Whoselandis'wasteland'?

ByKannanKasturi
Bythesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,theBritishgovernmenthadcodifiedaseriesoflawstoenableittoextractasmuchas
it could from the acquisition, sale and transfer of lands and forests. Unfortunately, republican India has not broken with
colonial law and policy even in the 21st century, continuing with the policy of considering as public land all land not
assessed for revenue and taking over such land after declaring it forest or wasteland irrespective of the history of
occupationanduse

Landtodayisatthecentreofabitterstrugglebetweengovernmentandprivateindustry,ontheonehand,andrural
communitiesontheother.
Thegovernmentrecogniseslandasprivatelyownedifanindividualhasanauthorisedpattaortitleotherwisethelandis
consideredStateproperty.Inpractice,landthatisnominallyheldbythegovernmentmaybeacommonpropertyareasuch
asatraditionalvillagegrazingsite,villageforestorlandadjacenttoaseasidefishingvillageusedbythecommunity,an
areaoccupiedbypeopleformanygenerationswithouttheStateprovidingthetitle,anareadeclaredtobeaforestwherethe
Statehasnotsettledrights,orperhapslandthathasbeenencroachedupon.
Whengovernmentprovisionslandforindustry,infrastructureormining,thelandtypicallyincludesbothgovernmentland
andprivatelyownedlandtheruralcommunitieswhichdependonthatlandandonthelocalenvironmentarefacedwith
lossoflivelihoodandthetraumaofdisplacement.Individuallandtitleholdersareprovidedmonetarycompensationas
dictatedbythecolonialLandAcquisitionAct(seebox),acompensationthatisneverenoughtoreplacefullythelossofland
assetsandaccesstocommonresourcesandallowcontinuanceinthesameoccupationthosewithouttitlesgetno
compensation,as,accordingtothegovernment,theyhadnopropertyinthefirstplace.
Rehabilitationispromisedinpolicy.Butthepolicyisbasedontheviewthatanylossofrightsofthoseaffectedhasalready
beencompensated.Itisthusahumanitarianact,anactofbenevolencebytheState,ameasuretomitigatethesufferingof
affectedcitizenstotheextentpermittedbyexternalcircumstancesandsubjecttovariousconditions,nomoreorlessthan
whatthegovernmentwoulddoforvictimsofanynaturalcalamity.Thereiscertainlynoassurancethatallthoseaffectedby
theStatesacquisitionoflandwillbesorehabilitatedthattheyareatleastabletomaintaintheirstandardofliving.
Thereisclearlyagreatdivergencebetweenruralcommunitiesandthegovernmentonhowtheyviewland,itsownership
anduserights.Thisdivergencearoseinthecolonialperiodwhichiswhenmuchofthelawandpoliciesrelatingtoland
werelaiddown,andhascontinuedtowidenoverthelast60yearsofdemocraticallyelectedgovernments.Therestofthis
essaywillelaborateonthisdivergenceofviewthatisattherootoftheconflict.

Institutionofprivatepropertyrightsinland
Privatepropertyrightsinland,includingtherighttosellandmortgageland,cametobefirmlyestablishedinIndiabythe
secondhalfofthe19thcentury,drivenprimarilybythecolonialStatesneedtoincreaselandrevenue.
Landrevenue,thetaxoncultivation,wasthemainsourceofStaterevenuewhentheBritishstartedtakingcontrolofterritory
inIndia.Thecolonialadministrationwaskeenlyinterestedinfindingwaystoincreasetaxcollection.Surveyandsettlement
operationswerecarriedoutwhichrecorded,villagebyvillage,everyfieldandholding.Thesurveysnotonlyclassifiedand
evaluatedtheland,butalsorecordedrightsovertheland.Settlementreferredtothefixationoflandtaxalongwiththeterm
forwhichtheassessmentwastoholdgood.
Thecolonialadministrationexperimentedwithvariousmodesofcollectingtax.IntheBengalPresidency,revenuecollection
wasentrustedtothezamindarswiththePermanentSettlementof1793,andtheywererecognisedastheactualproprietors
oftheestatesthoughtheyhadbeenonlyrevenuecollectorsearlier.IntheBombayandMadrasPresidencies,taxwas
directlycollectedfromindividualcultivatorswhosetitletothelandalsoderivedfromStateauthorisation.Therighttotransfer
landbysaleormortgagewasensuredinaseriesofcodifiedlaws,startingin1859(Vani,2002).Thiswasnecessaryforthe
Statetobeabletoenforcethepaymentoflandrevenueunderthreatofitsattachmentandsale.

Governmenttakeoverofcommonandpublicland
TheStateauthorisationofprivatepropertyrightsinlandalsoresultedintheseparationofpubliclandfromprivatelandand
facilitatedthetakeoverofpubliclandbythecolonialgovernment.
Landnotundercultivation,termedwasteland,asitdidnotproviderevenue,wasdeclaredtobelongtotheStateandtaken
overbytherevenuedepartment.Suchlandincludedlandsnearvillagesthatweretraditionallyacommonresource
availabletothevillagersforgrazingandotherpurposes.Suchlandwasalsosoughttobebroughtunderrevenue
settlement.Titletosuchlandwasofferedforconsiderationtolocallandlordsandthegeneralpublicthroughanorderofthe
CourtofDirectorsoftheEastIndiaCompanyin1856,andrulesforsellingwastelandswerepublishedin1864(Vani,
2002).
Priortocolonialrule,ruralcommunitiesenjoyedtheuseofforestsneartheirvillages.Personaluseofforestproductswas
typicallynottaxedbytherulers.Forestswerealsohometolargenumbersofforestdwellerswhocontinuedtolivegenerally
undisturbedbytherulers.
ColonialinterestintheforestsstartedwiththeextractionofteakfortheBritishnavy,laterextendingtotimberforIndias
rapidlyexpandingrailnetwork.Initially,villagecommunitiesalsohadaccesstotheforests,butitwassooncleartothe
colonialadministrationthattheywerecompetingforthesameresources.TheIndianForestAct,firstenactedin1865,
assertedtherightoftheStateoverforestresourcesandtheforestdepartmentwascreatedtomanagethoseresources.
ItssuccessorActin1878recognisedforestsasvaluablepropertyandprovidedforcompleteStatecontrol.Forestswere
categorisedasreserveforests(reservedexclusivelyforStateuse)andprotectedforests,wherepeopleweregivensome
useprivilegesbytheforestdepartmentwhichcouldalsobetakenaway.Customaryrightsofexistingforestdwellerscould
beextinguishedthroughpermanentforestsettlementsbytheforestdepartmentafterprovidingcompensation,followingthe
provisionsoftheLandAcquisitionAct,afterwhichtheywouldbeevictedfromtheforest.Withoutanynotionoflegal
ownershipandwrittenrecordofrights,thesecommunitieswereatthemercyoftheforestdepartment,whichwoulddecideif
theyhadrightsorjustlabelthemencroachers.By1939,188,500sqkmoflandinundividedIndiahadbeennotifiedas
reserveforest,forestdwellersevictedandthelandbroughtundercommercialforestryoperations(Milward,1947).
ContinuityinlawandpolicyafterIndependence
RepublicanIndiadidnotbreakwithcoloniallawandpolicy.ThecolonialIndianForestActwasretained.Statecontrolled
commercialforestrycontinued,butprivateindustrywasalsoallowedaccesstoforests.Farfromrectifyingthewrongsofthe
colonialperiod,thetraditionalandcustomaryrightsofmillionsofforestdwellerscontinuedtobeignored.
Inthe1970sand80s,legislationinreactiontoincreasingconcernforprotectionofwildlifeandenvironmentresultedina
furthersetbackforforestdwellers.TheWildlifeProtectionActof1972,forexample,allowingforthecreationofnationalparks
andsanctuaries,continuedwiththepracticeofignoringtraditionalandcustomaryrightseventhoughsuchcustomarylaw
wasnowrecognisedinmanycountriesoftheworldwithnativecommunities.Theprocedureforsettlingrightsinreserve
forestsaswellasnationalparksandsanctuarieswasderivedfromthecolonialLandAcquisitionActof1894.Absolute
powerremainedinthehandsofgovernmentofficialstodeterminethefateofthoselivinginlandsdeclaredforestsor
sanctuaries.

TheStatecarriedonwiththepolicyofconsideringalllandnotassessedforrevenuetobepubliclandandtakingoversuch
landafterdeclaringitforestorwastelandirrespectiveofthehistoryofoccupationanduse.
Vastlandsofformerprincelystatesandformerzamindarsweredeclaredforeststhroughblanketnotificationsreminiscentof
thecolonialperiod,withoutsettlingtherightsofpreexistingoccupants.Thiswasasubstantialarea26millionhectares,or
over7%ofIndiaslandmass.Theseareassupportedavarietyofcommunitiesincludingshiftingcultivators,membersof
huntergatherertribes,forestbasedsettledcultivators,nomadicpastoralistsandtenantcultivatorsofzamindars,whose
rightstothelandwerecustomary.WiththeStatetakeoverofthelands,thesecommunitieswerereducedtothestatusof
encroachersonlandtheyhadbeenusingforgenerations(Sarin,2005).
TheStatefailedtoexpeditethesurveyandsettlementprocessinareaswhere,forvariousreasons,thecolonial
administrationhadnotcompletedtheprocess,suchasinthescheduledareas.LargepartsofsouthOrissawerenever
surveyed.LandwasoftenindiscriminatelylaidclaimtobytheState.MadhuSaringivesseveralotherexamples(Sarin,
2005):
Revenuelandsettlementscarriedoutduringthe1970sinOrissadidnotsurveyhillylandssteeperthan10degrees
becauseoftheexpenseinvolved.Theyweredeclared(includingtheirunsurveyedvillagesandcultivatedlands)asState
ownedforestsorwastelands.Theselandswerepredominantlyinhabitedbytribals.
In1975,infourdistrictsalone(Thane,Raigad,RatnagiriandSidhudurg),over303,000haofagriculturallandholdingswere
declaredprivateforestwithouttheknowledgeofthemorethan100,000(mostlytribal)cultivators.Withonestrokeofthe
pen,andwithoutanyverificationontheground,theselandswereacquiredandvestedintheState.Ironically,manyofthese
cultivatorsweregiventitlestotheselandsbytheStateinthelandreformscarriedoutafterIndependence.
Overthelast60years,thecontinuationofcoloniallawsandpoliciesthatignoredtraditionalandcustomarylandusehas
resultedinmillionsofpeopletribalcultivators,forestdwellers,fishermen,ruralpoorbeingreducedtothestatusof
illegality,encroachersinthegovernmentseyes,vulnerableandoftensubjecttoharassmentandrentseekingbyforestand
revenueofficialsatanytime.
Thecurrentlandacquisitionscenario
Plansforlandacquisitionforprivateindustryarebeingdeterminedaccordingtothelocationpreferencesandrequirements
ofindustry,andarenotconcernedwiththecurrentuseorproductivityofthelandortheimpactitsacquisitionwillhaveonthe
environmentorthecommunitylivingonoraroundit.Thus,largescalelandacquisitionishappeningaroundIndiasmetros,
portsandharboursandinlandsbearingcoalandmineraldeposits.
Thetargetedlandincludesnominallygovernmentland(wastelandorforest),particularlywhenthelandisonthecoastorin
miningareas.Thepeoplewhohavebeenlivingonsuchland,thoughvulnerabletoharassmentbyofficials,stillmanageto
meetpartoralloftheirlivelihoodneedsfromit.ItiswhenthislandisreclaimedbytheStateforthepurposeofsome
developmentprojectandhandedovertoindustrythattheyfeelthefullimpactontheirlivelihood.Someexamplesofcurrent
developmentsareillustrative.
TheMundraSEZinKutch,Gujarat,iscomingupinphasesovera130sqkmarea.Itincludesaport,anairport,acontainer
terminal,housingandotherinfrastructureforindustry.Thecompanydescribesthelandalreadyacquiredasasparsely
populatedwasteland.Butthislandhasbeensupportingthegrazingandfishingneedsof15villagesofthatareafor
generationsover1,000fisherfamilieshavebeenaffectedbythetakeoverthatdirectlyimpactstheirlivelihood.Theyhave
hadtowageastruggleeventoensureaccessfromtheirvillagetotheseawhichwasbeingblockedbyanairportthatwas
partoftheSEZ.Reportsofenvironmentaldamagefromtheprojectincludethedestructionofseveralhundredhectaresof
mangroveandthefillingandlevellingofcreekstheimpactofthesechangeswillbeseeninthefuture.
AsecondexampleistheplannedPOSCOprojectlocatednearParadeepportinOrissa.Theprojectincludesasteelplant,
township,privateportandcaptivecoalandsteelmines.Theplantandportalonerequireover4,000acresoflandthatwill
reportedlyaffect22,000peoplelivinginsevenvillagesandseveralhamlets.Itisreportedthatvillagershavepattasforonly
about500acresthoughtheyhaveusedthelandforgenerations.Besidespaddyandfishing,theregioncurrentlysupports
successfulbetelleafcultivation.Therearealsonumerouslandlessfamiliesinthearea.Theproposedportislocatedata
placethatservesasabreedingareaforfishandislikelytoaffectthelivelihoodsoflocalfishingcommunities.Theyare
doggedlyopposingtheproject.
Conclusion
Ruralcommunitiesseethelandthattheyhaveusedandnurturedforgenerations,whattheyconsidertobetheirland,the

basisoftheirlivelihood,beingtakenawayfromthem,leavingthemwithoutalifesupportsystem.Theyseethatthe
acquisitionisforprivateindustrythatwillmakeprofitsforitself.Theyfindithardtounderstandthepublicpurposeofthese
projects.Pastexperienceofotherprojectsshowsthemthatdevelopmentpassesthemby.Instead,theyhaveoftentoface
theconsequencesofthedegradationoftheirenvironment,watersourcesandforests.Theyhavebeenwitnesstothe
conditionofthosewhowerebypassedinthepastandfindithardtohavemuchfaithinthegovernmentspromisesof
rehabilitation.Isitthensurprisingthatmanybelievethattheyhavenochoicebuttoresist?
(KannanKasturiisanindependentresearcherandwriteronlaw,policyandgovernance.)
References
1. Vani,MS.CustomaryLawandModernGovernanceofNaturalResourcesinIndiaConflicts,ProspectsforAccordand
Strategies,inRajendraPradhan(ed)LegalPluralismandUnofficialLawinSocial,EconomicandPolitical
Development,PapersoftheXIIIthInternationalCongress,April710,2002,ChiangMai,Thailand,ICNECKathmandu,Vol1,
pp409446
2. Milward,RC.TheIndianForestService:Itsoriginandprogress.UnasylvaVol3,No1
3. Sarin,Madhu.Law,LoreandLogjams:CriticalissuesinIndianForestConservation.GatekeeperSeries116.IIED,2005,
London

Thepublicpurposeoflandacquisition
TheLandAcquisitionActhasitsoriginsinearlyregulationsmadebytheEastIndiaCompanytoacquireland
forroads,canalsandtherailwaynetwork.
By1870,therewasanacquisitionlawthatdefinedtheprocessforacquiringland,determiningcompensation
andseekingjudicialarbitrationincaseofdisputesovercompensation.Thelawcontinuedtobefinetunedand
tooktheconsolidatedformoftheLandAcquisitionAct,1894.
Coloniallegislatorswereconcernedwiththemoraljustificationofthelaw.Privatelyheldlandcouldbe
expropriatedbytheState,butonlytoservesomepublicpurpose,forperformingsomepublicgoodor
satisfyingapublicneed.Whatconstitutedpublicpurposewas,however,notdefinedinthelawbutlefttothe
governmenttodecide.Theacquisition,thoughforced,hadtobeseenasasale.Monetarycompensationwas
determinedbythemarketvalueandanadditionalamountofferedtocompensateforthehardshipimposedby
theinvoluntarynatureofthetransaction.
Aftertheendofcolonialrule,theConstitutionofIndia,byArticle372,allowedallcoloniallawstoremaininforce
untiltheywererepealedbyParliament.TheLandAcquisitionActof1894,inanessentiallyunchangedform,
continuestobeusedbytheStateforthelandrequirementsofthegovernment,thepublicsectorandprivate
enterprise.
IntheearlyyearsafterIndependence,theLawCommissionoftheGovernmentofIndiawasaskedtoreviewthe
LandAcquisitionAct.Reportingthatalargenumberofsuggestionswerereceivedurgingthatthetermpublic
purposebeclearlyandexhaustivelydefined,theCommissionarguedinits10threportin1958thatitwas
neitherpossiblenorexpedienttoattemptanexhaustivedefinitionofpublicpurposes.Itfurtherstatedthatall
thatcouldbeattemptedinthelawwastoprovideaninclusivedefinitionsoastoendowitwithsufficient
elasticitytoenablethecourtstointerpretthemeaningoftheexpressionpublicpurposeaccordingtotheneeds
ofthesituation.
Subsequentamendmentsofthelawretainedtheelasticdefinitionofthetermpublicpurposetosuittheneeds
ofthegovernmentoftheday.
Thepracticeofthelast60yearshasthrownupanumberofissueswithregardtothelegislationthathavea
severenegativeimpactontheaffectedpeople.
Theacquisitionprocessfollowstheauthoritarianmethodsofacolonialadministration,bringingyearsof
uncertaintyandfearintothelivesofthoseaffected.Gettingthebestcompensationofteninvolvesgoingtocourt.
Thosewiththeabilitytoengagelawyersandworkthesystemareabletogetthebenefits,whileothers,usually
thepooranduneducated,areshortchanged.
Themonetarycompensationofferedtolandowningfarmersislinkedtomarketvalueasdeterminedbyrecent

recordedtransactionsinland,thoughitiscommonknowledgethatthesealwaysundervaluetheland.Land
pricesalsoshootupafterpermittedlanduseinanareaischangedbythegovernmentfromagriculturalto
industrialorresidential.Theoriginalownershoweveraredeniedthebenefitoftherevaluationofland.
Thelawnarrowlydefinesthoseaffectedbyanacquisition.Peoplenotowningproperty,suchasagriculturaland
nonagriculturallabourersandartisans,arenotrecognisedasbeingaffectedorentitledbylawtoany
compensation.Largescaleacquisitioncoversthepopulationofentirevillagesandincludeslossofhomesteads
inadditiontolossoflandandlivelihood.Yetthelawdoesnotengageitselfwithissuessuchasresettlementor
rehabilitationofthedisplaced.

ThegovernmenthasrecentlyproposedmajoramendmentstotheacquisitionframeworkwiththeLand
Acquisition(Amendment)Bill,2007alongwithacompanionRehabilitationandResettlement(R&R)bill.It
claimsthatthenewlawswillgoalongwayinstrikingabalancebetweentheneedforlandfordevelopment
andotherpublicpurposesandprotectingtheinterestsofthepersonswhoselandsarestatutorilyacquired.
Anissuethathasbeenagitatingthepublicmindishowacquisitionforprivatecompaniesbythegovernment
canbejustified.
Theamendmentmakesitexplicitthattherequirementsofaprivatecompanyforlandforapurposeusefulto
thegeneralpublic,canbeconsideredapublicpurpose(withthelimitationthatgovernmentwillacquirea
maximumof30%ofthelandneeded).Thephrasepurposeusefultothegeneralpublicseemstohave
sufficientelasticitytoencompassalmostanylanduse.
Oncompensationissues,theproposedlaw,whilerecognisingthatlandvalueincreaseswithchangeofland
useafteracquisition,leavesittothecollectortotakeintoaccountsuchchangewhiledetermining
compensation.
R&RnecessitatedbydisplacementresultingfromlargescaleacquisitionislefttotheR&Rbillwhichspellsout
asetofbenefitsthattheStatewilltrytoprovide,subjecttovariousconditionsandexternalcircumstance

InfoChangeNews&Features,April2008