Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction
In todays world cell phone have become the single greatest tool in day today life. It has
become a necessity that business associates should be able to communicate on the go. Thats why
it has become so important to make choices in choosing which handheld device one should go
for. A handheld device is selected according to its features and benefits, like does it provide
access to internet and email or does it look slick and more. An important question when
designing and standardizing cellular systems is the selection of the multiple access schemes.
There are three basic principles in multiple access, FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
All three principles allow multiple users to share the same physical channel
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a communications technique that
divides a communications channel into a number of equally spaced frequency bands. A
subcarrier carrying a portion of the user information is transmitted in each band. Each subcarrier
is orthogonal (independent of each other) with every other subcarrier, differentiating OFDM
from the commonly used frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so does
traffic. We can accommodate. This increase by continuing to add individual links each time a
new channel is needed.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Figure shows the basic
format of a multiplexed system. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a
multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to- one).At the receiving
end, that stream is fed into a De-Multiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its
component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines. In the
figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link
that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels
a) TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access is a type of multiplexing where two or more channels of
information are transmitted over the same link by allocating a different time interval for the
transmission of each channel. One major disadvantage using TDMA technology is that the users
has a predefined time slot. When moving from one cell site to other, if all the time slots in this
cell are full the user might be disconnected. Another problem in TDMA is that it is subjected to
multipath distortion
b) CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access gives the user entire spectrum all of the time. CDMA spread
spectrum technology in which it uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before
transmission. The receiver then dispreads the wanted signal, which is passed through a narrow
band pass filter. The unwanted signals are not dispread and will not be passed through the filter.
The codes are a sequence of zeros and ones produced at a much higher rate of that of the
baseband data.
One major problem in CDMA technology is channel pollution, where signals from too many
cell sites are present in the subscribers phone but none of them is dominant. When this situation
arises the quality of the audio degrades
c) FDMA
In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send its data. In other words, each band is
reserved for a specific station, and it belongs to the station all the time. FDMA specifies a
predetermined frequency band for the entire period of communication. This means that stream
data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be used with FDMA
OFDM
OFDM is a modulation technique in that it enables user data to be modulated onto the
tones. The information is modulated onto a tone by adjusting the tone's phase, amplitude, or
both. In the most basic form, a tone may be present or disabled to indicate a one or zero bit of
information, however, either Phase Shift Keying (PSK) or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
For example, if a 100-tone system were used, a single data stream with a rate of 1
megabit per second (Mbps) would be converted into 100 streams of 10 kilobits per second
(kbps). By creating slower parallel data streams, the bandwidth of the modulation symbol is
effectively decreased by a factor of 100, or, equivalently, the duration of the modulation symbol
is increased by a factor of 100. Proper selection of system parameters, such as the number of
tones and tone spacing, can greatly reduce, or even eliminate, ISI, because typical multipath
delay spread represents a much smaller proportion of the lengthened symbol time. Viewed
another way, the coherence bandwidth of the channel can be much smaller, because the symbol
bandwidth has been reduced. The need for complex multi-tap time-domain equalizers can be
eliminated as a result.
OFDM can also be considered a multiple-access technique, because an individual tone or
groups of tones can be assigned to different users. Multiple users share a given bandwidth in this
manner, yielding the system called OFDMA. Each user can be assigned a predetermined number
of tones when they have information to send, or alternatively, a user can be assigned a variable
number of tones based on the amount of information that they have to send. The assignments are
controlled by the media access control (MAC) layer, which schedules the resource assignments
based on user demand. OFDM can be combined with frequency hopping to create a spread
spectrum system, realizing the benefits of frequency diversity and interference averaging
previously described for CDMA. In a frequency hopping spread spectrum system, each user's set
of tones is changed after each time period (usually corresponding to a modulation symbol). By
switching frequencies after each symbol time, the losses due to frequency selective fading are
minimized. Although frequency hopping and CDMA are different forms of spread spectrum, they
achieve comparable performance in a multipath fading environment and provide similar
interference averaging benefits.
OFDM therefore provides the best of the benefits of TDMA in that users are orthogonal
to one another, and CDMA, as previously mentioned, while avoiding the limitations of each,
including the need for TDMA frequency planning and equalization, and multiple access
interference in the case of CDMA.
number of cycles in the interval T, and the number of cycles between adjacent subcarriers differs
by exactly one. This properly accounts for the orthogonality between subcarriers.
of cycles within the FFT interval, as long as the delay is smaller than the guard time. As result,
multipath signals with delays smaller than the guard time cannot cause ICI.
The transmitted signals arrive at the receiver after being reflected from many objects. Sometimes
the reflected signals add up in phase and sometimes they add up out of phase causing a fade.
This causes the received signal strength to fluctuate constantly. Also, different sub-channels are
distorted differently as shown in Figure. An OFDM receiver has to sense the channel and correct
these distortions on each of the sub-channels before the transmitted data can be extracted. OFDM
is effective in correcting such frequency selective distortions. OFDM has many advantages over
other transmission techniques. One such advantage is high spectral efficiency (measured in
bits/sec/Hz). The Orthogonal part of the name refers to a precise mathematical relationship
between the frequencies of the sub-channels that make up the OFDM system. Each of the
frequencies is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency. This ensures that even though the
sub-channels overlap they do not interfere with each other. This results in high spectral
efficiency. The use of IFFT and FFT for modulation and demodulation results in computationally
efficient OFDM modems
divided by the subcarrier spacing, which is the inverse of the symbol duration less the guard
time. Alternatively, the number of subcarriers may be determined by the required bit rate divided
by the bit rate per subcarrier. The bit rate per subcarrier is defined by the modulation type, coding
rate, and symbol rate. An additional requirement that can affect the chosen parameters is the
demand for an integer number of samples both within the FFT/IFFT interval and in the symbol
interval.
Advantages
Disadvantages