that is proportional to the deviation between the set point and the measured
process value.
OP = -kP Er
(1)
where
OP = output proportional controller
kP = proportional gain or action factor of the controller
Er = error or deviation between the set point value and the measured value
The gain or action factor - kP
(1b)
where
P = proportional band
The proportional band P, express the value necessary for 100% controller output. If P = 0, the
gain or action factor kP would be infinity - the control action would be ON/OFF.
Note! A proportional controller will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but
never eliminate, the steady-state error.
The larger the proportional band, the more stable the control, but the greater the offset.
The narrower the proportional band, the less stable the process, but the smaller the offset.
The aim, therefore, should be to introduce the smallest acceptable proportional band that will always keep the
process stable with the minimum offset.
In explaining proportional control, several new terms must be introduced.
To define these, a simple analogy can be considered - a cold water tank is supplied with water via a float operated
control valve and with a globe valve on the outlet pipe valve 'V', as shown in Figure 5.2.4. Both valves are the same
size and have the same flow capacity and flow characteristic. The desired water level in the tank is at point B
(equivalent to the set point of a level controller).
It can be assumed that, with valve 'V' half open, (50% load) there is just the right flowrate of water entering via the
float operated valve to provide the desired flow out through the discharge pipe, and to maintain the water level in the
tank at point at B.
The questions these people ask about steam are markedly different.
Identify the system components and their function, including the comparator,
controller, plant and sensor.
Be able to predict how the system will respond using a proportional controller including speed of response, accuracy (SSE) and relative stability.
Be able to use the root locus to make
those predictons.
Be able to use frequency response analysis to make those predictions.
The controller amplifies the error as shown in the block diagram below.
So, the actuating signal (the input to G(s)) is proportional to the error.
As the proportional gain, Kp, is made larger, the SSE becomes smaller. As the
DC loop gain, KpG(0), becomes large, the error approaches becoming inversely
proportional to the proportional gain, Kp. That's true for most of the cases of
interest, that is those with small SSE.
If we think about the root locus for a system with proportional control we can
note the following:
The proportional gain, Kp, is either the root locus gain, or the root locus gain
is proportional to Kp.
The root locus for a first order system will have the form shown below.
As the pole moves to the left, the time constant becomes smaller.
Higher order systems will not behave in the same way, but there may be
tendencies to speed up the system, at least for some gain values. Here is
the root locus for a second order system.
Persamaan matematis :
u(t) = KP . e(t)
dimana KP : konstanta proporsional
dalam Laplace
U(s)/E(s) = KP
Diagram Blok
Dikenal juga sebagai : gain/penguatan
Pengaruh pada sistem :
Menambah atau mengurangi kestabilan
Dapat memperbaiki respon transien khususnya : rise
time, settling time
Mengurangi (bukan menghilangkan) Error steady state
Catatan : untuk menghilangkan Ess, dibutuhkan KP
besar, yang akan membuat sistem lebih tidak
stabil
Kontroler Proporsional memberi pengaruh langsung
(sebanding) pada error
Semakin besar error, semakin besar sinyal kendali yang
dihasilkan kontroler
Grafik (di Ogata)
M(s)
Kp ; Kp = sensitivitas proportional ( gain )
E(s)
Kp
1
proportional band
The control valve is moved in proportion to the error in the water level (or the temperature deviation, in the
case of a temperature control) from the set point.
The set point can only be maintained for one specific load condition.
Whilst stable control will be achieved between points A and C, any load causing a difference in level to that
of B will always provide an offset.
Fig.
5.2.8 Demonstrating the relationship between P-band and offset
The examples depicted in Figures 5.2.4 through to 5.2.8 describe proportional band as the level (or perhaps
temperature or pressure etc.) change required to move the valve from fully open to fully closed. This is convenient for
mechanical systems, but a more general (and more correct) definition of proportional band is the percentage change
in measured value required to give a 100% change in output. It is therefore usually expressed in percentage terms
rather than in engineering units such as degrees centigrade.
For electrical and pneumatic controllers, the set value is at the middle of the proportional band. The effect of changing
the P-band for an electrical or pneumatic system can be described with a slightly different example, by using a
temperature control.
The space temperature of a building is controlled by a water (radiator type) heating system using a proportional
action control by a valve driven with an electrical actuator, and an electronic controller and room temperature sensor.
The control selected has a proportional band (P-band or Xp) of 6% of the controller input span of 0 - 100C, and the
desired internal space temperature is 18C. Under certain load conditions, the valve is 50% open and the required
internal temperature is correct at 18C.
A fall in outside temperature occurs, resulting in an increase in the rate of heat loss from the building. Consequently,
the internal temperature will decrease. This will be detected by the room temperature sensor, which will signal the
valve to move to a more open position allowing hotter water to pass through the room radiators.
The valve is instructed to open by an amount proportional to the drop in room temperature. In simplistic terms, if the
room temperature falls by 1C, the valve may open by 10%; if the room temperature falls by 2C, the valve will open
by 20%.
In due course, the outside temperature stabilises and the inside temperature stops falling. In order to provide the
additional heat required for the lower outside temperature, the valve will stabilise in a more open position; but the
actual inside temperature will be slightly lower than 18C.
Example 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.9 explain this further, using a P-band of 6C.
Example 5.2.1 Consider a space heating application with the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
The proportional band is set at 6% of 100C = 6C, which gives 3C either side of the 18C set point.
A load of less than 50% will cause the room temperature to be above the set value.
A load of more than 50% will cause the room temperature to be below the set value.
The deviation between the set temperature on the controller (the set point) and the actual room temperature is called
the 'proportional offset'.
In Example 5.2.1, as long as the load conditions remain the same, the control will remain steady at a valve opening of
83.3%; this is called 'sustained offset'.
In this instance, the 2C fall in room temperature would give a valve opening of about 68% from the chart in Figure
5.2.10.
Example 5.2.2
Let the input span of a controller be 100C.
If the controller is set so that full change in output occurs over a proportional band of 20% the controller gain is:
Gain
The term 'gain' is often used with controllers and is simply the reciprocal of proportional band.
The larger the controller gain, the more the controller output will change for a given error. For instance for a gain of 1,
an error of 10% of scale will change the controller output by 10% of scale, for a gain of 5, an error of 10% will change
the controller output by 50% of scale, whilst for a gain of 10, an error of 10% will change the output by 100% of scale.
The proportional band in 'degree terms' will depend on the controller input scale. For instance, for a controller with a
200C input scale:
An Xp of 20% = 20% of 200C = 40C
An Xp of 10% = 10% of 200C = 20C
Example 5.2.2
Let the input span of a controller be 100C.
If the controller is set so that full change in output occurs over a proportional band of 20% the controller gain is:
Equally it could be said that the proportional band is 20% of 100C = 20C and the gain is:
As a reminder:
A wide proportional band (small gain) will provide a less sensitive response, but a greater stability.
A narrow proportional band (large gain) will provide a more sensitive response, but there is a practical limit
to how narrow the Xp can be set.
Too narrow a proportional band (too much gain) will result in oscillation and unstable control.
For any controller for various P-bands, gain lines can be determined as shown in Figure 5.2.11, where the controller
input span is 100C.
Fig.
5.2.11 Proportional band and gain
the valve must open with a rise in temperature. This is termed a direct acting control signal. Figures 5.2.12 and 5.2.13
depict the difference between reverse and direct acting control signals for the same valve action.
Manual reset
The offset can be removed either manually or automatically. The effect of manual reset can be seen in Figure 5.2.14,
and the value is adjusted manually by applying an offset to the set point of 2C.
It should be clear from Figure 5.2.14 and the above text that the effect is the same as increasing the set value by 2C.
The same valve opening of 66.7% now coincides with the room temperature at 18C.
The effects of manual reset are demonstrated in Figure 5.2.15.
Fig.
5.2.15 Effect of manual reset
Such problems are overcome by the reset action being contained within the mechanism of an automatic controller.
Such a controller is primarily a proportional controller. It then has a reset function added, which is called 'integral
action'. Automatic reset uses an electronic or pneumatic integration routine to perform the reset function. The most
commonly used term for automatic reset is integral action, which is given the letter I.
The function of integral action is to eliminate offset by continuously and automatically modifying the controller output
in accordance with the control deviation integrated over time. The Integral Action Time (IAT) is defined as the time
taken for the controller output to change due to the integral action to equal the output change due to the proportional
action. Integral action gives a steadily increasing corrective action as long as an error continues to exist. Such
corrective action will increase with time and must therefore, at some time, be sufficient to eliminate the steady state
error altogether, providing sufficient time elapses before another change occurs. The controller allows the integral
time to be adjusted to suit the plant dynamic behaviour.
Proportional plus integral (P + I) becomes the terminology for a controller incorporating these features.
The integral action on a controller is often restricted to within the proportional band. A typical P + I response is shown
in Figure 5.2.16, for a step change in load.
IAT is represented in time units. On some controllers the adjustable parameter for the integral action is termed
'repeats per minute', which is the number of times per minute that the integral action output changes by the
proportional output change.
It is important to check the controller manual to see how integral action is designated.
(2)
where
OI = output integrating controller
kI = integrating gain or action factor of the controller
dt = time sample
The integral controller produce an output proportional with the summarized deviation between
the set point and measured value and integrating gain or action factor.
Integral controllers tend to respond slowly at first, but over a long period of time they tend to
eliminate errors.
The integral controller eliminates the steady-state error, but may make the transient response
worse. The controller may be unstable.
The integral regulator may also cause problems during shutdowns and start up as a result of the
integral saturation or wind up effect. An integrating regulator with over time deviation (typical
during plant shut downs) will summarize the output to +/- 100%. During start up the output is set
to 100%m which may be catastrophic.
Integral action (Figure 5.5.3)
With too short an integral time, temperature (curve A) will cross the set point and some oscillation will occur.
An excessive integral time will result in the temperature taking too long to return to set point (curve B).
Curve C shows a correct integral time setting where the temperature returns to set point as rapidly as possible
without any overshoot or oscillation.
dm(t)
Ki . e(t)
dt
atau
m(t) Ki e(t) dt
0
M(s) Ki
s
E(s)
With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the
measurement or error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change of the deviation
or error with time.
OD = - kD dEr / dt
(3)
where
OD = output derivative controller
kD = derivative gain or action factor of the controller
dEr = deviation change over time sample dt
dt = time sample
The derivative or differential controller is never used alone. With sudden changes in the system
the derivative controller will compensate the output fast. The long term effects the controller
allow huge steady state errors.
A derivative controller will in general have the effect of increasing the stability of the system,
reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.
PID controllers
P and I and D are referred to as 'terms' and thus a P + I + D controller is often referred to as a three term controller.
The functions of the individual proportional, integral and derivative controllers complements
each other. If they are combined its possible to make a system that responds quickly to changes
(derivative), tracks required positions (proportional), and reduces steady state errors (integral).
Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because P, I and D are dependent of
each other. Changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two.
Controller
Response
Rise Time
Overshoot
Settling Time
Steady State
Error
Decrease
Increase
Small Change
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Eliminate
Small Change
Decrease
Decrease
Small Change
The transfer function of the PID controller looks like the following:
Kp = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
Kd = Derivative gain
First, let's take a look at how the PID controller works in a closed-loop system using the schematic
shown above. The variable (e) represents the tracking error, the difference between the desired input
value (R) and the actual output (Y). This error signal (e) will be sent to the PID controller, and the
controller computes both the derivative and the integral of this error signal. The signal (u) just past
the controller is now equal to the proportional gain (Kp) times the magnitude of the error plus the
integral gain (Ki) times the integral of the error plus the derivative gain (Kd) times the derivative of
the error.
This signal (u) will be sent to the plant, and the new output (Y) will be obtained. This new output (Y)
will be sent back to the sensor again to find the new error signal (e). The controller takes this new
error signal and computes its derivative and its integral again. This process goes on and on.
RISE
TIME
OVERS
HOOT
SETTLIN
G TIME
Kp
Decrease
Increase
Ki
Decrease
Small
Change
Increase
Small
Change
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Kd
S-S
ERROR
Decrease
Eliminate
Small
Change
Rate (Derivative) (D) action to speed up valve movement when rapid load changes take place.
Fig.
5.2.17 Summary of control modes and responses
Finally, the controls engineer must try to avoid the danger of using unnecessarily complicated controls for a specific
application. The least complicated control action, which will provide the degree of control required, should always be
selected.
Top
Further terminology
Time constant
This is defined as: 'The time taken for a controller output to change by 63.2% of its total due to a step (or sudden)
change in process load'.
In reality, the explanation is more involved because the time constant is really the time taken for a signal or output to
achieve its final value from its initial value, had the original rate of increase been maintained. This concept is depicted
in Figure 5.12.18.
Hunting
Often referred to as instability, cycling or oscillation. Hunting produces a continuously changing deviation from the
normal operating point. This can be caused by:
Hunting
The proportional band being too narrow.
The integral time being too short.
A combination of these.
Long time constants or dead times in the control system or the process itself.
In Figure 5.2.19 the heat exchanger is oversized for the application. Accurate temperature control will be difficult to
achieve and may result in a large proportional band in an attempt to achieve stability.
If the system load suddenly increases, the two port valve will open wider, filling the heat exchanger with high
temperature steam. The heat transfer rate increases extremely quickly causing the water system temperature to
overshoot. The rapid increase in water temperature is picked up by the sensor and directs the two port valve to close
quickly. This causes the water temperature to fall, and the two port valve to open again. This cycle is repeated, the
cycling only ceasing when the PID terms are adjusted. The following example (Example 5.2.3) gives an idea of the
effects of a hunting steam system.
Fig.
5.2.19 Hunting
Equation 13.2.2
Where:
TDC = Temperature Design Constant
T s = Steam temperature
T 1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature
T 2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature
In this example, the observed conditions (at minimum load) are as follows:
When the steam temperature rises to 140C, it is possible to predict the outlet temperature from Equation 13.2.5:
Equation 13.2.5
Where:
T s = 140C
T 1 = 60C - 40C = 20C temperature
TDC = 2
The heat exchanger outlet temperature is 80C, which is now above the P-band, and the sensor now signals the
controller to shut down the steam valve.
The steam temperature falls rapidly, causing the outlet water temperature to fall; and the steam valve opens yet
again. The system cycles around these temperatures until the control parameters are changed. These symptoms are
referred to as 'hunting'. The control valve and its controller are hunting to find a stable condition. In practice, other
factors will add to the uncertainty of the situation, such as the system size and reaction to temperature change and
the position of the sensor.
Hunting of this type can cause premature wear of system components, in particular valves and actuators, and gives
poor control.
Example 5.2.3 is not typical of a practical application. In reality, correct design and sizing of the control system and
steam heated heat exchanger would not be a problem.
Lag
Lag is a delay in response and will exist in both the control system and in the process or system under control.
Consider a small room warmed by a heater, which is controlled by a room space thermostat. A large window is
opened admitting large amounts of cold air. The room temperature will fall but there will be a delay while the mass of
the sensor cools down to the new temperature - this is known as control lag. The delay time is also referred to as
dead time.
Having then asked for more heat from the room heater, it will be some time before this takes effect and warms up the
room to the point where the thermostat is satisfied. This is known as system lag or thermal lag.
Rangeability
This relates to the control valve and is the ratio between the maximum controllable flow and the minimum controllable
flow, between which the characteristics of the valve (linear, equal percentage, quick opening) will be maintained. With
most control valves, at some point before the fully closed position is reached, there is no longer a defined control over
flow in accordance with the valve characteristics. Reputable manufacturers will provide rangeability figures for their
valves.
Turndown ratio
Turndown ratio is the ratio between the maximum flow and the minimum controllable flow. It will be substantially less
than the valve's rangeability if the valve is oversized.
Although the definition relates only to the valve, it is a function of the complete control system.