An investigation of the environmental impact of urban road capacity

reductions
OBJECTIVES

ABSTRACT
The road network is a vital medium for surface movements of goods and people, but also a conduit for the distribuRon of essenRal
services such as gas and electricity below ground. CongesRon of the road network is caused by demand exceeding capacity. Various
forms of trac management, for example changes in speed limit, trac calming measures or network design, can lead to a capacity
reducRon on the network. Accidents, roadworks or vehicles infringing on parking restricRons can have a similar eect.

CongesRon has an impact on vehicle emissions and the environment, both of which are becoming increasingly important to decision
makers and road users due to their inuence on air quality and human health. These issues are especially signicant in densely
populated urban areas. While methods exist to represent the relaRonships between capacity reducRon and vehicle delay, these are
less well developed for urban networks, and the inuence of capacity reducRon on vehicle emissions and how the locaRon or
intensity of pollutant emission hotspots may change has not previously been considered.

This poster proposes and demonstrates a methodology for assessing how localised capacity reducRons, focusing on roadworks, can
aect vehicle dynamics and thus vehicle emissions and network performance indicators. Simple relaRonships between the
characterisRcs of the roadworks and key trac engineering parameters are proposed. The methodology is tested using a
microsimulaRon model and a range of roadwork scenarios. Analysis focuses on an urban road network segment and suggests that a
typical roadwork may increase emissions by 100%, 101% and 80% for CO2, NOX and PM10 emissions respecRvely, with an associated
34% increase in delay. The importance of local vehicle acceleraRon paaerns in inuencing the distribuRon of emissions is clearly
seen. Further work to invesRgate the delity of acceleraRon simulaRon in trac microsimulaRon is required to enable idenRcaRon
of ecient trac management intervenRons for management of temporary capacity reducRons.

INTRODUCTION
Road Network

Required for the movement of good and people

Required for the distribuRon of essenRal services

POSTER
P13-5973

MECHANISM OF IMPACT
Signicant economic costs

The Department for Transport (2011) esRmates that the 1.2 million
roadworks in England each year result in a cost to the economy of over 4
billion due to the delay caused. This gure fails to consider the addiRonal
costs of congested trac as highlighted by the Greater London Authority
(2012), for example frustraRon to road users and the environmental impact.

1.2M roadworks in England

each year cost economy 4B

Health impacts
The World Health OrganisaRon (2011) states that 40 million people in the
115 largest ciRes in the European Union are exposed to air that exceeds
WHO air quality guideline values for at least one pollutant. Roadworks, a
typical capacity reducRon, can cause congesRon in a saturated network and
this is expect to increase vehicle emissions.

40M people in 115 largest EU ciRes

at risk due to poor air quality

A localised reducRon in lane capacity will aect the dynamics of individual

vehicle operaRon and therefore emissions and network performance
indicators such as delay. Accurate assessment of emissions depends on
analysis at this level (Smit et al., 2010). Above a certain degree of saturaRon,
this capacity reducRon and the characterisRcs of the associated trac
management may lead to measurable changes in link performance. In
principle, a change in link performance characterisRcs will have an impact on
the route choice and behaviour across the network (Sheu (2006)).

Furthermore, driver behaviour such as sensiRvity to informaRon and
familiarity with the network will aect the level of rerouRng and thus the
extent of the network that is aected by the capacity reducRon (e.g. Hu et al.
(2007)). A key output, therefore, of a microscopic, link-based analysis is to
determine the extent to which a localised capacity reducRon aects the
generalised cost of using dierent links and nodes in the network.

Capacity
Reduction
If degree of saturaRon is
suciently high
E.g. lower
average speeds,
increased delay,
higher fuel usage,
increased local
polluRon

Link Effect
If eects cause changes
in assignment

E.g. changes in
demand and mode,
reassignment of
vehicles, re-
distribuRon of
emissions

Network Effect

Policy implicaRons
Roadworks, also commonly referred to as workzones, are becoming
increasingly important, and are the focus of many pieces of legislaRon and
guidance documentaRon. In London, UK, there is now a formal procedure
that contractors have to follow to gain access to the highway, known as the
London Permit Scheme (LoPS 2009). Other schemes such as the Lane Rental
Scheme (TLRS 2012) force contractors to rent secRons of the carriageway.
Other key documents include the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DMRB 2012), New Roads and Street Works Act (NRSWA 1991), Trac
Management Act (TMA 2004) and the Mayors Code of Conduct (2009).

SCOPE
New legislaRon and guidance
documentaRon in London

In this study we focus on the simple link component of a roadwork in an urban network
In the scenarios explored, the presence of trac management in the form of temporary trac signals is required
The condiRons under which link-level capacity reducRons inuence adjacent links and nodes is idenRed

A series of models built to simulate dierent roadwork scenarios
Underlying theoreRcal framework is based on basic trac engineering concepts

The road network is primarily used for the movement of goods and
people on both the carriageway and footway (sidewalk), which form
the highway. However, the road network is also used for the
distribuRon of essenRal services such as gas, electricity, water and
communicaRon networks. The diagram on the right shows a typical
cross secRon of a road.

ROADWORKS
Image available from: hap://www.infovisual.info/05/025_en.html

CongesRon

When demand > capacity

Impact on environment and network performance

The demand is the number of vehicles desiring to travel along a

parRcular link per unit Rme, and the capacity is the maximum
number of vehicles that can pass through a link using all available
road space per unit Rme (TransportaRon Research Board, 2010).
When demand exceeds capacity, we expect congesRon. The stop-
start driving behaviour in a congested network will result in
increased vehicle emissions compared to a smoother driving
behaviour as would be expected in free ow condiRons. CongesRon
will also have a negaRve impact on network performance by
increasing travel Rme and reducing average speeds.

Capacity reducRon

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

CongesRon
Roadworks are an example of a capacity reducRon and can have a
signicant impact on network performance in a saturated network. If there
is insucient pracRcal reserve capacity, the introducRon of a set of
roadworks will result in congesRon. Roadworks, which can be planned or
unplanned, are a form of non-recurrent congesRon. Non-recurrent
congesRon is the build up of trac due to an incident and is unexpected,
the opposite of recurrent congesRon which is predictable, for example
during the AM peak.

CongesRon

Trac calming
measures

Lack of

capacity

(incident based)

Many
others

Accidents

Pothole lling

Standard works

Major works

RouRne
resurfacing

Streetscape
redevelopment

Parked
vehicles

Roadworks

Planned
Minor works

Image available from: hap://society6.com/IkuannaStudios/CongesRon-Ahead-Expect-Delays-Highway-Sign_Print

Physical reducRon in available road space

Can be planned or unplanned

Immediate
urgent works

Immediate
emergency works

Repair burst
water main

Repair
gas leak

The capacity is dened to be the maximum throughput of a parRcular

segment of the network. The capacity can be calculated as a funcRon of the
green raRo and saturaRon ow. The green raRo is the raRo of eecRve
green Rme g to the trac signal cycle length c. The saturaRon ow, also
commonly referred to as the queue discharge rate, is denoted by s.
By manipulaRng the equaRon above, an expression for the criRcal green
Rme gcrit can be formed. q is the number of vehicles aaempRng to enter
the capacity restrained link and the other variables are as dened above.

Planned v unplanned
roadworks
Are unplanned roadworks
more disrupRve?

Stakeholders

A capacity reducRon is an event, acRvity or process that results in

the physical loss of road space. A capacity reducRon can be
temporary, for example a broken down vehicle blocking a lane or
permanent, for example a reduced speed limit. A capacity reducRon
can also be termed planned or unplanned. A planned capacity
reducRon could be the closing of a lane to carry out rouRne
maintenance, where as an unplanned capacity reducRon could be
emergency roadworks.

Many
others

Unplanned

Management
The management of roadworks varies greatly depending on whether the
roadworks are planned or unplanned, but also based on the severity of the
roadworks. With planned roadworks, the contractor needs to noRfy the
relevant highway authority between 3 days and 3 months in advance of the
works. The contractor and highway authority will then work together to
put in the necessary trac management and ensure the duraRon of the
works and the space required is appropriate for the works to be conducted.
With unplanned roadworks, the contractor informs the highway authority
of the works up to 5 hours aper the works have commenced. The highway
authority may then ask the contractor to stop and put in the necessary
trac management or conRnue. Unplanned roadworks have the potenRal
to be more disrupRve as road users will not have been noRed in advance
and a trac management plan will not be in eect.

Key equaRons

Non-recurrent congesRon

Recurrent congesRon

!
!=
!
!
!!"#$

Blocking-back
Using the diagram below, it is possible to dene an equaRon to esRmate
the criRcal length of the platoon of the vehicles aaempRng to enter the
capacity restrained link that will result in blocking-back into the adjacent
nodes and juncRons. As shown in the diagram below, d is the distance
between the juncRon and the stop line of the temporary trac
management. z is the length of the queue that forms due to the temporary
trac signals and x is the length of the platoon of vehicles aaempRng to
enter the capacity restrained link.

!"!! ! !

There are numerous stakeholders involved with roadworks, including local

residents, road users, roadwork promoters, local authoriRes and central
government each of whom may have dierent agendas and prioriRes.
There is a clear need to invesRgate all of the cost components associated
with roadworks, including the environmental impact, in order to support
decisions about future roadwork management.

!!"#$ ! !

Aravinth Thiyagarajah (a.thiyagarajah@imperial.ac.uk)

Dr Robin North (robin.north@imperial.ac.uk)

Back of
queue

x1
x3

Image available from: hap://27gen.les.wordpress.com/2011/09/sixthinkinghats1.jpg

This poster describes doctoral work supported by the RJRF

and supervised by Dr Robin North, Professor Michael Bell and
Professor John Polak at the Centre for Transport Studies,
Imperial College London

Centre for Transport Studies

www.imperial.ac.uk/cts

x2

!"#$%&'(!!"#$!!"#$!!!!!"#$%&'(!!"#$%&'#!!""#$%

Image available from: hap://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/55503000/jpg/_55503555_55503554.jpg

!
=!
!

Stop line

x = x1+x2+x3 = Length of platoon of vehicles entering capacity reduced link during analysis
timeframe

An investigation of the environmental impact of urban road capacity

reductions
RESULTS

MODELLING FRAMEWORK
In order to assess the impact of urban capacity reducRons, VISSIM (Verkehr In Stadten SIMulaRonsmodell), a mulR-modal
microscopic trac simulaRon sopware was used (PTV AG, 2012). VISSIM has its limitaRons as highlighted by Treiber et al. (2006) and
Jie et al. (2012), however it is the microsimulaRon tool recommended for use in several modelling guidelines, for example Transport
for London (2010).

To esRmate the vehicle emissions, the individual vehicle records from VISSIM were exported into EnViVer, an instantaneous
emissions modelling tool created by TNO (The Netherlands OrganisaRon for Applied ScienRc Research) (TNO, 2012). The emissions
are calculated by assigning each VISSIM vehicle type to an emissions class in EnViVer and applying a polynomial based on
acceleraRon behaviour.
Trac
data

The modelling process, adapted from North et al.

(2009) is shown to the right. Trac, network and
roadwork data support the building and
conguraRon of the trac model, and then the
outputs of the trac model are combined with
the vehicle eet data for emissions predicRon in
the emission model.

Network
data

Roadwork
data

Comparing the juncRon model with no roadworks and a

30m roadwork, 100%, 101% and 80% increases in CO2,
NOX and PM10 emissions respecRvely are observed

Traffic model

VISSIM

Emission model

EnViVer

A 25% reducRon in average speed was observed when a

30m roadwork was introduced into the link model and a
34% reducRon in average speed for the juncRon model. A
similar eect on average vehicle delay was observed in
each case

Vehicle
eet data

CONCLUSION

Trends
149%, 180% and 112% increase in CO2, NOX and PM10
emissions respecRvely between the no roadwork case
and shortest (30m) roadwork case

Comparing the no roadwork case for the link model and
juncRon model, we observe a 69%, 36% and 34%
increase in CO2, NOX and PM10 emissions aaributed to
increased queuing

From the research presented in this poster, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Link level capacity reducRons can have a signicant impact on vehicle emissions and Rme-related network performance variables
Link model results

Length of disruption (m)

CO2 (kg)
NOX (g)
PM10 (g)
Average vehicle delay (s)
Average speed (kph)

0
57.70
154.00
13.99
0.29
52.60

30
143.50
430.50
29.70
26.01
25.73

50
151.10
454.50
31.21
31.92
23.10

70
157.70
475.10
32.53
36.18
21.36

120
171.00
536.60
34.41
78.56
12.83

Length of disruption (m)

CO2 (kg)
NOX (g)
PM10 (g)
Average vehicle delay (s)
Average speed (kph)

0
97.29
299.00
21.17
25.42
21.78

30
194.70
602.70
38.18
38.45
16.46

40
202.40
661.80
39.06
39.90
15.90

70
208.80
674.40
40.29
49.46
13.71

120
201.4
641.90
39.01
82.25
9.28

Model structure
A simple model has been created where a parRal closure
of a link is required and the introducRon of a signalised
contra-ow to maintain the ow of trac. The model,
denoted A is composed of a 300m link, typical of an urban
city centre, and 100m entry links to control the behaviour
of the vehicles as they enter the network.

The image denoted B shows how the contraow has been
implemented with a 10m buer zone on either side to
allow for vehicles to manoeuvre around the works. The
temporary trac signals that are present on the entrances
to the contraow have been programmed with a cycle
Rme of 90 seconds, typical of urban environments. The
green Rme has been set to minimise the queuing of
vehicles but ensure sucient inter-green Rme to allow
vehicles to safely leave the contraow.

600 veh/hr

600 veh/hr
100m Entry link

300m Link (50kph)

100m Entry link

50m contraflow (30kph)

600 veh/hr

Temporary traffic signal

100m Entry link

Temporary traffic signal

115m (50kph)

115m (50kph)

600 veh/hr

100m Entry link

10m buffer zone

(20kph)

Scenarios
In order to invesRgate a range of levels of degradaRon of
network performance, the length of the roadwork was
varied between 30m-120m, represenRng a 10-40%
reducRon in eastbound lane area. As links do not appear in
isolaRon, addiRonal models were created with the
presence of juncRons adjacent to the capacity restrained
link. The signalised crossroads were programmed with a
two-stage signal plan that allows for the same vehicle ow
of 600 veh/hr. As with the link models, the length of the
roadwork was varied between 30m-120m.

Intensity maps for CO2 (link model)

No roadwork

Traffic signals on each

arm of junction

C
Temporary traffic signal

Temporary traffic signal

50m link

The intensity map for the no roadwork case link model

shows a conRnuous grey scale, unlike the maps for the 30m
and 50m roadwork case where there is a peak in emissions
around the roadwork.

The emissions intensity maps for the juncRon model show a
similar trend, however there are addiRonal zones of
increased emissions on the exits from the capacity
restrained link. Comparing the 30m and 50m roadwork
cases, we see a more dispersed map for the 50m case, this is
likely to be due to vehicles travelling in a constant queue
rather than acceleraRng between queues.

No roadwork

30m roadwork

50m roadwork

100m Entry link

Yellow box
junction

Blocking-back

10m buffer zone

(20kph)
115m (50kph)

115m (50kph)

SimulaRon

In total 5 link models and 5 juncRon models were built in

VISSIM. Over 100 simulaRons were carried out, with
mulRple runs for each scenario. Various parameters in
VISSIM such as delay, average speed and journey Rme were
output. Other vehicle specic characterisRcs such as speed,
posiRon and Rme in network were output from VISSIM and
used as an input into EnViVer to esRmate the vehicle
emissions. The outputs from EnViVer and VISSIM were
post-processed in MATLAB and Excel in order to average
across mulRple seeds and to calculate the total mass of
pollutant emiaed from the capacity restrained link only.

Aravinth Thiyagarajah (a.thiyagarajah@imperial.ac.uk)

Dr Robin North (robin.north@imperial.ac.uk)

Focusing on the juncRon model, we observe a reducRon in

emissions across all three pollutants between the 70m and
120m roadwork cases. A possible explanaRon is that vehicles
are blocking-back into the adjacent juncRons, resulRng in a
ow reducRon through the network. This can be conrmed
by calculaRng the criRcal green Rme, gcrit for this network.
For the 70m roadwork, the temporary trac signals have a
green Rme of 30s, which is higher than gcrit, however for the
120m roadwork, the green Rme is 25s, less than the criRcal
green Rme.

For the 120m roadwork, the queue that forms at the
temporary trac signals during the inter-green is not fully
served and the queue becomes a funcRon of Rme.
Eventually z=d and no new vehicles can enter the capacity
restrained link.

This poster describes doctoral work supported by the RJRF

and supervised by Dr Robin North, Professor Michael Bell and
Professor John Polak at the Centre for Transport Studies,
Imperial College London

Improving the realism of the modelling procedure by increasing the complexity and including re-rouRng of trac

CalibraRon and validaRon of the modelling procedure using real-world data
TranslaRng the impact of capacity reducRons on the environment and network performance into a generalised cost which can be
used to support decision making and feed into future policy

50m roadwork

50m contraflow (30kph)

600 veh/hr
(as on all entry links)

FURTHER WORK

30m roadwork

Intensity maps for CO2 (juncRon model)

The posiRon of the stop line for temporary trac management and the eecRve green Rme on the temporary trac signals are
important, especially when the queue that forms during the inter-green Rme extends beyond the link

The research presented in this poster forms part of a wider invesRgaRon that will feed into Mr. Thiyagarajahs PhD thesis. Further
work to address the following will be conducted in due course:

Assessment of the suitability of exisRng modelling tools
Increasing emissions

EnViVer is able to esRmate and output the mass of pollutant

emiaed for CO2, NOX and PM10 for each 5m grid square.
Using a combinaRon of MATLAB and Excel, the outputs have
been averaged across mulRple seeds and normalised
between the dierent scenarios invesRgated. Emissions
intensity maps have then been produced by plo{ng the
total emissions for each grid square using a linear grey scale,
where black represents the maximum emissions.

The length of the capacity reducRon and its proximity to adjacent juncRons is criRcal for determining whether just the capacity
restrained link or the wider network needs to be taken into consideraRon when assessing the impact of a capacity reducRon

The highest emissions are observed with zones of high acceleraRon and this is something pracRRoners should avoid when
conguring roadworks and workzones

JuncRon model results

Intensity maps

MODELLING

POSTER
P13-5973

!!"#$ = 25.96!
for$simulated$network$
!"!! < !!"#$
!!"#$%!!"#$%&'()!!"!!"#$

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Centre for Transport Studies

www.imperial.ac.uk/cts