Combustion and Power Generation

Gas and Steam Cycles, Steam Turbines

Conversion of Thermal Energy

Thermodynamic Power Cycles
Internal-Combustion Engines
and Engine Cycles
Engine Performance
External-Combustion Systems
Vapor-Power Cycles
Combined Cycles
Steam Turbines
1

Conversion of Thermal Energy

Almost all of the mechanical energy produced today
is produced from the conversion of thermal energy
in some sort of heat engine.

The operation of all heat-engine cycles can usually

be approximated by an ideal thermodynamic power
cycle of some kind.

A basic understanding of these cycles can often

show the power engineer how to improve the
operation and performance of the system.

Thermodynamic Power Cycles

For a thermodynamic heat-engine cycle, the figure of

merit is called the thermal efficiency, or th. The
desired energy output is the net work output of the
cycle and the energy that costs is the heat added
from the high-temperature heat sources.

Another important parameter of any heat-engine

cycle is the specific work, w, which is the net work
output per pound of working fluid in the cycle. It is
also equal to the area enclosed by the cycle diagram
when
hen it is plotted on either a P-v
P or T-s
T s diagram,
diagram
providing the mass flow rate of the working fluid is
the same throughout the cycle and the processes
are reversible.
3

P- and T-s Diagrams of Power Cycles

The area under the heat addition process on a T-s
diagram is a geometric measure of the total heat supplied
during the cycle qin, and the area under the heat rejection
process is a measure of the total heat rejected qout. The
difference between these two (the area enclosed by the
cyclic curve) is the net heat transfer, which is also the net
work produced during the cycle.

Reversible Heat-Engine Cycles

The second law of thermodynamics states that it is

impossible to construct a heat engine or to develop a
power cycle that has a thermal efficiency of 100%. This
means that at least part of the thermal energy
transferred to a power cycle must be transferred to a
low-temperature sink.

There are four phenomena that render any

thermodynamic process irreversible. They are:

9 Friction
9 Unrestrained expansion
9 Mixing of different substances
9 Transfer of heat across a finite temperature difference
5

Categorize Cycles

Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two

general categories: Power cycles and refrigeration

cycles.

Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as

gas cycles or vapor cycles, depending upon the phase

of the working fluid.

Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet

another way: closed and open cycles.

Heat engines
g
are categorized
g
as internal or external
combustion engines.

Air-Standard Assumptions
To reduce the analysis of an actual gas power cycle to a
manageable level, we utilize the following
approximations, commonly know as the air-standard
assumptions:
p
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates
in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
process is replaced
p
by
y a heat-addition
3. The combustion p
process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection
process that restores the working fluid to its initial
state.
7

Air-Standard Cycle
Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the
analysis even more is that the air has constant specific
heats whose values are determined at room temperature
(25oC, or 77oF). When this assumption is utilized, the airstandard assumptions are called the cold-air-standard
assumptions. A cycle for which the air-standard
assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as
an air-standard cycle.
The air-standard assumptions stated above provide
considerable simplification in the analysis without
significantly deviating from the actual cycles.
The simplified model enables us to study qualitatively
the influence of major parameters on the performance of
the actual engines.
8

Mean Effective Pressure

The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to
the minimum (clearance) volume is called the compression
ratio of the engine.
V
V
r = max = BDC
Vmin VTDC
Notice that the compression ratio is a
volume ratio and should not be
confused with the pressure ratio.

Mean effective pressure (MEP) is a

fictitious pressure that, if it acted on
th piston
the
i t during
d i the
th entire
ti power
stroke, would produce the same
amount of net work as that
produced during the actual cycle.

MEP =

Wnet
Vmax Vmin
9

Three Ideal Power Cycles

Three ideal power cycles are completely reversible

power cycles, called externally reversible power
cycles. These three ideal cycles are the Carnot cycle,
y , and the Stirling
g Cycle.
y
the Ericsson cycle,

10

Three Ideal Power Cycles

The Carnot cycle is an externally reversible power cycle

and is sometimes referred to as the optimum power cycle

in thermodynamic textbooks. It is composed of two
reversible isothermal processes and two reversible
adiabatic (isentropic) processes.
The Ericsson power cycle is another heat-engine cycle
that is completely reversible or externally reversible. It
is composed of two reversible isothermal processes and
two reversible isobaric processes (with regenerator).
The Stirling
g cycle
y
is also an externally
y reversible heatengine cycle and is the only one of the three ideal power
cycles that has seen considerable practical application. It
is composed of two reversible isothermal processes and
two reversible isometric (constant volume) processes.
11

Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering

The Carnot cycle is composed
of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat
addition isentropic expansion
addition,
expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and
isentropic compression (as
shown in the P- diagram at
right). The Carnot cycle can be
executed in a closed system (a
piston-cylinder
p
y
device)) or a
steady-flow system (utilizing two
turbines and two compressors),
and either a gas or vapor can be
used as the working fluid.

th ,Carnot = 1

TL
TH
12

Limit of TH and TL in a Carnot Cycle

Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a
decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from
the system.

The highest temperature in

the cycle is limited by the
maximum temperature that
the components of the heat
engine, such as the piston or
turbine blades, can withstand.
Th lowest
The
l
t temperature
t
t
i
is
limited by the temperature of
the cooling medium utilized in
the cycle such as a lake, a
river, or atmospheric air.
13

Internal-Combustion Engine Cycles

Internal-combustion (IC) engines cannot operate on

an ideal reversible heat-engine cycle but they can be
approximated by internally reversible cycles in which
all the processes are reversible except the heatheat
addition and heat-rejection processes.

In general, IC engines are more polluting than

external-combustion (EC) engines because of the

formation of nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, and
unburned hydrocarbons.
The Otto cycle is the basic thermodynamic power
cycle for the spark-ignition (SI), internal-combustion
engine.

14

Otto Cycle: The ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

Figures below show the actual and ideal cycles in sparkignition (SI) engines and their P- diagrams.

15

Ideal Otto Cycle

The thermodynamic analysis of
the actual four-stroke or twostroke cycles can be simplified
g
y if the air-standard
significantly
assumptions are utilized. The T-s
diagram of the Otto cycle is given
in the figure at left.
The ideal Otto cycle consists of four internally
reversible processes:
12 Isentropic compression
23 Constant volume heat addition
34 Isentropic expansion
41 Constant volume heat rejection
16

Thermal Efficiency of an Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and
disregarding the changes in kinetic and potential
energies, we have
(qin qout ) + (win wout ) = u
qin = u3 u 2 = Cv (T3 T2 )

qout = u 4 u1 = Cv (T4 T1 )

th ,Otto =

wnet
q
T T
= 1 out = 1 4 1
qin
qin
T3 T2

=1

T1 (T4 / T1 1)
T
1
= 1 1 = 1 k 1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
T2
r

T
Where, 1 = 2
T2 1

k 1

= 3
4

k 1

V
T4
V

; and r = max = 1 = 1
T3
Vmin V2 2
17

Engine Knock and thermal Efficiency of an Engine

The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases
with both the compression ratio and the specific heat
ratio.
When high compression ratios
are used, the temperature of the
air-fuel mixture rises above the
autoignition temperature
produces an audible noise,
which is called engine knock.
((antiknock, tetraethyl
y lead?
unleaded gas)
For a given compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a
monatomic gas (such as argon or helium, k = 1.667) as the
working fluid will have the highest thermal efficiency.
18

Example IV-4.1: The Ideal Otto Cycle

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression
ratio of 8. At the beginning of the
compression process, the air is at 100
kPa and 17oC, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is
t
transferred
f
d to
t air
i during
d i the
th constantt t
volume heat-addition process.
Accounting for the variation of
specific heats of air with temperature,
determine a) the maximum temperature and pressure
that occur during the cycle, b) the net work output, c) the
thermal efficiency,
efficienc and d) the mean effective
effecti e press
pressure
re for
the cycle. <Answers: a) 1575.1 K, 4.345 MPa, b) 418.17
kJ/kg, c) 52.3%, d) 574.4 kPa>
Solution:
19

(a) Maximumtemperature and pressurein an Otto cycle:

T1 = 290K u1 = 206.91kJ / kg, vr1 = 676.1
Process1- 2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas) :
vr 2 v2 1
v
676.1
= = vr 2 = r1 =
= 84.51 T2 = 652.4 K, u2 = 475.11kJ / kg
vr1 v1 r
r
8
T v
P2v2 P1v1
652.4
=
P2 = P1 2 1 = 100
8 = 1799.7 kPa
290
T2
T1
T1 v2
Process 2 - 3 (constant volume heat addition):
qin = u3 u2 u3 = qin + u2 = 800 + 475.11 = 1275.11kJ / kg T3 = 1575.1 K
T v
P3v3 P2v2
1575.1
=
P3 = P2 3 2 = 1.797 MPa
1 = 4.345 MPa
T3
T2
652.4
T2 v3
Note : The property vr (relative specific volume) is a dimensionless
quantity used in the analysisof isentropic processes,and should not
be confused with the property specific volume.

20

10

(b) The net work output :

Process 3 - 4 (isentropic expansionof an ideal gas) :
vr 4 v4
= = r vr 4 = rvr 3 = 8 6.108 = 48.864
vr 3 v3
T4 = 795.6 K, u4 = 588.74 kJ / kg
Process 4 - 1(constant volume heat rejection):
qout = u1 u4 qout = u4 u1 = 588.74 206.91 = 381.83 kJ / kg
Thus, wnet = qnet = qin qout = 800 381.83 = 418.17 kJ / kg

(c ) The thermal efficiency:

th =

wnet 418.17
=
= 0.523 (or 52.3%)
qin
800

Under the cold - air - standard assumptions :

1

= 1 r1k = 1 (8)11.4 = 0.565 (or 56.5%)

r
Care should be exercisedin utlizing this assumptions.

th = 1

k 1

21

(d ) The mean effective pressureis determinedfrom its definition:

v1 =

RT1
=
P1

0.287

kPa.m3
290K
m3
kg .K
= 0.832
100 kPa
kg

wnet
w
418.17 1kPa.m3
= 574.4 kPa
= net =
v1 v2 v v1 0.832 0.832 1kJ
1
8
r
Therefore,a constant pressure of 574.4 kPa during the power stroke
would produce the same net work output as the entire cycle.
Thus, mep =

Note that this problem could be solved by using equations shown on

Slide #17 with given constant specific heats c p , cv (at room temperature).

22

11


(a) T1 = v2
T2 v1
R=

k 1

= r1k

290 (11.4)
=8
T2 = 666.2 K
T2

T v
P1v1 P2v2
666.2
=
P2 = P1 2 1 = 100
8 = 1837.8 kPa
T1
T2
290
T1 v2

qin = 800 = cv (T3 T2 ) = 0.718 (T3 666.2) T3 = 1780.4 K

T3 v4
=
T4 v3
R=

k 1

v
= 1
v2

k 1

1780.4 (1.41)
=8
T4 = 775.0 K
T4

T v
P2v2 P3v3
1780.4
=
P3 = P2 3 2 = 1837.8
1 = 4.911MPa
T2
T3
666.2
T2 v3

(b)wnet = qin qout = 800 0.718 (775.0 290) = 451.77 kJ / kg

k
(c)th = wnet
qin

451.77
= 0.565 (or 56.5%)
800
23

Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines

The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI (CompressionIgnition) reciprocating engines. The CI engine first
proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s, is very similar
to the SI engine, differing mainly in the method of
initiating combustion. In SI engines (also known as
gasoline engines), the air-fuel mixture is compressed to
a temperature that is below the autoignition temperature
of the fuel, and the combustion process is initiated by
firing a spark plug. In CI engines (also known as diesel
engines), the air is compressed to a temperature that is
above
b
the
th autoignition
t i iti temperature
t
t
off the
th fuel,
f l and
d
combustion starts on contact as the fuel is injected into
this hot air. Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor are
replaced by a fuel injector in diesel engines.
24

12

Ideal Cycle for CI Engines (continued)

In diesel engines, ONLY air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of
autoignition. Therefore, diesel engines can be designed
to operate at much higher compression ratios,
ratios typically
between 12 and 24.
The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when
the piston approaches TDC and continues during the
first part of the power stroke. Therefore, the combustion
process in these engines takes place over a longer
inter al Beca
interval.
Because
se of this longer duration,
d ration the comb
combustion
stion
process in the ideal Diesel cycle is approximated as a
constant-pressure heat-addition process. In fact, this is
the ONLY process where the Otto and the Diesel cycles
differ.
25

Ideal Cycle for CI Engines (continued)

qin wb ,out = u3 u2 qin = h3 h2 = C p (T3 T2 )

qout = u 4 u1 = Cv (T4 T1 )

th ,Diesel =

wnet
q
T T
1 r k 1
= 1 out = 1 4 1 = 1 k 1 c

qin
qin
k (T3 T2 )
r
k (rc 1)

Where,
r=

1
2

and
rc =

3
2
26

13

Thermal efficiency of Ideal Diesel Cycle

Under the cold-air-standard assumptions, the efficiency
of a Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency of Otto cycle
by the quantity in the brackets. (See Slide #26)
The quantity
Th
tit in
i the
th
brackets is always greater
than 1. Therefore, th,Otto >
th, Diesel when both cycles
operate on the same
compression ratio.
Also the cuttoff ratio, rc
decreases, the efficiency of
the Diesel cycle increases.
(See figure at right)
27

Internal-Combustion Engines
The two basic types of ignition or firing systems are the
four-stroke-cycle engines, commonly called four-cycle
engines, and the two-stroke-cycle engines, commonly
called two-cycle engines
engines.
The four-cycle engines has a number of advantages over
the usual two-cycle engine, including better fuel
economy, better lubrication, and easier cooling.
The two-cycle engine has a number of advantages,
including
g fewer moving
g parts,
p
, lighter
g
weight,
g , and
smoother operation. Some two-cycle engines have
valves and separate lubrication systems.

28

14

Cylinder Arrangements for Reciprocating Engines

Figure below shows schematic diagrams of some of the
different cylinder arrangements for reciprocating
engines.

29

Vertical in-line engine is commonly used today in fourand six-cylinder automobile engines.

The V-engine is commonly employed in eight-cylinder

(V-8) and some six-cylinder (V-6) automobile engines.

The horizontal engine is essentially a V-engine with

180o between the opposed cylinders. This system was
used as the four-cylinder, air-cooled engine that
powered the Volkswagon bug.

The opposed-piston engine consists of two pistons,

two crankshafts
crankshafts, and one cylinder.
cylinder The two crankshafts
are geared together to assure synchronization. These
opposed-piston systems are often employed in large
diesel engines.
30

15

 The delta engine is composed of three opposed-piston

cylinders connected in a delta arrangement. These
systems have found application in the petroleum
industry.

The radial engine is composed of a ring of cylinders

c linders in
one plane. One piston rod, the master rod, is
connected to the single crank on the crankshaft and all
the other piston rods are connected to the master rod.
Radial engines have a high power-to-weight ratio and
were commonly employed in large aircraft before the
advent of the turbojet engine
engine.

When the term rotary engine is used today, it implies

something other than a radial engine with a stationary
crank.
31

Engine Performance
There are several performance factors that are common
to all engines and prime movers. One of the main
operating parameters of interest is the actual output of
the engine
engine. The brake horsepower (Bhp) is the power
delivered to the driveshaft dynamometer.
The brake horsepower is usually measured by
determining the reaction force on the dynamometer and
using the following equation:
2FRN d
Bhp =
33,000
Where F is the net reaction force of the dynamometer, in
lbf, R is the radius arm, in ft, and Nd is the angular
velocity of the dynamometer, in rpm.
32

16

Horsepower
For a particular engine, the relationship between the
mean effective pressure (mep) and the power is:
Bhp
p=

(mep )(Vdis )(N p )

33,000
Wnet
where mep =
Vmax Vmin
Vdis =
and N p =

(bore )2 (stroke )

CN e

4
is the number of power strokes per minute.
minute

Where C is the number of cylinders in the engine, Ne is

the rpm of the engine, and is equal to 1 for a twostroke-cycle engine and 2 for a four-stroke-cycle engine.
33

Brake Thermal Efficiency

The brake thermal efficiency of an engine, th, unlike
power plants, is usually based on the lower heating
value (LHV) of the fuel. The relationship between
y and the brake specific
p
fuel consumption
p
(Bsfc)
(
)
efficiency
is:
2545
th =

(Bsfc )(LHV )

where
Bsfc =

(fuel rate, lbm/h )

Bhp

Note that the brake specific fuel consumption (Bsfc) of

an engine is a measure of the fuel economy and is
normally expressed in units of mass of fuel consumed
per unit energy output.
34

17

External-Combustion Systems
External-combustion power systems have several
advantages over internal-combustion systems. In
general, they are less polluting. The primary pollutants
from internal-combustion engines
g
are unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen.
In external-combustion engines, the CHx and CO can be
drastically reduced by carrying out the combustion with
excess air and the NOx production can be markedly
reduced by lowering the combustion temperature. By
burning the fuel with excess air
air, more energy is released
per pound of fuel.
There are three general ideal external-combustion
engine cycles, the Stirling and Brayton are ideal gaspower, and vapor power cycles.

35

Brayton Cycle:
The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton
for use in the reciprocating oil-burning engine that he
d
developed
l
d around
d 1870.
1870
Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor,
where its temperature and pressure are raised. The highpressure air proceeds into the
combustion chamber, where
the fuel is burned at constant
pressure. The resulting
p
g highg
temperature gases then enter
the turbine, where they expand
to the atmospheric pressure,
thus producing power. (An
open cycle.)
36

18

Brayton Cycle (continued)

The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed
cycle, as shown in the figure below, by utilizing the airstandard assumptions.
The ideal cycle that the working
fluid undergoes in this closed
loop is the Brayton cycle, which is
made up of four internally
reversible processes:
12

Isentropic compression (in a

compressor)

23

Constant pressure heat addition

34

Isentropic expansion (in a

turbine)

41

Constant pressure heat rejection

37

T-s Diagram of Ideal Brayton Cycle

Notice that all four processes
of the Brayton cycle are
executed in steady-flow
g
devices ((as shown in the figure
on the previous slide, T-s
diagram at the right), and the
energy balance for the ideal
Brayton cycle can be
expressed, on a unit-mass
basis, as

(qin qout ) + (win wout ) = hexit hinlet

where qin = h3 h2 = C p (T3 T2 )
and qout = h4 h1 = C p (T4 T1 )
38

19

P- Diagram and th of Ideal Brayton Cycle

Then the thermal efficiency of
the ideal Brayton cycle under
the cold-air-standard
assumptions becomes
w
q
th ,Brayton = net = 1 out
qin
qin
=1
=1

C p (T4 T1 )

C p (T3 T2 )
rp

where

=1

T1 (T4 / T1 1)
T2 (T3 / T2 1)

1
(k 1) / k

T2 P2
=
T1 P1

(k 1) / k

P
= 3
P4

(k 1) / k

T3
P
, and rp = 2 is the pressure ratio.
T4
P1
39

Thermal Efficiency of the Ideal Brayton Cycle

Under the cold-air-standard
assumptions, the thermal
efficiency of an ideal Brayton
y
increases with both the
cycle
specific heat ratio of the working
fluid (if different from air) and its
pressure ratio (as shown in the
figure at right) of the isentropic
compression process.
The highest temperature in the cycle occurs at the end
of the combustion process, and it is limited by the
maximum temperature that the turbine blades can
withstand. This also limits the pressure ratios that can
be used in the cycle.
40

20

Net Work of the Brayton Cycle

For a fixed turbine inlet
temperature T3, the net work
output per cycle increases
with the p
pressure ratio,,
reaches a maximum, and
then starts to decrease, as
shown in the figure at right.
Therefore, there should be a
compromise between the
pressure ratio and the net
work output
output. In most
common designs, the
pressure ratio of gas turbines
ranges from about 11 to 16.
41

The Back Work Ratio

A power plant with a
high back work ratio
requires a larger turbine
to provide the additional
power requirements
i
t off
the compressor.
Therefore, the turbine
used in gas-turbine
power plants are larger
than those used in
power plants
p
of
steam p
the same net power
output.

In gas-turbine power plants, the

ratio of the compressor work to
the turbine work, called the
back work ratio, is very high.
Usually
y more than half of the
turbine work output is used to
drive the compressor.

The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines

are aircraft propulsion and electric power generation.
42

21

Development of Gas Turbines

The efforts to improve the cycle efficiency concentrated
in three areas:
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperature
(high NOx!?) which can be achieve by the
d
development
l
t off new materials
t i l and
d the
th innovative
i
ti
cooling techniques.
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbo-machinery
components.
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle such as
incorporating intercooling, regeneration, and
reheating techniques.
A more recent gas turbine manufactured by GE use 1425oC
turbine inlet temperature, 282 MW, and 39.5% efficiency in
the simple-cycle mode.
43

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from

Idealized Ones
The deviation of actual
compressor and turbine
behavior from the idealized
isentropic behavior can be
accurately accounted for by
utilizing the isentropic
efficiencies of the turbine and
compressor defined as
(equations at bottom right).
Where states 2a and 4a are
h h
w
isen ,comp = s 2 s 1
the actual exit states of the
wa h2 a h1
compressor and the turbine,
w
h h
respectively, and 2s and 4s
and, turb ,out = a 3 4 a
are the corresponding states
ws h3 h4 s
for isentropic case.
44

22

The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust

gas leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than
the temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore the high-pressure
Therefore,
high pressure air leaving the compressor
can be heated by transferring heat to it from the hot
exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger, which
is also known as a regenerator or a recuperator (as
shown in the figure above.)
45

T-s Diagram of a Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

The thermal efficiency of the
Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since
the portion of energy of the
exhaust gases that is
normally rejected to the
surroundings is now used to
preheat the air entering the
combustion chamber.
The extent to which a regenerato r approaches an ideal regenerato r
is called the effectiven ess and is defined as =

q regen ,act
q regen, max

When the cold - air - standard assumption s are utilized,

h5 h2
.
h4 h2

T5 T2
.
T4 T2
46

23

Thermal Efficiency of the Ideal Brayton Cycle with

and without Regeneration
The use of a regenerator with
a very high effectiveness
(0.85 in practice) cannot be
justified economically unless
the savings from the fuel
costs exceed the additional
expense involved.
Under the cold-air-standard
assumptions, the thermal
efficiency
ffi i
off an ideal
id l Brayton
B t
cycle with regeneration is
shown at right, which
operates most effectively at
lower rp and (T1/T3) ratios.

T1 (k -1) / k
rp
T3

th ,regen = 1

( )

47

Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power

Cycles
Many of the impracticalities
associated with the Carnot
y
can be eliminated by
y
cycle
superheating the steam in
the boiler and condensing it
completely in the
condenser, as shown
schematically on a T-s
diagram in the figure (on
next slide).
slide) The cycle that
results is the Rankine cycle,
which is the ideal cycle for
vapor power plants.
48

24

Rankine Cycle (continued)

The Ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities and consists of the following four
processes:
12 Isentropic compression
in a pump
23 Constant pressure heat
addition in a boiler
(steam generator)
34 Isentropic expansion in a
turbine
41 Constant pressure heat
rejection in a condenser
(water or dry air cooling)
49

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

All four processes that make up the Rankine cycle can
be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The steady-flow
energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to
(qin qout ) + (win wout ) = he hi
The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work,
and the pump and the turbine are assumed to be
isentropic, thus,
Pump ( q = 0) : w pump ,in = h2 h1 = (P2 P1 )
where h1 = h f @ P1 and 1 = f @ P1
Boiler ( w = 0) : qin = h3 h2
Turbine ( q = 0) : wturb ,out = h3 h4
Condenser ( w = 0) : qout = h4 h1
50

25

Thermal Efficiency of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle is
determined from

th =

wnet wturb ,out w pump ,in qin qout

q
=
=
= 1 out
qin
qin
qin
qin

The conversion efficiency of power plants in the United

States is often expressed in terms of heat rate, which is
the amount of heat supplied, in Btu, to generate 1 kWh
of electricity.
3412 (Btu / kWh )
th =
Heat rate (Btu/kWh )
For example, a heat rate of 11,363 Btu/kWh is equivalent
to 30 percent thermal efficiency, the smaller the heat
rate, the greater the efficiency.
51

Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycle from

Idealized Ones
isen , pump =

ws , pump
wa , pump

h2 s h1
h2 a h1

isen ,turb =

wa ,turb
ws ,turb

h3 h4 a
h3 h4 s

52

26

Things to be Considered in Evaluating the Performance

of Actual Power Cycle
The irreversibilities occurring within the pump and the
turbine.
Fluid
Fl id friction
f i ti causes pressure drops
d
in
i the
th boiler,
b il the
th
condenser, and the piping between various components.
Heat loss from the steam to the surroundings.
Heat losses occur at the bearings between the moving
parts as a result of friction.
Steam
St
that
th t leaks
l k outt during
d i the
th cycle
l and
d air
i that
th t leaks
l k
into the condenser.
Power consumed by the auxiliary equipment such as
fans that supply air to the furnace.
53

How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine

Cycle?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase
the thermal efficiency of the power cycle is the same:
Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or
decrease the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
That is, the average fluid temperature should be as
g as possible
p
during
g heat addition and as low as
high
possible during heat rejection. There are three ways of
accomplishing this for the simple ideal Rankine cycle.

54

27

1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure

The colored area on the T-s
diagram represent the increase
in net work output as a result of
lowering the condenser pressure
f
from
P4 to
t P4.
The
Th heat
h t
requirement also increase
(represented by the area under
curve 2-2), but this increase is
very small. Thus the overall
effect of lowering the condenser
pressure is an increase in the
p
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
For effective heat transfer (T = 10oC), the pressure must be
above ? kPa for a condenser to be cooled by a nearby river at
15oC. (The drawbacks are air leak and moisture content.)
55

2. Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures

The colored area on this diagram
represents the increase in the
net work. The total area under
the process curve 3-3
represents the increase in the
heat input. The overall effect is
an increase in thermal efficiency.
Superheating the steam to higher
temperatures has another very
desirable effect: It decreases the
moisture content of the steam at
the turbine exit.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited,
however, by metallurgical considerations. Presently the
highest steam temperature allowed is about 620oC. Ceramics!
56

28

3. Increasing the Boiler Pressure

Another way of increasing the
average temperature during the
heat-addition process is to
increase the operating pressure
of the boiler,
boiler which automatically
increase the temperature at
which boiling takes place. The
effect of increasing the boiler
pressure on the performance of
vapor power cycle is illustrated
on a T-s diagram in the figure at
right.
The undesirable side effect as shown in the diagram above can
be corrected by reheating the steam. Usually nuclear plant (th
= 34%) is lower than fossil-fuel plant (40%) for safety reason.
57

The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies
at high boiler pressures without facing the problem of
excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1 S
1.
Superheat
h t the
th steam
t
to a very high
temperature Not to
over the metallurgical
unsafe levels.
2. Expand the steam in
the turbine in two
stages, and reheat it
in between.

58

29

The T-s Diagram of Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

The T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle is
shown in the figure below. The total heat input and the
total turbine work output for a reheat cycle become

q in = q primary + qreheat = (h3 h2 ) + (h5 h4 )

and w net ,out = w turb ,1 + w turb ,2 = (h3 h4 ) + (h5 h6 )

1. The incorporation of the single reheat
in a modern power plant improve the
cycle efficiency by 4 to 5%.
2. The use of more than two reheat
stages is not practical.
3. If we had materials that could
withstand sufficiently high
temperatures, there would be no need
for the reheat cycle.

59

Example IV-4.2:
The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
Consider a team power plant operating on the ideal
reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters the high-pressure
turbine at 15 MPa and 600oC and is condensed in the
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. If the moisture
content of the steam at the exit of the low-pressure
turbine is not to exceed 10.4 percent, determine
(a) the pressure at which the
steam should be reheated and (b)
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assuming the steam is reheated to
the inlet temperature of the highpressure turbine. <Answers: (a)
4.0 MPa, (b) 45.0%>
Solution:
60

30

Assumption s :
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible .
Analysis :
(a ) The reheat pressure is determined from the requiremen t that the
entropies at states 5 and 6 be the same.
State 6 :
P6 = 10 kPa ; x6 = 0.896
s6 = s f + x6 s fg = 0.6493 + 0.896 7.5009 = 7.370 kJ / kg .K
h6 = h f + x6 h fg = 191.83 + 0.896 2392.8 = 2335.8 kJ / kg .K
Thus,
State 5 :

T5 = 600 o C
s5 = s6

P = 4.0 MPa
5
h5 = 3674.4 kJ / kg

Therefore, steam should be reheated at a pressure of 4 MPa or lower

to prevent a moisture content above 10.4%.

61

(b ) To determine the thermal efficiency, we need to know the enthalpies

at all other states :
State 1 : P1 = 10 kPa ; x1 = 0.0 h1 = 191.83 kJ / kg , v1 = 0.001010 m 3 / kg
State 2 : P2 = 15 MPa ; s 2 = s1

3
w pump ,in
i = v1 (P2 P1 ) = 0.001010 m / kg (15000 10 ) kPa = 15.14 kJ / kg

h2 = h1 + w pump ,in = 191.83 + 15.14 = 206.97 kJ / kg

State 3 : P3 = 15 MPa , T3 = 600 o C h3 = 3582.3 kJ / kg , s3 = 6.6776 kJ / kg .K
State 4 : P4 = 4 MPa , s 4 = s3 h4 = 3154.3 kJ / kg , T4 = 375.5o C

Thus, q in = (h3 h2 ) + (h5 h4 ) = (3582.3 206.97 ) + (3674.4 3154.3)

= 3895.43 kJ / kgg
qout = h6 h1 = 2335.8 191.83 = 2143.97 kJ / kg

and th = 1

qout
q in

= 1

2143.97
= 0.450 (or 45.0% )
3895.43
62

31

Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Open

Feedwater Heater
Another way of increasing the thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle is by regeneration. During a regeneration
process, liquid water (feedwater) leaving the pump is
heated by some steam bled off the turbine at some
intermediate pressure in devices called feedwater
heaters.

63

Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed

Feedwater Heater
The two streams are mixed in open feedwater heaters,
and the mixture leaves as a saturated liquid at the heater
pressure. In closed feedwater heaters, heat is transferred
from the steam to the feedwater without mixing.

64

32

A Steam Power Plant with One Open and Three

Closed Feedwater Heaters

65

An Ideal Cogeneration Plant

The production of more than one
useful form of energy (such as
process heat and electric power)
from the same energy source is
called cogeneration.
cogeneration Cogeneration
plants produce electric power
while meeting the process heat
requirements of certain industrial
processes. This way, more of the
energy transferred to the fluid in
the boiler is utilized for a useful
purpose. The
Th fraction
f
ti
off energy
that is used for either process heat
or power generation is called the
utilization factor of the
cogeneration plant.
66

33

More Ways to Increase Power plant Thermal

Efficiency
The overall thermal efficiency of a power plant can
be increased by using binary cycles or combined
cycles A binary cycle is composed of two separate
cycles.
cycles, one at high temperatures (topping cycle)
and the other at relatively low temperatures. The
most common combined cycle is the gas-steam
combined cycle where a gas-turbine cycle operates
at the high-temperature range and a steam-turbine
y
at the low-temperature
p
range.
g Steam is
cycle
heated by the high-temperature exhaust gases
leaving the gas turbine. Combined cycles have a
higher thermal efficiency than the steam- or gasturbine cycles operating alone.
67

Mercury-Water Binary Vapor Cycle

68

34

Combined Gas-Steam Power Plant

69

Steam Turbines
The turbine is a device that converts the stored
mechanical energy in a fluid into rotational mechanical
energy. There are several different types, including
steam, gas, water, and wind turbines.
There are several ways to classify steam turbines:
1. With respect to the purpose of the turbine:
Central-station units which are used to drive electrical
generators at synchronous speed.
Superposed or topping steam turbines are highpressure turbines that are installed in older, lowpressure steam systems to improve the overall
efficiency of the power plant.
Mechanical-drive turbines to power large draft fans.
70

35

2. According to the exhaust or back pressure of the unit:

Either condensing or noncondensing. In the
noncondensing turbine, the turbine-exhaust pressure is
above or equal to atmospheric pressure and the system
can operate with or without a condenser, If there is no
condenser, this system will require continuous water
3. According to the method of steam injection or
extraction from the turbine:
Bleeder or extraction turbines are used where turbine
steam is removed partway through the turbine for
process use or for feedwater heating.
p
g
Reheat turbines are used in the reheat vapor-power
cycles.
Extraction-induction turbines have ports for both the
extraction and injection of steam at intermediate points
in the turbine.
71

Turbine Blading
There are two
basic types of
turbine
balding,
balding
impulse and
reaction. Two
different types
of impulse
staging and a
typical
reaction
ti stage
t
are shown in
the figure at
right:
72

36

Energy Transferred to the Moving Blades

The velocity vectors in the tangential and axial directions
of the turbine rotor are shown in the figure below. The
force on the moving blade, Fb is equal to mat, or letting
m_dot represent the steam flow rate through the blade,
Then, the energy transferred to the moving blades Pb is:
Pb = FbVb = m& (V1,t V2 ,t )Vb = m& (V1 cos + V2 cos )Vb
=

[(

) (

m&
V12 V22 V1,2r V22,r
2

)]

73

Blade Efficiency
The performance of a given blade is given by the blade
efficiency, which is defined as the fraction of the kinetic
power of the inlet steam that is transferred to the blade,
or
2
2
2
2
Blade Efficiency =

2 (V1,t V 2 ,t )Vb
V1

(V

) (

V2 V1,r V 2 ,r
V1

For frictionle ss flow, the above equation reduces to :

V
Blade Efficiency = 1 2
V1

The blade efficiency and blade power are maximum when

V2 is a minimum and this occurs when V2,r is zero and V2
is equal to V2,a. When there is no friction, V1,t = Vb,opt, i.e.,
Optimum Blade velocity = Vb ,opt =

V1,t
2

V1
cos
2

74

37