ENGLISH HERITA

HERITAGE

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

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Thisut
Sed
chapter
perspcovers the principal methods which can be used for the repair and preservation of
concrete, and provides guidance as to when particular treatments might be appropriate.
Rigorous diagnosis of the causes of deterioration and damage is a precondition to
successful long-term maintenance of concrete buildings. A programme of intervention
needs to be robust, transparent and accountable, and based on an understanding of the
buildings history, signicance, condition, local environment, and any risks arising from
the way it is to be used. BASICS
Sustainability considerations, as well as conservation requirements, make it necessary for
the useful life of our built environment to be maximised. Unless there are good reasons to
the contrary, the rst aim of any repair programme should be to keep as much of the
original fabric of the building as possible.
A second overall aim should be to maintain the appearance of the building, but this is not
always possible. Some remedial treatments will eectively conserve the character and
appearance of a historic building, but more invasive and visually disruptive work may be
needed to secure its continued survival and use. Matching repairs to maintain the
aesthetics of exposed concrete creates particular challenges, and if eorts are to be made to
reinstate the original appearance, then it is important to establish exactly what this was.
Once deterioration becomes widespread, repair and remedial work to concrete are
expensive and disruptive to the normal use of the building. Methods for reliable long-term
repair of deteriorating concrete are only slowly being developed. As with other materials,
this requires good knowledge of the material and the way in which it deteriorates, along
with the appropriate skills needed to carry out repairs.

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

ii

NOTES ON VOLUME EDITORS & CONTRIBUTORS

Volume Editor: David Odgers
David Odgers is a stone conservator with over 30 years as practitioner and teacher.
He is an Accredited member of ICON and Senior Tutor for the Building Conservation
Masterclasses Programme at West Dean College. He is a consultant to English Heritage
and lectures widely on conservation.
Principal Contributors:
Catherine Croft, David Farrell, Elain Har wood, Chris Wood,
Jonathan Wood
Catherine Croft, as Director of the Twentieth Century Society, campaigns for the
conservation of 20th-century architecture and runs education programmes to broaden
public appreciation of buildings of the recent past. She is the author of Concrete
Architecture, runs the Conservation of Historic Concrete course at West Dean College
for English Heritage, and writes and lectures extensively about architecture and
conservation. Dr David Farrell is an engineer who gained his PhD in corrosion
engineering in 1984, and was manager of the Inspection and Monitoring Group at the
Corrosion and Protection Centre Industrial Services. He is now the managing director
of Rowan Technologies Ltd, who are consultants to English Heritage, and have worked
on many research and development and advisory projects including trial and full-scale
repairs to both historic and non-historic reinforced and mass concrete structures.
Dr Elain Harwood is a historian with English Heritage, and a Trustee of the Twentieth
Century Society. She completed a PhD on the building of Londons South Bank in 2010
and is writing a book on English architecture 194575, Space, Hope and Brutalism.
Chris Wood, Head of the English Heritage Building Conservation and Research Team,
has been involved in a number of research projects on 20th-century concrete structures.
Dr Jonathan G. M. Wood led Mott MacDonalds SSD team for 10 years, specialising in
investigation and remedial work worldwide. Since 1992 he has directed Structural
Studies & Design, and advised English Heritage and other clients on the repair and
conservation of a wide range of historic concrete structures. For 30 years he has worked
with universities and research organisations developing CIRIA, IStructE, ICE, Concrete
Society and RILEM guidance on structural appraisal and concrete repair. He has
published and lectured internationally and was RAEng Visiting Professor at Aston
University from 1996 until 2006.
Other Contributors:
Colin Burns, Jamie Fairchild, Sarah Pinchin, Brian Ridout

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CONTENTS

iii

The Practical Building Conservation Series ...................................................................v

About This Book ........................................................................................................ vii
Using These Books.................................................................................................... viii
THE DEVELOPMENT & USE OF CONCRETE................................................................... 1
History of Design and Use ......................................................................................... 3
DETERIORATION & DAMAGE .....................................................................................71
Structural Problems................................................................................................. 73
Inherent Problems ...................................................................................................81
Environmental Problems ......................................................................................... 99
Other Causes of Deterioration................................................................................102
ASSESSMENT...........................................................................................................105
Understanding the Building and Its Condition ........................................................107
TREATMENT & REPAIR .............................................................................................145
Strategies for Repair...............................................................................................147
Treatment..............................................................................................................153
Repair....................................................................................................................166
CASE STUDIES .........................................................................................................199
1: Using Traditional Repair Materials .......................................................................201
2: Using Proprietary Materials ................................................................................ 211
3: Combining Traditional and Innovative Techniques...............................................217
4: Large-scale Repairs to Mass Concrete.................................................................227
5: Cathodic Protection ...........................................................................................235
6: Reinforced Concrete in a Marine Environment.....................................................241
7: Repair Using Pre-Cast Panels ..............................................................................253
8: Repairing Mosaic Finishes.................................................................................261

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iv

CARE & MAINTENANCE...........................................................................................267

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................273

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INDEX......................................................................................................................291
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & PICTURE CREDITS........................................................... 306
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................. 306
Picture Credits .......................................................................................................307

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THE PR AC TICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION SERIES

This series of Practical Building Conservation technical handbooks supersedes the

original ve volumes written by John and Nicola Ashurst, and published in 1988.
The series is aimed primarily at those who look after historic buildings, or who work
on them. The ten volumes should be useful to architects, surveyors, engineers,
conservators, contractors and conservation ocers, but also of interest to owners,
curators, students and researchers.
The contents reect the work of the Building Conservation and Research Team, their
colleagues at English Heritage, and their consultants and researchers, who together
have many decades of accumulated experience in dealing with deteriorating building
materials and systems of all types. The aim has been to provide practical advice by
advocating a common approach of rstly understanding the material or building
element and why it is deteriorating, and then dealing with the causes. The books do
not include detailed specications for remedial work, neither do they include a
comprehensive coverage of each subject. They concentrate on those aspects which
are signicant in conservation terms, and reect the requests for information received
by English Heritage.
Building conservation draws on evidence and lessons from the past to help understand
the building, its deterioration and potential remedies; this encourages a cautious
approach. New techniques, materials and treatments often seem promising, but can
prove disappointing and sometimes disastrous. It takes many years before there is
sucient experience of their use to be able to promote them condently. Nonetheless,
understanding increases with experience and building conservation is a progressive
discipline, to which these books aim to contribute.
The volumes also establish continual care and maintenance as an integral part of any
conservation programme. Maintenance of all buildings, even of those that have
deteriorated, must be a priority: it is a means of maximising preservation and
minimising costs.
Most of the examples shown in the books are from England: however, English Heritage
maintains good relations with conservation bodies around the world, and even where
materials and techniques dier, the approach is usually consistent. We therefore hope
the series will have a wider appeal.
Dr Simon Thurley
Chief Executive, English Heritage

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ABOUT THIS BOOK

vii

Despite some public antipathy towards its appearance and concerns about its longevity
and environmental impact, the importance of concrete to the nations architectural
heritage is gradually being acknowledged. Many concrete buildings have now been
listed: from farm buildings, sculptures, houses and churches, to large structures such as
factories, bridges and even whole housing estates. A number of buildings have been
conserved to wide acclaim and this is helping to temper the perceived ugliness of
concrete, as well as successfully extending the lifespan of the buildings themselves.
The vast majority of iconic 20th-century structures have used concrete in some part of
their construction, even if this may not be readily visible. Many concrete structures have
been built to a very high standard; others (for reasons of economy, lack of knowledge,
expediency and poor workmanship or supervision) have been less well constructed, but
are nonetheless of architectural or historic importance and so may require conservation.
The maintenance of this built infrastructure is socially important and, given that
premature demolition and new construction are neither economically or environmentally
sustainable, its conservation also has considerable environmental benets.
This volume considers how historically signicant concrete buildings should be treated,
both in terms of preservation and repair. The interaction of the composite materials
that make up concrete provides additional complexities that do not exist in
homogenous materials. Furthermore, the approach to conservation, both in material
and aesthetic terms, may be dierent to that adopted for more traditional historic
materials, such as stone, timber and plaster. For those materials, retention of a certain
amount of surface decay and weathering is acceptable and perhaps desirable, but on a
more modern concrete building, technical issues and design intent may preclude this,
even though patina can play an important part in its appearance.
One of the problems with conserving this complex material is that, as yet, the number
of concrete conservation projects is small and there has been little opportunity for
long-term monitoring of the results. Materials and methods will continue to evolve,
through improvements in understanding and technology, and as monitoring of
treatments reveals more about good and bad practice.
The book begins with a history of the use and development of concrete as a building
material. The second chapter, Deterioration & Damage, looks at the ways in which
concrete degrades or breaks down, and the third covers the Assessment of concrete
buildings as a prelude for determining approaches to their conservation. Treatment &
Repair describes the range of methods that can be used to deal with the causes and
consequences of deterioration and damage. This is followed by a chapter of Case
Studies, where specic examples are used to illustrate some of these general principles
of repair. The nal chapter, Care & Maintenance, gives guidance on how to maximise
the preservation of concrete buildings whilst minimising long-term costs.

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STR ATEGIES FOR REPAIR

147

Inherent in the British Standards for concrete is a design life of 50 years for general
construction, and 100 years for important bridges and buildings; with appropriate care
and maintenance, the best-designed and best-built concrete structures are likely to last
far longer. Unfortunately, many concrete buildings have had to be demolished because
of premature deterioration.
Eective treatment and repair strategies should aim primarily to address the underlying
mechanisms of deterioration. As with other construction materials, it is exposure to
moisture that is the basis for most decay.
In some cases, works are needed because the building has been neglected or because
previous interventions have failed; in others, because of the inevitable progressive
deterioration that develops in concrete when reinforcement begins to corrode.
In the 1970s and 1980s a growing realisation that concrete was not a maintenance-free
material led to research on the processes of deterioration, techniques of investigation
and diagnosis, and remedial methodologies to repair structures, strengthen them, or
control rates of corrosion and deterioration.

Opened in 1966, the concrete at

the Tricorn Centre, Portsmouth,
deteriorated quite rapidly partly
due to design issues, but also
due to the wet coastal climate.
Attempts to get it listed as a
ne example of Brutalist architecture
were turned down and it was
demolished in 2004, despite an
active campaign for its preservation.

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18
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

One inuential gure from this era was Berthold Lubetkin. He and Tecton built
Highpoint I (comprising 56 ats) during the years 193335. This construction utilised a
method developed by engineer Ove Arup, in which oor slabs spanned external
load-bearing walls and spine beams rested on a central row of columns, thus limiting
the free plan. By 1936, however, when Lubetkin and Arup began Highpoint II, this
problem was resolved. They used a dierent construction, with double-height living
rooms at the centre of the luxury ats. By making the internal cross walls and oors
structural using a box frame the elevations were free to be light and highly glazed;
this technique was to transform post-war building construction.

Highpoint I, Highgate, London,

193335. The ats were originally
commissioned to house staff from
the Gestetner company. Corbusier
described them as an achievement
of the rst rank.

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19

The Penguin Pool at London Zoo

was built in 1934 and brought
together two pioneers in the
concrete construction: the
architects Berthold Lubetkin and
the engineer Ove Arup. The pool is
based on an egg shape with two
spirally intertwining ramps. It was
extensively conserved in the 1990s.

Lubetkin also used concrete expressively, as at the Penguin Pool at London Zoo from
1934, with its two intertwining helical ramps, one of the most enduringly popular and
amboyant examples of concrete innovation.
The preservation of buildings from this period presents particular challenges. Often,
concrete buildings of the 1930s have very thin walls. Furthermore, a range of waste
materials and poor-quality aggregates were used in concrete in the early 1920s, and
some innovations were to prove problematic in the long term. One of these was
high-alumina cement [HAC], rst imported into England in 1922 and used widely in
pre-cast elements well into the 1970s, after which it was banned for structural work
because it was subject to a loss of strength over time.

CONCRETE

THE DEVELOPMENT & USE OF CONCRETE

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

228

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T YNEMOUTH COASTAL BAT TERY

229

NORTH TYNESIDE, TYNE & WEAR

BACKGROUND
SUMMARY
Mass concrete can be more dicult to repair than reinforced concrete, since the steel
can help mechanically bond new patches to the original material and prevent repairs
cracking. Previous repair methods for historic concrete were based on shuttering being
xed (or plugged) into the original concrete, leaving holes which needed to be lled;
these were impossible to conceal. A programme of repairs on the Tynemouth Coastal
Battery tested less-invasive ways of shuttering.

HISTORY
The coastal battery at Tynemouth dates from various periods (from the 1880s to the
1940s) and includes concretes of various compositions, including dierent textures
and surface nishes. The battery has considerable signicance, not only for its use of
materials but for its historical role in the defence of Britain during two World Wars;
as a result, it is a scheduled monument.

CONDITION
The absence of reinforcement had allowed dierent concrete pours to move and settle
relative to each other; the resulting cracks had allowed water ingress. It also meant,
however, that the concrete had not been subject to the corrosion of reinforcement
expected in this marine environment after prolonged exposure. Other deterioration
had occurred due to surface degradation (loss of outer cementitious layer revealing the
aggregate), and mechanical damage from the scrap merchants who removed many of
the embedded steel tments when it was decommissioned.
The coastal defences at Tynemouth
were put in place to defend the
north of England's main outlet for
oil and coal. There are many phases
of building on the site, including this
late-Victorian gun emplacement,
the pit of which was lled with a
concrete store during the Second
World War.

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CASE STUDIES

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186

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE REPAIR OPTIONS

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

In reality, most concrete deterioration arises due to a combination of causes, and therefore most repair will involve
a combination of remedial actions. The table below shows the advantages and disadvantages of repair options,
and the implication of their use, with regard to the signicance and appearance of the building. The table
summarises conservation best practice; for each case the most appropriate repair option can only be established
once the reasons for decay have been understood and assessed.
Repairs that are not proven or inappropriate for historic concrete buildings (for example, corrosion inhibitors,
re-alkalisation) have not been included in these options. Structural repairs (including crack lling) have also been
omitted because they will need specialist assessment.

CAUSE S OF DECAY & CHOOSING THE APPROPR IATE TR E ATMENT & R EPAIR
R EPAIR OP TION

ADVANTAGE S

DISADVANTAGE S

CONSERVATION IMPLIC ATION

E xposure to damp internal or external conditions for concrete with developing corrosion due to carbonation
Patch or large-scale repair
to match original and
leave uncoated

Provides short- to medium-term

solution depending upon the reasons
for the deterioration
Can be combined with moisture
reduction to slow deterioration in
adjacent areas

Surface coatings (paints

and anti-carbonation
coatings) combined with
local repairs using like-for
like or proprietary repairs

Surface impregnation
and sealants

In some locations can reduce ingress

of water to slow deterioration
Can reduce rate of carbonation
Hides repairs and inconsistencies

Reduces ingress of water

Further repairs will be required

at some stage in the future

Aesthetically acceptable for scheduled

monuments and some listed buildings

Any new external repairs

will require time to weather
and establish microbiological
growth to match the original
Can trap water within the
concrete to increase corrosion
rates by preventing evaporation
Needs periodic re-application
Changes appearance
Reduction of moisture may
increase carbonation
May change surface appearance
slightly (by reducing reective
properties of the concrete)

The change in appearance that results

from a new surface coating may not be
acceptable for a listed building
Decisions will have to be based on
assessment of this change against the
possible extension of the lifespan of
the concrete
The slight change in appearance may be
acceptable, but regular re-application
becomes a maintenance issue

Needs periodic renewal

Erect ventilated rainscreen cladding

Prevents the ingress of rainwater and

encourages drying, thus reducing the
corrosion rate

May increase the rate of

carbonation of the original
concrete

Hides repairs and irregularities

Changes appearance

The signicant change in appearance

means that this is the last available option
to be used when the interior of the building
or its elements are more important than
the overall appearance

Provides long-term solution

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CAUSE S OF DECAY & CHOOSING THE APPROPR IATE TR E ATMENT & R EPAIR
R EPAIR OP TION

ADVANTAGE S

DISADVANTAGE S

187

CONSERVATION IMPLIC ATION

E xposure to damp internal or ex ternal conditions for concrete with developing corrosion from chlorides
(c alcium chloride, marine spr ay or de-icing salts)
Cathodic protection

This provides an alternative to patch

repairs and coatings itemised above
In conditions where uniform current
density can be achieved with
moderate voltage it can control
corrosion rate in the long term

Patch repair using

matched or proprietary
repairs

Concrete still requires repair

Requires periodic maintenance
Requires embedded anodes
which will require concealment

If the anode can be suitably concealed, this

can provide a visually acceptable long-term
solution; however, in many cases, this will
require the concrete cover to be replaced
or overcoated

Can cause enbrittlement

of steels

Provides short- to medium-term

solution depending upon the reasons
for the deterioration

Only appropriate where

chloride ingress and corrosion
is localised

Can be combined with moisture

reduction and measures to stop
spread of contamination with
chlorides, to slow deterioration in
adjacent areas

Further repairs will be required

at some stage in the future

Can be acceptable for scheduled

monuments and some listed buildings

Any new external repairs will

require overall coating or time
to weather, and establish
microbiological growth to
match the original

Water ingress from defec tive r ainwater goods, leaking roofs, pooling
Checking rainwater
systems (hoppers,
downpipes, surface
drains and so forth)
are working properly

Keeps rainfall from penetrating into

dry carbonated concrete where it can
cause corrosion

None

Should be part of ongoing maintenance

May require alteration to

original fabric such as installing
overow chutes or cutting
chases for ashing

This might be an acceptable intervention

although may lead to architectural
changes; for example, ashings will provide
a hard visible edge where none was
intended

Reduces risk of frost damage

Water ingress into exposed and v ulner able areas

Install ashings
and covers

Diverts water away from vulnerable

areas to reduce microbiological
growth and discolouration, and risk
and rate of deterioration

Water ingress from design defec ts such as in-built r ainwater pipes or under size hopper s
Amendment of design
faults; improvements
to detailing

Reduces future decay

Changes original architecture

May alter building appearance, and

thus compromise its signicance
and authenticity

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

160

ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS TO PREVENT CORROSION

The corrosion of steel reinforcement is electrochemical in nature, and involves the
movement of charged ions and electrons between anode and cathode. This means
that electrochemical methods oer a way of controlling the migration of charged ions
(such as chloride, sodium and hydroxyl ions), and therefore stopping or delaying the
corrosion reaction of the iron.

Cathodic Protection [CP]

Cathodic protection is not a new process. In 1824, Sir Humphrey Davy presented a
series of papers to the Royal Society describing how CP could be used to prevent the
corrosion of copper sheathing on the wooden hulls of British naval vessels by using iron
as a corroding sacricial anode. This was successfully adopted, and since then CP has
expanded into many other areas as an option for corrosion control and prevention.
Over the past 40 years the technology has been selectively applied to concrete to control
corrosion of the steel reinforcement; although it has proved successful in some suitable
conditions, it can be an expensive option. Initially, most of the applications were on
bridges, car park decks and buildings in marine environments; all situations where
damp chloride-aected concrete had caused the development of severe corrosion. CP
has been used in other situations, but any benet is hard to separate from that which
may be attributed to other repairs (for example, patch repairs and preventing water
ingress) carried out at the same time. The long-term performance of all aspects of the
repair needs to be accurately monitored and evaluated to reach conclusions as to the
success of CP.
In CP systems the reinforcement to be prevented from corroding is supplied with
electrons from an external source (by means of a small DC current) so that the entire
metal surface is forced to act as a cathode (hence the term cathodic protection). It is
essential that CP systems are designed by a suitably qualied specialist, and are tailored
and controlled to suit the specic conguration and variability of the structure and the
developing corrosion.
The primary technique used for concrete is impressed current cathodic protection
[ICCP]. These are complex systems, that can protect large areas of embedded iron and
steel, including steel reinforcement, I-beams, columns and supports, and be used even
where the concrete has a high electrical resistance. They use non-corroding anodes
located close to the embedded reinforcement to provide part of the current pathway,
and an external power supply usually mains-powered transformer rectiers to
provide a DC current to the steel being protected.
ICCP can be continuously monitored and has been eective where chloride
concentrations in the concrete are high. Although installing ICCP systems can be
disruptive, these systems once in place can be relatively discreet, especially where
the anodes can be positioned on internal surfaces.

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CATHODIC PROTECTION
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
The external ow of electrons from
the embedded steel satises the
reaction at the cathode, forcing the
corrosion reaction to cease.

Fe

161

anode mesh

embedded in new

mortar cover

DC POWER
SUPPLY

conductive
repair mortar

Fe2+ + 2e

reaction
stifled

O2 + H2O + 2e

current flow

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

e
OH

OH

2OH

electrons
supplied by
external source
steel reinforcement

EXAMPLE OF INSTALLATION

chase cut in concrete

to expose sufficient
area of rebar to allow
for good electrical
connection

chase made
good with
mortar

DC POWER

SUPPLY

mesh ribbon anode

embedded in mortar
in slot cut in concrete

mesh
ribbon
anode

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

156

Surface Coatings
There are a range of coatings and surface treatments which have been applied to
concrete as a barrier to further carbonation or surface absorption of chlorides, or to
lower moisture level in the concrete; provided they are applied early, these can be used
to improve the durability of concrete.
When applying surface treatments to concrete it is important to consider not only the
appearance of the coated concrete, but the eect of the coating on moisture movement
and the ongoing maintenance requirements (re-application may be needed every 10 to
15 years).
It is essential to ensure that the treatment is applied when the concrete is in a suitable
condition, in particular at the correct temperature and with suciently low surface
moisture content.
Although surface coatings can provide eective treatment, they usually radically alter
the appearance of the concrete, so careful weighing of all options is required; if retaining
the original uncoated surface is important, other treatments should be considered rst.
Once corrosion has started, coatings will be less eective, as they can trap moisture
within the body of the concrete. The evaluation of all coatings should take into account
their possible inuence on moisture content and corrosion rates, especially if the
corroding reinforcement is already in a carbonated or high chloride zone.
In all cases, before coatings are applied, there should also be a quantitative evaluation of
changes in moisture content and corrosion conditions that might arise as a result of
other remedial works. Such changes might occur from:
heating and ventilation of the interior environment
improvements in drainage and rainwater shedding
improvements in the thermal properties, water and vapour permeability of the
interior walls or roof
alterations to the thickness of the wall or roof.
Anti-Carbonation Coatings
Anti-carbonation coatings are intended to restrict the further ingress of carbon dioxide.
The simplest rating of their eectiveness is to nd out the equivalent depth of additional
concrete cover provided. They need to be applied before carbonation has reached the
reinforcement and spalling has started; once the average carbonation depth has reached
the average depth of cover, it is much too late for an anti-carbonation coating to provide
any signicant benet. Although there is evidence that, in some circumstances, after
the application of an eective coating there is a marginal migration of alkalinity
outwards, this only slightly reduces the depth of carbonation.

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157

A number of remedial treatments

were trialled at Park Hill, Shefeld,
to try and overcome corrosion
problems. The intention was to
develop a range of repairs which
would maintain as far as possible the
appearance of the buildings; these
included hydrophobic treatments,
like-for-like patch repairs, anticarbonation coatings and selective
replacement. The anti-carbonation
coatings were matched to the
colour of the cleaned concrete,
but still have a signicant aesthetic
effect as shown in the top of the
image. There were powerful local
demands for the demolition of the
whole estate because of increasing
social problems and its deteriorating
appearance. A drastic solution was
needed and listed building consent
was eventually given for a scheme
which kept the structural frame
and essential form of the buildings,
but replaced the walls, windows
and interiors.

A good anti-carbonation coating may be eective at limiting further damage if spalling

is the result of a few near-surface reinforcement bars corroding due to insucient cover,
and where the majority of reinforcement is set deeper and remains passivated.
Eectiveness is enhanced if the coating is combined with local patch repairs to the
areas of spalling.
Anti-carbonation coatings should not be specied until the results of detailed tests to
establish carbonation depths, cover and spalling patterns are available, and show that it
is not too late for them to be of value.
Anti-carbonation coatings come in a range of colours and shades, but all will change
the surface texture of concrete, particularly on board-marked nishes. Clear coatings
may look unobtrusive when rst applied, but coated surfaces will weather very
dierently to the existing concrete. Preliminary trials of the colour and texture on test
panels should precede trials on the building, since removing coatings without causing
blemishes is very dicult.

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

78

COMMON T YPE S OF CR ACKS IN CONCR ETE

NAME

DE SCR IP TION

POSSIBLE C AUSE S

LONGITUDINAL
CRACKS

Cracks formed after the concrete

has hardened, aligned parallel to the
reinforcing bars

Shrinkage of slabs formed with high

cement content

Corrosion of steel reinforcement

AAR in columns and beams

TRANSVERSE
CRACKS

Fine exural transverse cracks,

most common in columns and
beams; follows the line of the
secondary reinforcement

Corrosion of steel reinforcement

Shrinkage
Thermally-induced movement

Generally precedes longitudinal

cracking

SHEAR
CRACKS

Cracks formed after the concrete

has hardened: unusual

Movement or loading of the structure

PLASTIC SHRINK AGE

CRACKS

Appear on the surface of fresh

concrete soon after it is placed

Excessive evaporation of water from the

setting concrete

Demands closer structural investigation

Often parallel to each other and

relatively shallow

PLASTIC SETTLEMENT
CRACKS

Formed within the rst few hours

after pouring
Usually regularly spaced and
following the line of the uppermost
reinforcement, giving a series of
parallel cracks
May also be shorter cracks at right
angles over the bars running in the
opposite direction

SURFACE CRAZING

CONCRETE 21 APR ALTA.indd 78

Fine random cracks or ssures on

the surface of concrete mortar;
rarely more than 3 mm deep

Settlement of fresh concrete has been

restrained, causing differential settlement
of the aggregate and cementitious mix
As water moves upward through the mixture,
the denser constituents move downward; this
downward movement may be obstructed by
the top layer of reinforcement or by
the shuttering

Usually due to poor or inadequate curing

The mix being too wet or excessive oating
allows for excessive concentration of cement
and ne aggregate at the surface

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79

TYPICAL LOCATION & APPEARANCE OF STRUCTURAL & NON-STRUCTURAL CRACKING

This diagram provides general
guidance, but each situation
must be individually assessed.

BENDING

A Plastic settlement

TENSION

B Plastic shrinkage

SHEAR

C Early thermal contraction

TORSION

D Long-term drying shrinkage

BOND

E Surface crazing

CONCENTRATED LOADING

F Corrosion of reinforcement
G Alkali-silica reaction
H Longitudinal
I

D
F

D
C

Transverse

A
C

G
5

CONCRETE

DETERIORATION & DAMAGE

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76

NON-STRUCTURAL CRACKING

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

Non- structural cracking is a characteristic feature of reinforced concrete, and in most

cases has little eect on strength or durability. Much of it develops during the
construction process and thereafter stabilises, and so it is distinct from the slowly
developing cracking due to long-term deterioration.
The shrinkage of cement paste relative to the reinforcement and aggregate is a
signicant factor in cracking and micro-cracking. Wetting and drying produces a cycle
of swelling and shrinkage of the paste, and allows moisture transport in the surface
layers of the concrete. This often produces surface crazing due to the dierential
between the surface and the more stable interior.
The constituent materials of concrete have diering thermal coecients of expansion;
together with temperature and moisture gradients, these are major factors in the
non-structural cracking of reinforced concrete.
THER MAL E XPANSION OF CONCR ETE COMPONENTS

MATER IAL

COEFFICIENT OF THER MAL E X PANSION

strain/C
Cement paste

1820

Steel

1112

Igneous aggregate

69

Limestone aggregate

Sandstone and quartzite

1113

Another cause of non-structural cracking can be in the shutter construction and timing
of its removal; this has a major inuence on the hydration of the concrete surface. If it
does not dissipate, the heat generated by the hydration of cement raises the temperature
of a typical concrete mix (350 kg/m3 of cement; 1:2:4 cement:sand:aggregate) by 37C
over about three days; from, say, 10C to 47C. Small elements with steel shutters
rapidly lose this heat, but large elements, especially ones with shutters of wood or some
other insulating material, will develop a hot core with a gradient of cooling towards the
surface. When the shutter is removed, particularly if this is done before the concrete has
set, the surface cools by evaporation of moisture, and the resulting temperature
dierential can lead to surface crazing.

Facing page: The cracks on this

wall at Dudley Zoo are likely to be
due to a combination of plastic
settlement cracks and the lack of
movement joints.

CONCRETE 21 FEBALTA.indd 76

As it cools, concrete contracts by 0.37 mm/m (370 strain) relative to any adjacent pours
cast previously. Early age cracks 12 mm wide can develop as a result of this shrinkage.

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CONCRETE

DETERIORATION & DAMAGE

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60

PRE-TENSIONED PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE

TYPICAL PRE-STRESSED COMPONENTS,

SUCH AS FLOOR PLANKS, ARE CAST IN
LONG BEDS

concrete
poured into
mould

1.

end block
end block
wires tensioned
against end blocks

saw
2.

cut

cu t

cu
3.

voids

1. Concrete is poured around the

pre-stressed wires and compacted;
sometimes internal voids are formed to
reduce the weight of the component.
2. When the concrete is sufciently strong,
both it and the wires are cut transversely
into sections; the bond between the wires
and the concrete provides anchorage.
3. Finally, the completed components are
lifted out of the bed.

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For larger structures such as bridges and large oor slabs, post-tensioned pre-stressing is
normally used. Internal ducts are formed within the concrete prior to setting, and the
reinforcement strands are then threaded through and stretched with jacks to tension
them, before being anchored at the end. Normally the ducts are then lled with grout
and left to set. Additional reinforcement is almost always provided, especially around
the highly stressed anchorages. For major structures, pre-cast elements or elements cast
in situ can be clamped together with post tensioning.

59

Post-tensioned concrete is rare in conventional buildings, but was exploited by

architects for many of the more adventurous buildings of the second half of the
20th century.

Other Materials Used for Reinforcement

Since the 1970s there has been growing interest in alternatives to steel for reinforcement in both
construction and remedial works. Some of these aim to improve durability, others to provide surface
reinforcement or new approaches to pre-stressing. A number have proved successful in niche
applications, but others have failed to perform satisfactorily, often because of a fundamental lack of
compatibility with concretes alkalinity or physical properties (such as Youngs modulus, thermal
expansion coefcient, creep and relaxation, or the movement of moisture).
Innovative materials can lead to fundamental changes in behaviour and treatment of the concrete.
Stainless steel of the appropriate grade performs well in severe chloride conditions, but bond
strength is reduced, which affects the detailing; stainless steel must not be used in contact with
ordinary steel, because of the possibility of galvanic corrosion. Zinc coatings are effective in delaying
corrosion of steel in air, but in damp carbonated concrete the protective zinc layer is soon lost, and so
only a small delay in corrosion initiation is achieved; the widespread failures of galvanised wall ties in
brickwork proved to be an expensive cautionary tale. The poor durability of galvanised xings in
carbonated or chloride-contaminated concrete and mortar, and the subsequent corrosion of the
underlying steel, will give increasing problems in future years. METALS
The introduction of short bres into concrete, if well mixed and compacted, can signicantly improve
tensile strength and resistance to cracking within the bre-reinforced zone. Until the health risk
became apparent, asbestos bres were a popular choice, and asbestos cement was used widely for
roong sheets, ducting, reproong and many other purposes. Stainless-steel bres are compatible
in stiffness and thermal properties with concrete, but many of the other bres that have been used
are not.
Glass reinforced cement [GRC], which was once promoted as a new wonder material with
widespread applications, faced problems from cracking due to high shrinkage, rigid xings and
differential stresses caused by irregular shapes. There is also a severe loss of tensile strength as the
alkalinity of the cement attacks and embrittles the glass bres. Niche applications have now been
found for GRCs made using alkali-resistant glasses and low-alkali cements.

CONCRETE

THE DEVELOPMENT & USE OF CONCRETE

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PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

58

BUILDING WITH CONCRETE

REINFORCEMENT & PRE-STRESSING WITH STEEL
Concrete has a high compressive strength, but a very low tensile strength. If it is to be
used to span any distance, this can be overcome by installing steel reinforcement
(colloquially known as rebars) within the concrete. The success of steel reinforcement
derives from three factors:
the close match of thermal expansion coecients between steel and concrete
(10 10 6 C and 712 10 6 C respectively)
the higher stiness of steel (Youngs modulus of 210 kN/mm2); this attracts the load to
it, and limits the tensile strains in the concrete (Youngs modulus of 14 kN/mm2)
the strong alkalinity of uncarbonated concrete, which has a pH greater than 13; this
passivates the steel, and prevents corrosion. METALS
By the time the pioneers of reinforced concrete were putting steel into concrete at the
beginning of the 20th century, mild steel had become widely available. This ductile
metal could be easily bent to form a reinforcement cage consisting of straight or bent
bars introduced to resist bending stresses, and bent bars (known as stirrups or links)
to resist shear stresses, and to constrain the main reinforcement in columns.
Mild steel was used almost exclusively for reinforced concrete construction until
the 1950s, when higher strength bars of high yield steel reinforcement (Grade 50
carbon steel, supplied as deformed round bars) were introduced; this had an impact on
the detailing since they could not be bent to the same radius as a mild-steel bar. An
increase in radius of one-third was common, and this often led to the cross-sectional
area of the element having to be increased to achieve the required depth of cover.
The 1950s also saw the introduction of standard-sized sheets of welded reinforcement,
fabricated from hard-drawn wire possessing similar material properties to high-yield
steel bars. This reinforcement greatly simplied the design of some structural elements,
such as oor slabs.

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
In pre-stressed concrete, the reinforcing bars are stretched prior to the concrete being
poured. Pre-stressing can be applied either during the manufacture of pre-cast concrete
sections (pre-tensioned pre-stressing), or after the sections are cast and cured
(post-tensioned pre-stressing).
Pre-tensioned pre-stressing is the most common method. Steel rods or wires are stretched
through a line of moulds, and anchored at each end. The concrete is then placed in the
moulds and cured. When the concrete has achieved sucient strength, the strands or
wires are released from their anchorages; as they elastically relax, a load is imposed on the
concrete, and this produces the required compressive stress. The strands remain xed in
the concrete by the bond strength that has developed at the steel-to-concrete interface.

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39

CONCRETE

THE DEVELOPMENT & USE OF CONCRETE

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38

POST-WAR BUILDING

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSERVATION

The years after 1945 saw materials in short supply, effectively rationed by a system of licensing
that restricted building largely to schools, housing and industry. A shortage of American dollars
limited the import of Scandinavian timber; in the early 1950s, it was actually easier to obtain
hardwoods from around the British Empire, as they could be paid for in sterling. Concrete was
used in buildings of this period, particularly for details such as porches, window sills and roof
trusses that would normally be made of timber.
In most Modern Movement buildings of the 1930s, large amounts of reinforcement had been
contained in the external walls, but the post-war period saw structure put into the internal
walls. Arup rened the technique used at Highpoint after the Second World War for several
buildings in London: rstly at Brett Manor (private ats in Hackney), and then in 1950 at Fry
and Drews Passelds in Lewisham; while Lubetkin and Francis Skinner used a box frame at
Spa Green Estate in Islington (listed Grade II in 1998). Box framing allowed for complex internal
plans where living rooms and bedrooms could be stacked up, so a simpler cross-wall technique
was sufcient. This change explains the variety of materials used in post-war faades, with
concrete contrasted with brick, tile and large areas of glass. Lubetkins designs were likened to
the carpet patterns of his native Georgia, while Park Hill in Shefeld, developed with the artist
John Forrester, demonstrated the idiom on a massive scale. As a result this is now listed Grade II*.

Park Hill, Shefeld

Park Hill was originally constructed
of an exposed concrete frame with
contrasting yellow, orange and
red brick inll panelling. Although
remaining structurally sound, over
time the fabric of the building has
decayed and social disadvantages
of the estate meant that tenants
were hard to nd. Recent repair has
conserved the concrete frame, but
replaced the brick with glass and
aluminium panels.
Facing page: Park Hill in the 1960s.
The concept of the ats was
described as 'streets in the sky'.
Broad decks, wide enough for milk
oats, had large numbers of front
doors opening onto them. Each
deck of the structure, except the
top one, has direct access to ground
level at some point on the sloping
site. The site also allows the rooine
to remain level despite the building
varying between four and 13 storeys
in height.

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The actual nish of the concrete matters very little in these buildings. Locally available
aggregates were generally used (with hazardous results in the case of seaside coastguard
cottages, where the sands used were full of salt). An early exception is the remarkable church of
St John the Evangelist and St Mary Magdalene in Goldthorpe, near Doncaster (which is listed
Grade II*), built in 191416 at the behest of the Second Viscount Halifax to serve a growing
colliery district. Quite why reinforced concrete was chosen is unknown, though wartime steel
shortages may have been a factor, but the result was a tall, grand design with an Italianate
campanile. There are concrete trusses and concrete walls 200 mm thick; the shuttering lifts are
very visible, and on the exterior there is a strong difference in nish between the frame and inll.
The interior, where even the altar and sculptural decoration are of concrete, was always painted.
Goldthorpe is discussed in some detail in Case Study 3.

33

Historical signicance is perhaps paramount for the structures produced for military use during
and between the two World Wars. The concrete itself was necessarily rough and raw. One
example is the listening post at Loftus, near Redcar in North Yorkshire, which dates from 1916
and was constructed from rendered cast slag concrete; this is listed at Grade II.

The church of St John the

Evangelist and St Mary
Magdalene, Goldthorpe.

CONCRETE

THE DEVELOPMENT & USE OF CONCRETE

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