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Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE20605
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Specialized Dehydration Process
CONTENTS
PAGES
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Process
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1,000
Note:
800
600
400
300
Humidity, lb H
200
100
80
60
40
30
140
20
120
10
8
110
6
4
3
2
1
10
Source:
130
113.5
90
100
70
80
T=60F
20
40
60
100
200
400 600 1,000
Pressure, psia
2,000
5,000
Dow Chemical in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One: Natural Gas;
PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 192, Figure 9-24.
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Process
Specialized Dehydration Process
Equipment
Except for its liquid level controls, calcium chloride dehydrators have no moving parts.
Figure 2 shows the three sections of a calcium chloride dehydrator: separation section, tray
section, and the solid CaCl2 bed section.
Heater
Source:
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Separation Section - As in other types of dehydration systems, the inlet separator removes
free water and other contaminants from the inlet gas. After separation, the inlet gas enters the
tray section above it.
Tray Section - Three to five trays contact concentrated CaCl2 with the process gas. The brine
flows downward and the process gas flows upward. As the brine flows downward, the wet
gas increasingly dilutes it and as the gas flows upward, it is progressively dehydrated. The
trays are specially designed so that the gas velocity is used to recirculate the brine on each
tray. Because very small amounts of brine are formed from large gas volumes, liquid
recirculation is required to obtain good liquid-vapor contact or high tray efficiency.
CaCl2 Bed Section - The top section contains pellets (3/8 in. to 3/4 in.) of CaCl2. The wet
gas rising up from the tray section contacts the pellets. The anhydrous CaCl2 absorbs water in
the process gas and turns into a brine. The brine flows down into the tray section. As the
process gas flows up through the bed it contacts increasingly drier CaCl2.
As the CaCl2 at the bottom of the bed changes to liquid, the rest of the bed settles and takes its
place. Beds with at least 2 ft of CaCl2 pellets provide satisfactory gas dehydration.
In addition to the three sections, Figure 2 shows a heater at the base of the dehydrator. The
heater operates only when the ambient temperature falls below the freezing point of the brine.
Operation
The inlet gas enters the bottom of the dehydrator, rises through the tray section and the bed
section, then returns down the sides of the dehydrator and exits through the outlet. Both the
brine and the solid CaCl2 absorb water from the process gas. Normally, the pressure drop
across the entire unit (trays and bed section) is less than 8 psi.
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Process
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At typical inlet gas temperatures (80F to 100F), the brine that drips from the CaCl2 bed
section contains about 1 lb of water per lb of CaCl2. In the tray section, this brine absorbs
enough water from the wet gas to dilute it to about 20 wt% to 25 wt% CaCl2. With five trays,
a CaCl2 dehydrator removes about 3.5 lb of water for each pound of CaCl2 consumed.
Maximum dew point depressions of 60F to 70F are achievable. For example, a well
producing 1 MMSCFD of gas at 1000 psig and 80F contains about 34 lb H2O/MMSCF.
Reducing this amount of water to a pipeline specification of 7 lb H2O/MMSCF, requires the
removal of approximately 27 lb H2O/MMSCF. If efficiently used, 7.7 lb of CaCl2 would be
consumed in removing this water. At this rate, a 350-lb drum would last 45 days. Minimum
unit capacity is two drums, or 700 lb. These units are manufactured in capacities up to 10 to
15 MMSCFD and in working pressures up to 3000 psig for wellhead use.
Packed nonregenerable CaCl2 dehydrators are also used in instrument gas-dehydration
services. Dryers are available from a number of suppliers.
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
Instead of using high temperatures to regenerate solid desiccants, dehydrators that use the
pressure swing adsorption cycle use changes in pressure to regenerate solid desiccants. As
pressure decreases, the adsorption capacity of solid desiccants decreases. Therefore, pressure
swing adsorption dehydrators cycle adsorber towers between high and low pressures. The
only changes in temperature are caused by the heat of adsorption and desorption. The
desiccant adsorbs water at high pressure. The desiccant regenerates at low pressure.
Pressure swing adsorption is commonly used to regenerate molecular sieves in dehydrators
designed to recover high-purity hydrogen from demethanizer off-gases. Saudi Aramco uses
PSA units to dry instrument air (covered later).
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Process
Specialized Dehydration Process
The separation of hydrocarbon liquids and water from natural gas streams.
If the wellhead pressure exceeds that of the pipeline, then the gas can be passed through a
choke or throttled in a constant-enthalpy Joule-Thomson expansion to provide cooling.
Figure 3 can be used to estimate the magnitude of this Joule-Thomson cooling.
FIGURE 3:
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Process
Specialized Dehydration Process
Equipment - Low-temperature separation units that use hydrate formation use the following
major components:
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Specialized Dehydration Process
Operation - Figure 4 shows a typical LTX separation unit. The following section describes
the process flow of this system.
Source:
NATCO in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One: Natural Gas;
PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 189, Figure 9-19.
If the inlet gas requires heating for use as a heating fluid in the LTX separator, it is heated by
the indirect heater. The inlet gas stream then flows through the hydrate melting coils in the
bottom of the LTX separator. In addition to heating the hydrate melting coils, the gas stream
provides enough heat to prevent the buildup of hydrates and the plugging of the choke located
nearby.
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From the hydrate melting coils, the gas stream flows to the HPKO drum. This drum separates
the free liquids from the process gas stream. The temperature drop from the wellbore at the
system temperature condenses some of the water and the heavier hydrocarbons from the
process gas stream. These liquids may be handled in one of the three following ways:
The HPKO removes all liquids (water and condensate) from the process gas. The
HPKO dumps all of the separated liquids into the lower liquid section of the LTX
(as shown in Figure 4).
The HPKO removes all liquids (water and condensate) from the process gas. The
HPKO dumps the water to disposal and feeds the condensate to the lower liquid
section of the LTX separator. This requires that the temperature of the HPKO be
warm enough (about 100F) to inhibit the formation of hydrates in the liquid dump
valves.
The HPKO removes only water from the process stream. The process gas and the
condensate both pass through the choke.
From the HPKO, the process gas flows through the tube side of the inlet gas/sales gas heat
exchanger. This exchange cools the process gas to the coldest temperature that will not cause
the formation of hydrates on the upstream side of the choke. This low temperature ensures
the lowest separation temperature in the LTX separator and the maximum recovery of
hydrocarbon liquids. To maintain the lowest safe temperature in the heat exchanger, a threeway valve controls the flow of the sales gas through the heat exchanger.
The inlet gas/sales gas heat exchanger also warms the sales gas before it enters the sales
pipeline. Warming the sales gas prevents the cooling of the gas in the sales pipeline to a point
below its hydrate formation temperature.
From the inlet gas/sales gas heat exchanger, the process gas flows through the choke. The
choke expands the gas from the wellbore pressure to the salesline pressure. The choke can
be used to regulate either the flow rate of the process gas or the pressure in the low
temperature separator. The expansion of the process gas in the choke condenses most of the
water and some of the hydrocarbon gas. This expansion also causes hydrates to form in the
choke, but sonic flow breaks them up and carries them into the LTX separator. This flow of
broken up hydrates sounds like pellets entering the LTX vessel.
The liquid, vapor, and solid stream that leaves the choke tangentially enters a cylindrical
spinner box. A tangential entry absorbs inlet momentum, directs the process stream onto the
hydrate melting coils, and helps to separate the vapor from the liquid.
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The hydrate melting coils in the bottom of the LTX separator heat the condensate to 65F to
75F and heat the water to a temperature 15F to 20F hotter than the condensate. Therefore,
the condensate remains the top liquid layer while the hydrates sink through the condensate.
The hydrates float on the layer of liquid water, but beneath the condensate, at the bottom of
the LTX separator. As the liquids flow through the LTX separator toward the liquid outlets,
the hydrates decompose (melt).
Figure 5 shows the temperatures and layers of liquids in a horizontal LTX separator.
Source:
Mapes in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One:
PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 190, Figure 9-20a.
Natural Gas;
If the choke pressure drop is barely adequate, then the HPKO is generally placed ahead of the
inlet gas/sales gas heat exchanger. On the other hand, the placement of the HPKO
downstream from the inlet gas/sales gas heat exchanger allows the removal of additional
liquids, feeds the liquid-free gas to the choke, and generates the lowest expansion
temperatures in the choke.
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Source:
NATCO in Manning, Francis S. and others, Oilfield Processing of Petroleum, Volume One: Natural Gas;
PennWell Books, Tulsa: 1991; p. 191, Figure 9-22.
In Figure 6, the system injects glycol into the inlet gas stream ahead of the inlet gas/sales gas
heat exchanger. The chiller then supplies the required additional cooling to condense the
water and heavier hydrocarbons in the process stream. In this example, the process gas enters
the chiller at about 50F and leaves it at about -20F. This temperature and the other
temperatures shown in Figure 6 are typical, but operating temperatures vary with different
applications.
After the chiller, the cold separator separates the process fluid into dry gas, hydrocarbon
liquids, and water (mixed with glycol). The system then pipes the dry gas to the sales line, the
glycol-water solution to the glycol reboiler, and the condensate to the stabilizer. The glycol
reboiler reconcentrates the glycol. The stabilizer separates the condensate into overhead gas
and natural gas liquids.
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Air Dryers
Saudi Aramco gas plants use air for many purposes and produce the three following classes of
air:
Instrument air
Plant air
Process air
Process Flow
Figure 7 shows the flow of air through a Saudi Aramco gas plant air system. The air enters
the compressors and coolers from the atmosphere. From the compressors, the air enters the
compressed air receivers. After the receivers, the system diverts instrument air from the
process and plant air for further processing. The system then cools, prefilters, dries, and
afterfilters the instrument air.
Air
Process and plant air
Air compressor
and coolers
Air compressor
and receivers
Auxiliary
after- cooler
Instrument
air prefilters
Instrument
air dryers
Instrument
air afterfilters
Instrument
air
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Equipment
Figure 8 shows the flow of air through the filters and the dryers. The prefilters remove
particles too small to be removed by the intake filters. The afterfilters remove any desiccant
picked up by the air in the dryer.
Vent to
atmosphere
Drain
FIGURE 8:
SAUDI ARAMCO GAS PLANT AIR SYSTEM PROCESS FLOW THROUGH AIR
DRYER
As with solid desiccant dehydrators that dry natural gas, the drying of air requires at least two
drying vessels. While one vessel dries the instrument air, dry instrument air regenerates the
other vessel. These Saudi Aramco systems use activated alumina and silica gel for their solid
desiccants.
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Source: Van Air Systems, Inc.; Regenerative Compressed Air dryers; Lake City, PA; p. 6.
FIGURE 9:
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The operation of this dryer is similar to that of other solid desiccant dehydrators. While one
tower dries the air, the other tower is regenerating. Valves at the top and bottom of the
dehydrator direct inlet and product air through the towers. Wet, inlet air flows up thorough
one tower while a portion of the dry, product air flows down through the other.
In Figure 9, the pressure of the inlet air ranges from 60 psig to 150 psig and the dry air used
for regeneration is at atmospheric pressure. At the higher pressure, the desiccant adsorbs
water from the inlet air. At the lower pressure, the dry air strips water from the desiccant and
regenerates it. As with other solid desiccant systems, either timers or moisture analyzers can
be used to control cycle times. The dehydrator in Figure 9 uses activated alumina for its
desiccant.
The following specifications on instrument air dehydration are covered in Saudi Aramco
Engineering Standard SAES-J-901.
Instrument Air Dryers
Dryers shall be supplied to deliver dry air to the air system at a maximum dew point of -4F at
system pressure (75 to 125 psig). The maximum air inlet temperature, inlet flow rate, and
inlet pressure range shall be clearly stated to vendors for correct sizing of desiccant chambers.
Dryers shall be heatless regeneration, desiccant type. Refrigeration type dryers shall not be
used.
Dryers shall be automatic cycle type using two desiccant chambers. An inline continuous
moisture indicator shall be provided in the dryer discharge. One chamber regenerates while
the other chamber adsorbs moisture from the air. Regeneration shall consume less than 20%
of the total air capacity. This consumption shall be included in the system air requirements.
The desiccant shall be a type that does not disintegrate upon contact with water. Activated
alumina is preferred.
Pneumatic cycle timers and switching valves are to be used only in areas where electronic
power is not available.
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ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES,
DEHYDRATION PROCESSES
AND
APPLICATIONS
OF
SPECIAL
This section covers the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of the following
specialized dehydration processes:
Calcium Chloride
Advantages
Calcium chloride dehydrators have the following advantages:
Low-Temperature
Low-Temperature Separation with Hydrate Formation
Advantages
Because of minimal energy consumption, these units have low operating costs.
These units experience minimal corrosion, especially when they do not use hydrate
inhibitors.
With adequate wellhead pressure, these units can achieve pipeline specification for
water and hydrocarbon dew points.
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Calcium Chloride
Disadvantages/Limitations
Calcium chloride dehydrators have the following disadvantages or limitations:
The CaCl2-H2O equilibrium limits the dew point depression they can achieve.
Bridging is the joining or fusing (freezing) of adjacent CaCl2 pellets in the desiccant bed.
Intermittent or cyclic operation of a calcium chloride dehydrator is the most common cause of
bridging. The following situations can cause bridging:
A slight temperature drop freezes the brine that drips off the CaCl2 pellets. This
fuses the pellets.
The dehydrator is removed from service, left idle, and returned to service. While
the dehydrator is idle, a slight temperature drop causes the CaCl2 pellets to fuse
together.
Wet gas or free water contacts the bed, forms more brine, and intensifies an
existing bridging condition.
Low Temperature
Disadvantages/Limitations
Low temperature systems have the following disadvantages or limitations:
The addition of a hydrate inhibition system increases both its capital and operating
costs.
The addition of mechanical refrigeration increases both its capital and operating
costs.
They require adequate wellhead pressure, otherwise they are unable to function
properly.
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Calcium Chloride
Applications
Generally, calcium chloride dehydrators are used to dry small volumes of natural gas that are
gathered from wells located in remote areas. CaCl2 dehydrators are particularly useful for
wells located in areas in which the terrain, climate, or other conditions make servicing
expensive. CaCl2 dehydrators are also useful for offshore retrofits with severe space and
weight limitations.
Low Temperature
Applications
Low-temperature separation systems are generally selected for wells producing sweet gas
with wellhead pressures considerably higher than pipeline pressure.
Low-Temperature Separation Without Hydrate Formation
These systems cannot cool the process gas below its hydrate-formation temperature.
Therefore, these systems require a greater pressure drop from the well to the separator or the
aid of mechanical refrigeration. The addition of a hydrate inhibition system increases both its
capital and operating costs.
Refrigeration-Aided Low-Temperature Separation
Mechanical refrigeration can make up for an inadequate pressure drop from the well to the
separator. However, the addition of mechanical refrigeration increases both its capital and
operating costs.
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
Because PSA systems do not require heat, they are more easily installed than systems that use
heat to regenerate solid desiccants. However, the venting and low-pressure purging of the
regeneration gas produces greater losses.
Pressure swing adsorption is used to regenerate molecular sieves in dehydrators that are
designed to recover high-purity hydrogen from demethanizer offgases. These systems
generally produce very high purities of hydrogen, but they recover only about 70% of the
hydrogen in the gas stream. However, the remaining gas can be used for fuel gas.
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Glycol
Regenerative solid desiccant
Operate effectively in the presence of materials that would foul solid desiccant
dehydrators.
Lower installed costs than solid desiccant dehydrators for smaller plants (Solid
desiccant plants cost about 50% more for 10-MMSCFD applications and about
33% more for 50-MMSCFD applications.)
Lower pressure drop: 5 psi to 10 psi for glycol dehydrators versus 10 psi to 50 psi
for solid desiccant dehydrators.
Lower utility costs: glycol units require less regeneration heat per pound of water
removed than solid desiccant dehydrators.
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Disadvantages
Glycol dehydration systems using TEG have the following disadvantages and limitations:
Dehydrating gases to dew points below -25F requires the use of a stripping gas
and column.
Applications
TEG dehydrators are by far the most common system for dehydrating natural gas. TEG
dehydrators are used unless the conditions listed under the other dehydration systems are
present.
Regenerative Solid Desiccant Processes
Advantages
Regenerative solid desiccant dehydrators have the following advantages:
Small changes in gas pressure, temperature, or flow rate affect them less than other
dehydrators.
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Disadvantages
Solid desiccant dehydrators have the following disadvantages or limitations:
Applications
Solid desiccant dehydrators are generally used for the following applications:
The dehydration of natural gas to dew points low enough for cryogenic processing
(below -30F).
To recover hydrocarbon liquids from lean (0.5 GPM C3+ or less) natural gas (often
with refrigeration).
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Dew Point
Capacity
Cost
Maintenance
Materials
Dew Point
All of the dehydration processes discussed in this module can meet natural gas pipeline
specifications (7 lb H2O/MMSCF). With the use of a stripping gas, TEG systems can
dehydrate natural gas streams to 0.5 lb H2O/MMSCF. Solid dessicants that use molecular
sieves can dehydrate natural gas streams to 1 ppm(vol) of water.
Capacity
Solid desiccant dehydrators most efficiently dehydrate the largest capacities of natural gas.
Calcium chloride dehydrators efficiently dehydrate natural gas gathered from small wells in
remote areas.
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Cost
Figure 10 summarizes and compares the relative operating costs of dehydration processes.
DEHYDRATION
PROCESS
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
Calcium Chloride
Low
High
Glycol
Moderate
Moderate
Low Temperature
Moderate
Solid Regenerative
Desiccant
High
Low
(Moderate to High if
Refrigeration is Used)
High
Maintenance
None of the dehydration processes discussed in this module require a lot of maintenance.
Calcium chloride dehydrators periodically need to be reloaded with solid desiccant. Because
of the high cost of replacing the contaminated desiccant, solid desiccant dehydrators require
more monitoring than the other dehydration processes. Also, for efficient operation, the
drying cycles of solid desiccant dehydrators that do not use moisture analyzers for control
require periodic adjustment.
Materials
Only nonregenerative dehydrators need a constant supply of materials. Glycol dehydrators
require periodic additions of glycol to replenish losses. Solid desiccants need large
investments in desiccant when they are started, but do not require replenishment until the
desiccant bed can no longer economically dehydrate natural gas. Except for calcium chloride
dehydrators and solid desiccant dehydrators that use pressure swing adsorption, all of the
dehydration processes require continuous supplies of fuel or heat. Solid desiccant
dehydration systems need additional piping and instrumentation to control the
adsorption/regeneration sequence.
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GLOSSARY
HPKO
inlet gas
instrument air
LTS
LTX
LTX separator
Merox
process gas
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