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3D implicit geological modelling of a gold deposit from a structural geologist's point


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Location: Uppsala (Sweden)
Journal Name: Proceedings to 12th SGA Biennial Meeting
Conference End Date: Aug 15, 2013
Conference Start Date: Aug 12, 2013
Research Interests:
Structural Geology, Orogenic Gold Systems, Lode Gold Deposits, 3D Implicit
Modelling, and Leapfrog Mining<div>()</div>

3 D i m p l i c i t g e o l o g i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f a g o l d
d e p o s i t f ro m a s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g i s t s p oi n t
v i e w
S t e f a n A . Vo l l g g e r , A l e x a n d e r R. C r u d e n
School of Geosciences, Monash University, Australia

o f

E. Jun Cowan
Orefind Pty Ltd, Australia
Abstract.
Tectonic processes and the resultingdeformation of Earths crust are known to
control andinfluence the location as well as shape of ore bodies.Furthermore, ore
body geometries and associated spatialrelationships provide fundamental clues to
the genesis of ore deposits. Therefore, it is important to establishconsistent 3D
geological models to visualise and analyseore delineation in order to understand the
controls onmineralisation processes. Implicit modelling generatesobjective 3D
geological models directly from drill-holedata. Instead of manual linkage of handdigitised 2Dcross-sections, mathematical interpolation functions areused to
generate 3D isosurfaces. These surfaces canrepresent ore grade shells, lithological
boundaries or structural trends. The 3D implicit model can be used todefine ore
body geometries, grade continuity direction(s)and spatial relationships between
mineralisation,lithological boundaries and major structures, helping toexplain the
structural evolution of ore deposits. Workinghypotheses based on these geometrical
analyses aresubsequently validated in the field. Our case study at AngloGold
Ashantis Navachab gold mine (Namibia)shows that high grade mineralisation
trends obtainedfrom a 3D implicit model can be directly linked to fieldobservations,
suggesting a structural control on goldmineralisation during the growth and lockup
stages in theformation of a nearby regional scale dome.
Ke y w ord s .
Implicit modelling, folding, orogenic gold,Navachab
1 Introduction
The world-class orogenic gold deposits in the YilgarnCraton (Hodkiewicz et al. 2005)
and the famous vein-hosted gold deposits of central Victoria (Cox et al. 1991)are
well known examples of structurally controlled goldmineralisation. These and many
more deposit types, suchas iron ore and V(H)MS, have shown to be generatedand/or
influenced by tectonic forces, resulting indeformation manifested at regional to
deposit scales asductile and brittle features such as folds, faults and shear zones.
Consequently it follows that the shape, orientationand spatial distribution of ore
bodies and their host rocks provide important information on the role
thatdeformation plays in controlling mineralisation.Therefore, the visualisation and
precise positioning of mineralisation, lithological boundaries and
geologicalstructures of an ore deposit are fundamental.
2 Three dimensional geological modelling
Modern computational tools allow us to process vastgeological datasets and assist
in generating 3Dgeological models. Two major modelling methodologiesare
employed, termed explicit and implicit modelling.The traditional explicit modelling
technique is thecurrently accepted industry standard (Cowan et al.2011), and it is
therefore used in most 3D geologicalmodelling software packages. It is mainly
based on themanual definition of boundaries by digitisation. Explicitmodelling
therefore follows a traditional approach by producing a digital version of former
hand-drawn crosssections and linking them to form 3D bodies. Its basicconcept
emerged out of computer aided designapplications (CAD) and is, strictly speaking,
not suitablefor modelling in data-rich and geometrically complexgeological
environments. Indeed, the explicit approachregularly forces the model creator to
manually adapt andsimplify the model to overcome technical problems(such as
invalid triangulations) and to keep within a practical and financially feasible
timeframe.Additionally, explicit modelling cannot incorporatestructural field

measurements (e.g., foliation, bedding)directly into a 3D geological model; such


data have to be processed and analysed separately, and are thereforedisconnected
from the model. A further major shortcoming is the inability to make simple updates
andchanges when additional or new data becomes available.Changes have to be
applied manually to all filesdownstream to achieve a coherent geological
modelagain. In summary, explicit geological modelling is asubjective, time-intensive
and non-repeatable process inwhich geological interpretation is inherited from
theoutset; hence its use for the purposes of structuralinterpretation must be viewed
with caution.Conversely, implicit modelling (Cowan et al. 2003) iscapable of
generating internally consistent 3Dgeological models directly from drillhole and
outcropdata without manual digitisation. Implicit modellingallows the construction
of 3D (iso-) surfaces and solidsthat are defined by a single mathematical
volumefunction (implicit function), which is calculated byspatial interpolation of
numerical (e.g., assay) and non-numerical (e.g., lithology) data. These attributes
makethe processes of implicit modelling repeatable and theyminimise model bias,
making it suitable for use in thestructural analysis of ore bodies.
3 Active folding and mineralisation
In compressional tectonic settings, active folding(buckling) is a prevalent and
important deformationmechanism. Buckling initiates when layers of
differentcompetence (e.g. sedimentary packages) are shortened parallel to layering
(e.g., Fossen 2010).In fold-related settings mineralisation, commonlyclassified as
pre-, syn- or post-deformational based onstructural relationships, petrographical
analysis and/or geochemical evidence, can be linked to the four mainstages of
active folding in systems characterised by pureshear: (1) initial homogeneous
shortening, (2) nucleationof a buckling instability, (3) amplification of buckle-folds
and (4) lockup (Schmalholz 2012). Depending onthe stage of folding during which
mineralisation occurs,geometrically distinct high grade ore zones can form
atdifferent preferred sites with respect to a fold.The nucleation of folds is mainly
determined by initialheterogeneities, which may play a role in thedevelopment and
preservation of certain types of mineraldeposits. For example, in the case of V(H)MS
deposits,heterogeneities that have the potential to control foldnucleation include
the mound shape of primarilyaccumulated massive sulfides, associated faults or
therelative incompetence of massive sulfides themselves.During the fold
amplification stage, the highest shear strain is reached along the inflection lines of
folds.Maximum layer-parallel displacements due to flexuralshear/flexural flow are
confined to these areas, potentially forming low-pressure zones of
maximumdilation, thereby generating suitable traps for ore bearingfluids.When
considering regional-scale folding, the significantuplift generated by the fold growth
will result in elevatedthermal gradients, increased weathering and reducedconfining
pressures. The latter can encourage hydraulicfracturing to produce veins (Cox and
Etheridge 1987),which are important for emplacement of vein-hostedmineralisation.
4 Case study Navachab (Namibia)
The Navachab open pit gold mine (owned by AngloGoldAshanti Ltd.) is situated 5km
southwest of Karibib, Namibia, within Neoproterozoic amphibolite
faciesmetasediments of the Pan-African Damara Orogen.Mineralisation occurs in two
main styles: 1) early bedding-parallel massive sulfide bodies (ore shoots)mainly
consisting of pyrrhotite, quartz, calc-silicateminerals and carbonate, and 2) beddingparallel as wellas highly discordant sets of quartz-sulfide veins, mostlycomprising
quartz and pyrrhotite with minor pyrite andchalcopyrite. Crosscutting mafic and

felsic dykes postdate gold mineralisation. Several diorite andleucogranite intrusions


are located within 5km of the Navachab deposit, but there is no direct connection
between the mineralised system and any major intrusive body (Steven et al. 2011).
The most likely source of themineralising fluids are mid-crustal fluids in
equilibriumwith Damaran metapelites that underwent progrademetamorphism
under amphibolite to granulite faciesconditions (Wulff et al. 2010). Recent structural
studies by Kisters (2005) indicate that veining occurred duringfolding, pointing to an
origin consistent with orogenicgold deposits.
4.1 Implicit 3D modelling
Data for implicit 3D modelling was extracted from Navachabs existing drillhole
database. The collar,survey, geology and assay tables were imported into
thesoftware package Leapfrog Mining (version 2.4) tocompute an initial implicit 3D
model based exclusivelyon drillhole data.First, an implicit 3D lithological model was
generated.Lithology and unit codes were grouped into formationsand used to
compute formation boundaries. No manualdigitisation, which could introduce a bias
in the model,was carried out. An isotropic interpolation (= no preferred orientation)
was chosen to keep the modellingresults as objective as possible. In order to
constrain the3D model to the volume where drillhole information wasavailable, a
visualisation buffer with a radius of 60m(adjusted to the drillhole spacing) was
generated alongevery drillhole trace (Fig. 1). The resulting lithologicalmodel
revealed a generally NE bedding trend of the NWdipping metasedimentary units.
Bedding steepens and itsstrike changes slightly at depth. Analysis of the maingoldhosting marble unit (Okawayo Fm) shows that itstrue thickness varies both laterally
and vertically.
Fi g u r e 1 .
Implicit 3D lithological model of the Navachabdeposit with a 60m visualisation
buffer along each drillhole
For the computation of ore grade shells (implicit 3Dassay model), approximately
197,000 assay sampleswere reduced to about 90,000 data points by
convertingthem into 4m composites. This was done to reducecomputational time
and to ensure that all samplesrepresent an equal volume. The histogram of ore
gradesfrom the 4m gold composites reveals a positively skeweddistribution, which
is common for gold assaydistributions, but a problem when modelling gradevalues
with an interpolant that uses a weighted sum of the data (as in Leapfrog Mining). A
nonlinear logarithmic transformation reduces this effect. In thenext step,
isotropically (= no imposed trend) interpolated3D ore grade shells were computed
for cut-off gradesrepresenting low and high-grade mineralisation. Analysisof the 3D
grade shells allowed us to identify distincttrends and geometries of gold
mineralisation.Additionally, an implicit 3D bedding trend model based

on bedding measurements extracted from regionalgeological maps and additional


field measurements wasgenerated to investigate the spatial location of
themineralisation within a regional context.
4 . 2 Fi e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s c o m p a r e d w i t h i m p l i c i t 3 D m o d e l l i n g
results
The initial 3D implicit model allowed us to identify keyareas for fieldwork in the
Navachab Main Pit. Surfacemapping revealed that one type of gold mineralisation
ishosted in stacked, folded quartz-sulfide veins that vary inthickness and form
shallowly dipping packages of higher vein frequency. The mean principal vein
orientationcalculated from field measurements resembles theorientation of the
implicitly modelled, shallowly dippinghigh grade mineralisation within the Lower
Schist (Fig.2). Depending on host rock rheology (silicified biotiteschist versus
marble), the auriferous vein packages aretightly to openly folded and crosscut
subvertical beddingat a high angle (Fig. 2). The latter suggests that veiningoccurred
when bedding was already rotated tosubvertical attitudes, pointing towards
emplacementduring the final lockup stage of regional scale folding.The lateral
extent of the quartz-sulfide veins is restrictedand is most probably controlled by
changes in host rock lithology; this is also supported by the implicit 3Dmodel, and
suggests that gold mineralisation is preferentially hosted at the contacts between
and withincertain geological formations.
Fi g u r e 2 .
Vertical WNW-ESE slice through the central part of the Navachab Main Pit (pit face
green) and the isotropicallyinterpolated high-grade ore zones (grade shells in
red).Schematic annotations of mineralisation trends observed in thefield are
indicated in blue.
Sub-vertical (bedding-parallel) quartz and quartz-sulfideveins were also mapped in
the Lower Schist of the Navachab Main Pit. Their unfavourable orientation parallel to
the pit face has limited their recognition in thefield, but they have been identified in
drill cores fromsub-horizontal dewatering holes (Deltenre 2012). Thegeometry and
orientation of the computed high-grade oreshell within the Lower Schist also
suggests the existenceof bedding-parallel gold mineralisation (Fig. 2).Ambiguous
and mutually crosscutting relationships between the bedding-parallel and the
discordant veinsystems are consistent with contemporaneousemplacement during
the late stages of regional foldgrowth and lockup. The highly discordant vein set
isoriented sub-parallel to the horizontal principal
compressive stress 1 expected for the regional folding
event. In contrast, bedding-parallel veins are oriented
perpendicular to 1 and were
most probably generatedunder high fluid pressure conditions, being emplacedalong
planes of strong mechanical anisotropy such as bedding. This might explain their
limited abundance andlower thickness due to their unfavourable orientationwith
respect to the main stress field. Additionally, bedding-parallel veins observed in
drillcore from theUpper Schist are boudinaged, which is consistent withthe bulk
strain regime that folded the discordant vein setduring late stage fold
lockup.Mapping of the auriferous massive sulfide lenses was not possible because of
limited exposure and ongoingmining activities. Nevertheless, we were able to
improveunderstanding of their occurrence based on availabledata. Bedding
measurements extracted from regionalgeological maps and collected in the field
were used tocompute a regional implicit 3D bedding trend model.The data suggests
a spatial relationship between a firstorder domal structure (Karibib dome) and the

auriferousmassive sulfide lenses (ore shoots). The ore shoots wereemplaced near
the inflection line of the regional domessteep NW limb, where shear strain reached
peak valuesduring fold amplification. This is in agreement with themodel proposed
by Kisters (2005) that interprets themassive sulfide lenses as dilational jogs that
openedduring flexural flow along bedding parallel slip planesduring the
amplification of the Karibib Dome.
5 Conclusion
Our case study at Navachab shows that implicitmodelling in combination with
selective structuralfieldwork is a powerful technique to identify andevaluate
structural controls on deposit and regionalscales, thereby improving the
understanding of therelationship between mineralisation and deformation.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our industry partner AngloGoldAshanti Ltd for their generous
support as well asAusIMM for funding (Bicentennial Gold Endowment).We are grateful
to Jane Allen (AGA ExplorationManager Brownfields, Continental Africa Region),Frik
Badenhorst and Navachab`s chief geologist GrahamBell and his team for their
abundant and helpful support.
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