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DRINKING WATER

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Class Lecture Package -2

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


Drinking water distribution system is a
combination of components used to supply safe
water to individual households
It collects treated water from treatment plant
Household plumbing systems are also part of
distribution system

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM


Elevated
storage tank

WTP

Transmission

Distribution network

COMPONENTS OF DS
Pumping station

Structural
Electrical
Pumping
Piping

Distribution storage
Tanks
Pipe
Valve

Distribution piping
Pipes
Valves

HYDRAULICS, PRESSURIZED
FLOW
It is the flow (full) that
is passed through the
pipes
It needs the concepts
of fluid mechanics and
hydraulics to analyze
the flow

Full flow

Partial flow

DESIGN OF PIPELINES
The construction of pipes involve large costs
Needs modeling/predicting the behaviour

Experimental systems (model prototype)


Numerical models

Cost
Time
Safety
Ease of modification
Aid to communication

TYPICAL HEADLOSS DIAGRAM


EGL
H

Pumps are integral


components of a
distribution system
It supplies the energy
needed
Conditions and
performance assessment
is critical
Pump system carve is
typically used for design

Head

HYDRAULICS,PUMP

Discharge

HYDRAULICS, DS
It uses the concept of pressurized flow
Air bubbles can arise in the water
Pipe breaks, leaks can cause variations in the
hydraulic calculations
It considers steady state flows
Hardy cross method is typically used hydraulic
analysis of pipe network

PIPELINE FRICTION EQUATION


Hazen-William equation
US unit
SI unit

V = velocity
C = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = friction headloss

TYPICAL VALUES OF C
Pipe material
Value of C
PVC
135-150
Steel (mortar lining)
120-145
Steel (unlined)
110-130
Ductile iron (mortar lining)
100-140
Ductile iron (unlined)
80-120
Asbestos cement
120-130
Concrete
130-140

TYPICAL DISTRIBUTION
NETWORK
1

HARDY CROSS METHOD


It is a widely used method to calculate hydraulic
behavior of a pipe network
Head loss can also be computed

It is a trial and error procedure


Very useful for large scale computation in computer

APPLICATION OF MODELS

Model selection
Network representation
Calibration
Verification
Problem definition
Model application
Display/analysis

HYDRAULICS, STORAGE
Storage is provided to ensure
Reliability of supply
Maintain pressure
Improve operational flexibility and efficiency

Floating vs pumped storage


Location of storage is important for efficient
use/supply of water

HYDRAULICS, STORAGE
Tank levels
Settling overflow level
Identifying service area
Identifying pressure zone

Tank volume
Fire and emergency storage
demand

CORROSION
Corrosion is a big concern for water distribution
systems
Typical three types of corrosion observed in
distribution system
Internal corrosion
Microbial influenced corrosion
Leaching

TYPICAL CORROSION IN DS
Metallic

MIC

Major

Unknown Minor

Polymeric none

Unknown Major

Cement
based

Unknown Major

Metal

major

Leaching

METALLIC CORROSION
Both Internal and external corrosion are very
common in metallic pipes
Three conditions required
Metallic surface
An oxidant
Medium to transport the oxidant to the metal

MIC
It is caused by microbiological activity
Some researchers feel biofilms protect metallic surface
from natural corrosion
Presence and structure of biofilms

Hydraulic condition
Nutrient availability
Residual disinfectant
Roughness of pipe

LEACHING
Leaching is typically defined as the release of
material to water without involving conventional
corrosion processes
Typical examples are metal bearing corrosion
scales, monomers or calcium from cement
matrix

FACTORS AFFECTING
CORROSION

Flow velocity
Temperature
pH
Alkalinity
Dissolved oxygen
Total dissolved solids
Hardness
Bacteria

INDICATORS OF CORROSION
pH, alkalinity and calcium concentration indicate the
potential of corrosion
Pipe inspection, analysis of pipe scales help to
understand the potential for corrosion
Many indexes used

Langelier Saturation Index


Aggressive Index
Ryznar Index
Driving force index

CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling corrosion is a big challenge in water
distribution
The presence of different material in the same
DS can bring additional issues to reduce the
corrosion
Corrosion control mechanisms can cause harm to
some materials

CORROSION CONTROL
Typical corrosion control techniques
Corrosion inhibitors
Orthophosphate

Changes in water quality to reduce


Lining on pipe surface/change pipe material

The chemicals used during water treatment


process can affect the effectiveness

CONTROLLING MIC
Controlling MIC is basically controlling the
formation of biofilms
Changes in water quality helps in controlling
microbial growth in biofilm
Chlorine is not effective in destruction of biofilms
Shock chlorination work at some materials

PIPE MATERIALS
Pipe materials can play an important part in the
quality and quantity of water in DS
Pipes provides
External and internal integrity of DS
Interact with water quality

There are many different types of materials used


in distribution system

CAST IRON
Historically, it is the most widely used material
Lined
unlined

The use of cast iron pipes for new construction is


virtually non existent
Pipe break problems
Water quality problems

GRAY CAST IRON


It is an iron alloy centrifugally cast in sand or
metal molds
Large amount of carbon present
Low melting point

Installation of these pipes have stopped in early


1970s
It has flat flakes

GRAY CAST IRON


The flakes reduces its strength
Brittle in nature, not elastic

It is very weak in tension


Two ways manufactured
Spun cast pipes
Pit cast pipes

TYPES OF FAILURE IN GRAY CI


PIPES
Wedge Splitting
Spiral Cracking
Corrosion Pitting
Longitudinal Cracking
Circumferential Breaks
Bell Splits
Visit http://irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ui/bu/grayfailuretype_e.html
To see the details

DUCTILE IRON
Due to various limitations and problems associated with
gray cast iron, ductile irons are being used since 1960s
Ductile iron is more elastic than cast irons
It is made by adding small amount of magnesium and
controlling the manufacturing condition
It is also very common as a material for distribution
system

STEEL
Steel pipes are typically used for large diameter
pipes
Transmission pipes

High strength, elastic and shock resistant


It is relatively expensive
It is more corrosion resistant than other iron
based pipes

CONCRETE
Concrete is inert, safe, long-lived and
dependable
Different types of pipes used

Steel cylinder
Prestressed
Noncylinder
Pretensioned

ASBESTOS CEMENT CONCRETE


Source of durable and inexpensive piping
Maintenance requirement is relatively high
Many municipalities are looking for ways reduce
the maintenance costs
Replacement of failed pipes

Due to environmental concerns, no new


construction of AC pipes

PVC
Polyvinyl chloride is the most commonly used
material for construction of new distribution
systems
It is resistant to corrosion
High strength to weight ratio
Low historical information regarding its service

LINING
Lining is very important to reduce the pipe water
interaction in various distribution systems
Low cost
Long life
Sustained smoothness
Cement mortar lining common for iron pipes

LINING
Lining thickness plays an important role in
determining effectiveness
It can be slowly attacked at soft water
Coatings provides resistant to corrosion
Leaching of cement mortar can be a concern in
some places

HW-2
Review an article by groups
Article review guideline is posted on ilearn
The guideline is quite comprehensive. All the items may
not be applicable for your particular review. Do what
applies to you
Everyone needs to review the articles themselves. The
writing portion can only be shared by group members

Conduct the review within 2 pages


Due: will be discussed in the class

Articles for Review


Chlorine dioxide disinfection technology to avoid bromate
formation in desalinated seawater in potable waterworks
Belluati, M.; Danesi, E.; Petrucci, G.; Rosellini, M. Source:
Desalination, v 203, n 1-3, p 312-318, Febrary 5, 2007
Copper pipe failure by microbiologically influenced corrosion
Cantor, Abigail F. ; Bushman, James B.; Glodoski, Martin S.; Kiefer,
Eric; Bersch, Randy; Wallenkamp, Hank Source: Materials
Performance, v 45, n 6, p 38-41, June 2006

Effect of pipe corrosion scales on chlorine dioxide


consumption in drinking water distribution systems
Zhang, Zhe; Stout, Janet E.; Yu, Victor L.; Vidic, Radisav
Source: Water Research, v 42, n 1-2, p 129-136, January 2008

Articles for Review


Effect of chlorine on corrosion in drinking water systems
Cantor, Abigail F.; Park, Jae K.; Vaiyavatjamai, Prasit Source: Journal
/ American Water Works Association, v 95, n 5, p 112-122, May 2003

Options for recarbonation, remineralisation and disinfection


for desalination plants
Withers, Anthony Source: Desalination, v 179, n 1-3 SPEC.
ISS., p 11-24, July 10, 2005
Disinfecting the Coquitlam water supply: Ozone and UV
disinfection
Landis, Heather; Neemann, Jeff; Hulsey, Bob; Fiorante, Reno;
Neden, Doug; Singh, Inder Source: Ozone: Science and
Engineering, v 29, n 4, p 287-290, July 2007

SELECTION OF PIPE MATERIAL


Service conditions
Pressure
Soil loads
Corrosion potential of
soil
Corrosive nature of
water

Availability
Local availability
Experienced
installation
Sizes and thickness
Compatibility with
available fittings

SELECTION
Properties of pipe

Strength
Ductility
Corrosion resistance
Fluid friction
resistance

Economics
Cost
Required life
Cost of maintenance
and repairs

PERCENTAGE OF PIPE MATERIAL


USED
Country
Canada

CI DI AC Steel Plastic/ Concrete Others


PVC
42 12 24
4
15
4
2

US

46 11 20

14

UK

81

10

Germany

55

30

Spain

30

50

15

Netherlands 16

40

40

PIPES IN REGINA DISTRIBUTION


SYSTEM
The distribution system is composed of different
types of materials
The dominant material is AC
Other materials used are Cast iron, PVC and
Steel
Most of the distribution system are constructed in
the last 30 years

LEAD
Lead as household plumbing
20% of all service connections in US have lead
Lead as a plumbing material is also widely used in
Canada

Due to health concerns, there are no new


plumbing done with lead

LEAD

Lead based alloys are also used in plumbing


Most of the existing lead connections are old
Leaching of lead is common from household plumbing
Changes in water chemistry play an important role in
the leachability of lead pipes
Corrosion inhibitors are used to reduce the leachability
of lead

COPPER
Copper is also very common as household
plumbing
Since 1963, 5.3 million miles of copper tubing
installed in US households
Also common in Canada

Copper based alloys are also used in joints and


plumbing systems

COPPER
Copper also has leachability issues in water
The leached copper can often goes through
typical wastewater treatment processes
End up in wastewater sludge
Concern for disposal of sludge

Flushing is often required in the morning before


drinking water

PVC
PVC is very popular as household plumbing
material for new construction
It has less corrosion problem than other
conventional plumbing material
PVC is considered to be inert with the changes
in water quality

WATER QUALITY ASPECTS


Water travels hours, or even days from the time
it leaves the treatment to reach individual
household
Uncertainty of maintaining similar water quality in the
distribution system

There are different types of reactions occurred


inside this large reactors

WQ ASPECTS
Pipe material can interact with the water to
change the quality
Iron oxidation/reduction encourage the presence of
iron and sulphate reducing bacteria (MIC)

Cross connections can challenge the quality of


water in the distribution system

WQ ASPECTS

Water Distribution Systems Handbook

WATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS


Four major sources of chemicals in water
treatment

Coagulants
Disinfectants
Corrosion inhibitors
Oxidants for chemical oxidation

WATER TREATMENT AND DS


The effect of coagulant types on the distribution
system integrity has been explored limitedly
The effect of disinfectants on the distribution
system has been investigated in detail
Chlorine is more corrosive on the distribution system
than other disinfectants

WATER TREATMENT AND DS


Corrosion inhibitors are typically effective on specific
materials
It may deteriorate other types of materials in the distribution
system
Zinc orthophosphate also increases zinc concentrations in
water

The effects of other chemicals on the quality of water


are not explored in detail

WQ CHALLENGE IN DIFFERENT
MATERIALS

Water Distribution Systems Handbook

DISINFECTION
Disinfectants serve two purposes
Restrict microbial regrowth
Protect from microbial intrusion from cross connection

Disinfectant concentration decreases over time due to


protection from microbes
Microbes however grows in biofilms
Reaction with organic

DISINFECTION AND DBP


Disinfectants react with organic matter to form
byproducts
DBPs formed during water treatment process remain
in water (depending upon DBP formation kinetics)
The reaction to form DBP continues in the
distribution systems

CHALLENGING INTERACTIONS
Corrosion
control, microbial
inactivation and
DBPs all interact
with each other
Optimization
needed to
manage these
challenges

Corrosion Control

Microbial
Inactivation

DBPs

WATER QUALITY MONITORING


Mechanism for identifying variations in water
quality over time and space
The resulting database can also be used to
model the distribution system behavior
Specialized monitoring can also support specific
research objectives

WQ MONITORING
Monitoring can be conducted in three different
ways
Laboratory based
Real time monitoring
Online monitoring

Online monitoring is gaining popularity due to


ease of operation

WQ MONITORING
Routing monitoring
Regulatory requirements
Sampling methods
Sampling parameters

Synoptic monitoring
Specific requirements

US REGULATORY LIMITS FOR WQ

Water Distribution
Systems
Handbook

WQ, STORAGE
Water quality can be affected in the storage
Three different types of problems typically
observed
Chemical
Microbiological
Physical

CHEMICAL PROBLEMS IN STORAGE

Loss of disinfectant residual


Formation of DBPs
Development of taste and odor
Increase in pH
Corrosion
Buildup of iron and manganese
Occurrence of hydrogen sulfide
Leachate from internal coatings

OTHER PROBLEMS
Microbiological
Bacterial regrowth
Nitrification
Worms and insects

Physical
Sediment buildup
Entry of contaminants
temperature

MONITORING WQ IN STORAGE
Routine monitoring

Typical parameters
Nitrification
Sediment
Biofilm

Specialized monitoring can also be done based


on the specific requirements

WQ, CONSTRUCTION &


OPERATION
Numerous factors can have an impact on water
quality in distribution system
Appropriate construction and operation practices
can reduce the chances of WQ failures
Most standard operating procedures take care of
these aspects

DISINFECTION OF NEW PIPES


Water mains are expected to be sterile in the
construction site
Disinfection chemicals
Liquid chlorine
Sodium hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite

Appropriate disinfection procedure need to be adopted


Among other considerations are testing new mains,
repairs and disposal of highly chlorinated water

DISINFECTION OF STORAGE
TANKS
Three different disinfection methods are used for
filling tanks
Water disinfected
Tank disinfected
Mixed

Underwater inspection is used for controlling the


quality

CROSS CONNECTION CONTROL


It is any connection between a potable water systems
and source of contamination
Backflow prevention techniques are used to control
cross-connection
Typical backflow prevention
Air gap
Reduced pressure
Atmospheric and pressure vacuum breakers

FLUSHING DS
Flushing is done using a hydrant or blowoffs to improve
water quality
Removes sediment, eliminate low chlorine, solve taste, odour
and turbidity problems

Flushing can be enhanced by closing valves to


maximize velocity in pipes
Switching disinfectants can improve the effectiveness of
DS cleaning

MODELING WATER QUALITY


Water quality modeling complements monitoring
programs
Monitoring programs are limited in distribution
system
Thousands of miles of distribution systems
Widespread monitoring programs are expensive and at
many case not feasible

It can also be useful for prediction of water quality

WATER QUALITY MODELING


The presence of storage tanks bring lot of
variability in hydraulic and water quality
behaviour of the system
Depending upon the water level in the storage tanks,
the quality of water may be affected

Water quality modeling may not be as precise as


results from monitoring programs

EFFECTIVENESS OF WQ MODELS
Fraction of water originating from a particular
source
Age of water in the system
Concentration of nonreactive tracer compound
either added or removed from the system
Concentration and loss rate of secondary
disinfectant

EFFECTIVENESS OF WQ MODELS
The concentration and growth rate of DBPs
Number and mass of attached and free flowing
bacteria
Indirect benefits
Complementing hydraulic models
Help design of tanks and pipes
Minimize risk associated with DBPs

WQ MODELS
Typical water quality models are steady state in nature
Useful for contaminant movement at constant condition

WQ models are coupled with hydraulic models


Common models

EPANET
CYBERNET
H2ONET
Stoner synerGEE

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The actual physical system is
modeled as a network of links
connected at nodes
Links are pipes, pumps or
valves
Nodes are junction, source,
consumption and storage points

ADVECTIVE TRANSPORT IN PIPES

Ci = concentration in pipe I as a function of


distance x and time t
ui = flow velocity in pipe I
r(Ci) = rate of reaction as a function of
concentration

MIXING IN PIPE JUNCTIONS

i = link with flow leaving node k,


Ik = set of links with flow into k,
Lj = length of link j,
Qj = flow in link j
Qk,ext = external source flow entering the network at node k
Ck, ext =concentration of the external flow entering at node
k

TYPES OF MODELS
Steady state models
Assumes that hydraulic conditions do not change
Storage does not affect water quality
Simple to setup and solve

Dynamic models
Takes account of hydraulic changes
More accurate than steady state models

CASE STUDY

System modeling
Design of the field study
Results of the field study
Verification study
Presampling procedure
Analysis of results
Modeling of chlorine residual

MAPS OF CHESHIRE SERVICE


AREA

Water Distribution
Systems
Handbook

ACTUAL VS PREDICTED FLURIDE


CONCENTRATION

Water Distribution
Systems
Handbook

QUESTIONS ??

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