Boundary element methods in aerodynamics

(lecture course)
by Dmitri V. Maklakov

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical review of development of boundary element methods . . . . . . .
1.2 Examples of computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Governing equations for irrotational incompressible flows

2.1 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Field differential operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Gradient of a scalar field and derivative in the given direction
2.2.2 Substantial (or material) derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Divergence of a vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Vorticity (or rotor, vector value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Useful formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 General property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.7 Integral properties of the differential operator . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Governing equations for an inviscid incompressible fluid . . . . . . . .
2.4 Kelvins theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Modelling viscous flows by irrotational ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Velocity potential of irrotational flows, Laplaces equation . . . . . . .
2.7 Bernoullis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Logic of incompressible irrotational flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Governing equation for incompressible irrotatinal flows . . . . . . . .

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3 Basic flow potentials

3.1 Two general principals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Uniform stream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Point source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Point Doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Combination of a doublet and uniform stream:

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4 Integral representations of harmonic functions

4.1 Bounded domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Unbounded domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Ununiqueness of integral representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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flow over a sphere

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5 Basic boundary-value problems (BVP) for harmonic functions
5.1 Formulation of basic problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Dirichlets BVP (DBVP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Neumanns BVP (NBVP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Mixed BVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Uniqueness theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Unsolvable BVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 External and internal BVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Mathematical formulation of the problem on movement of a body in
6 Surface singularity distributions
6.1 Singular integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Surface distributions and their jump properties . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Surface source distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Surface doublet distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Connection between the surface doublet distribution and
sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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fluid

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a vortex
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7 Numerical computation of surface source and doublet distributions

7.1 Low-order panel methods for computing surface integrals . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Panel method for computing the surface source distribution . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Quadrilateral source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Global and local coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Transformation from the global to local coordinate system and back
7.2.4 Algorithm of computing the source distribution . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Test of accuracy for the source distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Panel method for computing the surface doublet distribution . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Quadrilateral doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Test for the doublet distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 General conclusions for source and doublet distributions . . . . . .

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8 Method of integral equations for solving boundary-value problems (BVP) 50

8.1 Source-only and doublet-only formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.1.1 Summary of possible combination of singularity distributions and BC 53
8.2 Morinos formulation for solving external Neumann BVP . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.3 Method of reducing the external Neumann BVP to the internal Dirichlet
BVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.4 Discretization of integral equations for 3-D case. Influence coefficients . . . 56
9 Panel method for solving aerodynamic problems
9.1 Body in the fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Panel method for the flow over 3-D wings . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Simplest wake model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Integral equation for 3-D wing (Morinos formulation)
9.2.3 Computation of the pressure and lift . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Six main steps in applying BEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 BEM for 2-D airfoils
10.1 Problem formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 2-D versions of basic singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 Point source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 2-D doublet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 Point vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Source and doublet distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 Source distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Doublet distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Constant strength source distribution along a segment (x1 , x2 ) .
10.3.4 Constant strength doublet distribution along a segment (x1 , x2 )
10.4 Integral representation of the 2-D potential and its discrete analog . . .
10.5 Outlook of different formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 Doublet-only formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2 Finding influence coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.3 Morinos formulation for the total potential . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.4 Super Morinos formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.5 Computation of the pressure distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Full
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4

potential equations for irrotational isentropic

Isentropic process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deducing the full potential equation . . . . . . . . .
Short form of the full potential equation . . . . . .
Goehert compressibility correction . . . . . . . . . .

12 Field panel method

12.1 Idea of the method . . . . .
12.2 Field panel . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Subsonic, critical and
12.3 Artificial viscosity . . . . . .

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transonic flows.
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steady flows
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Quasi-isentropic flows
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13 Formulae for computing induced potentials and velocities of basic twodimensional elements
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14 Seminar tasks (1)

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15 Seminar tasks (2)

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1
1.1

Introduction
Historical review of development of boundary element methods

At the present time the boundary element methods (BEM) are widely used in the
industry and scientific research institutes. Usually in the aerodynamics we deal with a
flow over a body and outside the body the flow is governed by a system of the nonlinear
Navier-Stokes differential equations. There exists a number of numerical methods for
solving these equations. The main of them are finite difference methods (FDM) and finite
element methods (FEM). When we are applying FDM or FEM we should generate a grid
in the space around the body surface. This grid must be refined in the regions where
the flow parameters are expected to vary rapidly, and there will generally be at least
one unknown parameter for every element of the grid. As a result a complex system of
nonlinear equations will be obtained. Solving the system numerically can be a difficult task
even for modern computers, especially in the case of the body of complex configuration
(for example, a modern aircraft).
The Navier-Stokes equations take into account viscosity and compressibility effects.
BEM are based on some simplifications of these equations. To be able to apply correctly
the BEM codes for solving modern aerodynamic problems the users of such codes should
know the backgrounds of BEM. Just these backgrounds will be presented in this lecture
course.
In their initial development BEM deal only with incompressible, inviscous flows. At the
present time there exist some extensions of BEM that allow us to compute compressible
flows. These extensions will be considered at the end of these lectures.
BEM call also panel methods. What is the panel? Consider, for example, a body
shown in fig. 1.
The body surface is represented as a collection of panels. On every panel the singularities (usually, sources, i , and doublets, i ) are distributed. The strength of these
singularities is unknown and should be chosen so, that the panel would influence on the
flow as it was a part of the body surface. So, the panels are the bricks, from which
the body surface together with the flow around is constructed. To define i and i the
aerodynamic problem reduces to a system of linear equations. When the mathematical
unknowns i and i are found, physical values of interest (velocity, pressure) can be easily
determined at any point of the flow.
The paper by Smith and Hess (1962) laid the basis for the modern panel methods for

Figure 1:

5
calculating incompressible flows over 3D configurations. At the present time there exist a
number of panel codes. For example, VSAERO, PAN AIR, HISS are widely used in the
industry.
What makes the panel methods so popular in the world? Three reasons can be indicated:
simple physical models;
simple programming;
the power of the modern computers.
The last point allows us to solve a very great system of linear equations, therefore, bodies
of very complex configurations can be computed.
In table 1 we show some advantages of panel methods in comparing with finite difference methods. From this table one can see that the number of unknowns for panel
Table 1: Comparison between the finite difference and boundary element techniques for
incompressible flows
Operation
Grid generation
Unknowns
Number of unknowns
Order of the system
Equation in domain
Boundary conditions

Finite difference
In the domain
Values in nodes
N3
N6
Approx.
Approx.

Panels
On the surface
Panel singularities
N2
N4
Exactly
Approx.

methods is by one order less than for FDM. This is because the initial 3D problem becomes two-dimensional, we need to define only some values on the surface of the body,
but not in the space. The second great advantage is that for panel methods the governing
equation in the domain will be satisfied exactly.

Mustang - ROVLM Berechnungsergebnisse bei 0,32 Grad AOA

(mit Prandtl-Glauert Kompressibilitaetskorrektur, Maoo = 0.5)

3
36

10

1
8

4
4

876

2
1 14

9
170

7 6

84

5 7

1
1 1 5

8
9

10

4
1

6 7

6
11

10

109
11

4
11

11

51
6 1

10 7

5
8

110
1

10

26

2
11
11

2 6

5 4
32

10

Level 1
2
3
4
5
6
cplocal: -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0

7
8
9 10 11
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Figure 2: Example. Panel representation of NNA P-51 Mustang (american fighter of

the Second World War) by David Lednicer, USA.The number of the panels N = 5000.
Pressure distribution by Lutz Gebhardt. (Ma = 0.5).
4
3

5
Diskretisierung RAE Versuchskoerper WA B2 (0) 0
mit angepassten Netzen im Fluegelanschlussbereich

Figure 3: Example. Panel representation of the model RAEWA B2 (0)(0), the number of
panel N = 3384.

X
Y

Figure 4: Example. Wake roll up on the model RAEWA B2 (0)(0), computed by ROVLM.
-0.7

-0.3

Versuchskrper RAE WA B2 (0) 0

Versuchskrper RAE WA B2 (0) 0

Flgelschnitt bei = 0.400

-0.6

Druckverteilung in Rumpflngsrichtung
Schnitt bei = 30 Grad

-0.5

-0.2
-0.4

-0.3

-0.1
-0.2

cp

cp

-0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.2

ROVLM, AOA 0 deg., = +/- 30 deg.

ROVLM, AOA 2 deg., = +30 deg.
ROVLM, AOA 2 deg., = -30 deg.
Exp., AOA 2 deg., +30 deg.
Exp., AOA 2 deg., -30 deg.
Exp., AOA 0 deg., +/-30 deg.

0.4
Exp., =0.400, Lower Surface, Ma=0.4, AOA=2 deg.
Exp., =0.400, Upper Surface, Ma=0.4, AOA=2 deg.
Exp., =0.400, Lower/Upper Surface, Ma=0.4, AOA=0 deg.
AOA 0 deg., calc., =0.400, RIGHT WING at it = 49
AOA 2 deg., calc., =0.400, RIGHT WING at it = 49

0.5

0.6

0.3
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x/L

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.25

0.5

0.75

xcen

Figure 5: Example. Comparison with experiments by Treadgold, Jones and Wilson (1979);
left Cp along the fuselage, right Cp along a wing section. The discrepancy between
the theoretical and experimental pressure distributions at the end of the fuselage can be
explained by not taking into account in the computation the separation at the fuselage
tail.

1.2

Examples of computations

All computations in these examples were carried out by Lutz Gebhardt (IAG) with
ROVLM code developed in IAG.

Governing equations for irrotational incompressible flows

There are three reasons why we are starting with incompressible case.
1. Historical aspects (initially BEM were developed for incompressible, irrotational
flows).
2. Main ideas of the methods can be demonstrated here.
3. For many practical applications the flow can be really considered as incompressible.

2.1

Notations

~q is a vector of the velocity field:

~q = u~i + v~j + w~k;
u, v, w are the components of the velocity vector;
~i, ~j, ~k are the vectors of the unite basis;
P (x, y, z) is a point in the space;
x, y, z are the coordinates of the point;
u = u(x, y, z, t),v = v(x, y, z, t),w = w(x, y, z, t);
t is the time;
abbreviation: ~q = ~q(x, y, z, t) = ~q(P, t);
p is the pressure;
is the density;
T is the temperature;
V ,V are small volumes of the fluid;
t,t are small periods of time;
is the symbolic nabla-operator, that is very convenient to simplify mathematical
formulae:

= ~i
+ ~j
+ ~k .
x
y
z

2.2
2.2.1

Field differential operators

Gradient of a scalar field and derivative in the given direction

Scalar fields in the fluid: the density (x, y, z, t), the pressure p(x, y, z, t), temperature
T (x, y, z, t), local sound velocity a(x, y, z, t) and so on.
Let us take, for example, the field of the temperature
T = T (x, y, z) = T (P ).

Figure 6:

Figure 7:
Definition of the gradient-vector:
grad T =

T ~ T ~ T ~
i+
j+
k.
x
y
z

Application of to the T gives

T = (~i

T ~ T ~ T
+ ~j
+ ~k )T = ~i
+j
+k
.
x
y
z
x
y
z

So, we can write

grad T = T.
Physical meaning: the gradient vector defines the direction and magnitude of the maximum rate of change of the scalar property per unit length at a given point P .
Explanation. Consider a point P in the space and let S be the surface of the sphere
of small radius with the center at the point P (see fig. 7). On the surface of this sphere
there is a point P1 , where the temperature T takes its maximum values. The direction

of grad T coincides with the direction of the vector P P1 as 0, and the module of the
gradient is
Tmax T (P )
|grad T | = lim
.
0

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Figure 8:

Figure 9:
The gradient has an important property, namely, it is perpendicular to the surface
T (x, y, z) = const.
Let l be an axis, that goes through the point P and ~n be the unit vector of this axis
(see fig. 8). Consider on l a point P1 . By definition the derivative in the direction l is
T
T (P1 ) T (P )
= lim
,
P
P
l
1
P P1
where P P1 is the distance between P and P1 .
Connection between the derivative in the given direction and the gradient:
T
= (T ~n) (scalar product).
l
2.2.2

Substantial (or material) derivative

Consider a small fluid element in the space. It moves along a pathline (see fig. 9).
The pathline is the trajectory of a single fluid element in the space. So, different points of
the pathlines are plotted for different moments of time. Do not confuse the pathlines and
streamlines. The streamline consists of many fluid elements at a fixed moment of time
and for any point of the streamline the tangential direction coincides with the direction
of the velocity vector ~q. Pathlines and streamlines coincide only for steady flows.
Definition of the substantial derivative: substantial derivative is the time rate of
change of a property along the pathline. For instance,
for the moment t1 the temperature of the fluid element is T1 ,
for the moment t2 the temperature of the fluid element is T2 ,

11
for the moment t3 the temperature of the fluid element is T3 .
So we have the function T (t) along the pathline. The substantial derivative is the
ordinary derivative of this function:
DT
= T (t).
Dt
Formula for calculation of the substantial derivative:
T
DT
=
+ (~q T )
Dt
t
or symbolically

=
+ (~q ).
Dt
t
The second term in these formulae calls the convective derivative.

2.2.3

Divergence of a vector field

Definition:
div ~q =

u v w
+
+
= ( ~q) (scalar value).
x y
z

Physical meaning. Let V be the volume of a small fluid element. Divergence is the
time rate of change of the volume V along the pathline per unit of the volume:
div ~q =

1 D(V )
.
V Dt

Why we may have the change of the volume V ? Only due to compressibility. At
different moments of time the volume will be under different pressures and can be compressed or enlarged. If the flow is incompressible, then
D(V )
=0
Dt

div ~q = 0.

So, we have obtained the continuity equation for incompressible flows:

u v w
+
+
= 0.
x y
z
Another physical sense of the divergence consists in imagining any velocity field ~q as
that of incompressible fluid. In this case div ~q is the strength of a source located at the
point P , i.e. div ~qV is the volume quantity of fluid that appears in the small volume V
per unit of time.
2.2.4

Vorticity (or rotor, vector value)

Definition:
w v
rot ~q = ~i

y
z

w u
v u
~j

+ ~k

x
z
x y

12
or
rot ~q = ( ~q) =

~k 

~i

~j

(vector product).

Physical meaning. Vorticity defines the angular velocity ~ = 12 rot ~q of an infinitesimally small fluid element.
2.2.5

Useful formulae
div (rot ~q) = 0,

2.2.6

rot (T ) = 0.

General property

Since all the introduced above differential operators have physical meaning, their values
are independent of the choice of coordinate system.
2.2.7

Integral properties of the differential operator

Figure 10: Closed volume.

Figure 11: Unclosed surface S bounded

by a closed curve C.

Divergence theorem:
ZZ
S

2.3

(~q ~n)dS =

ZZZ

Stokes theorem:
ZZ

div ~qdV,

(rot ~q ~n)dS =

~
(~q dl).

Governing equations for an inviscid incompressible fluid

Continuity equation:
div ~q = 0.
Momentum equations:

u
1 p
+ (~q u) =
,
t
x
v
1 p
+ (~q v) =
,
t
y

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Figure 12:
1 p
w
+ (~q w) =
.
t
z
This form of the momentum equations, when the viscosity and gravity forces are
neglected, calls Eulers equations. In the vector form the Euler equations can be written
as
~q
q2
1
+ (~q rot ~q) = p.
t
2

Equation of state:
= Const.
Unknowns: u, v, w, p. So, we have four equations and four unknowns.

2.4

Kelvins theorem

Circulation:
=

~
(~q dl).

~ is the directed line segment at a point on C (see fig. 12).

where dl
From the continuity and momentum equations it can be deduced
Kelvins theorem:

D
= 0.
Dt

This means that the circulation around a closed curve, consisting of the same fluid elements, does not change in time.
Let us assume that the movement of the fluid starts from a static state.
Static fluid = ~q = 0, = 0
Kelvins theorem = = 0 at any moment t
Stokes theorem =

RR
S

~ = = 0. = rot ~q = 0
(rot ~q ~n)dS = (~q dl)
C

Conclusion: if a movement starts from a stagnant state, then the flow is irrotational
(rot ~q = 0) for all points of the fluid at any moment of time.

2.5

Modelling viscous flows by irrotational ones

In a real fluid (for example, in air and water) viscous forces are strong only in a socalled boundary layer near the body surface. The boundary layer creates the vorticities

14
in the flow that transport along the body surface and go into the wake behind the body.
Beyond the boundary layer and wake Kelvins theorem holds and
rot ~q = 0.
To model the real situation the boundary layer and the wake are assumed to be
infinitely thin. On the wake surface there is a jump of tangential velocity components qs+
and qs :
qs+ 6= qs .
Under these assumptions the real situation can be modelled by an irrotatinal flow.

Figure 13: Real case.

2.6

Figure 14: Imaginary case.

Velocity potential of irrotational flows, Laplaces equation

Irrotational flow:
rot ~q = ( ~q) = 0.

Stokess theorem:
=

~ =
(~q dl)

ZZ
S

(rot ~q ~n)dS = 0.

Consider two ways C1 and C2 that joint two points P0 (x0 , y0, z0 ) and P (x, y, z) in the
fluid (see fig. 15). The point P0 is fixed, the point P can vary. According to the Stokes
theorem
Z
Z
~ (~q dl)
~ = 0.
(~q dl)
C1

C2

Therefore, the line integral

~
(~q dl)

is independent of choice of curve C, that joins the points P0 and P , and depends only on
the location of the point P (x, y, z).
Definition of the potential:
(x, y, z) =

P (x,y,z)
Z
P0

~ =
(~q dl)

P (x,y,z)
Z

udx + vdy + wdz.

P0

Connection between the velocity field and the potential:

u=

,
x

v=

,
y

w=

,
z

15

Figure 15:
or in a short form
~q = .
Continuity equation

u v w
+
+
=0
x y
z

leads to the following equation for the potential

2 2 2
+
+ 2 = 0.
x2
y 2
z
This is the Laplace equation governing equation for irrotational incompressible flows.
Symbolically:
2 = 0.

Figure 16:

Remark 2.1 Let l be an axes in the fluid, ~n be the unite vector of this axes and ql be the
projection of the velocity vector ~q = on l (see fig. 16). Then
ql = ~n =

2.7

.
n

Bernoullis equation

Vector form of the momentum equation:

~q
q2
1
+ (~q rot ~q) = p.
t
2

16
Irrotational flow:
rot ~q = 0,
2

~q = ,

q 2 p
=
+
+
t
2

q
q
p
+ + =0
t
2

= 0,

q 2 p
+
+ = C(t),
t
2

where C(t) is an arbitrary function of time.

This is Bernoullis equation, that is correct only for irrotational incompressible flows.
= 0 and the Bernoulli equation takes the form
For the steady case
t
q2 p
+ = C.
2

2.8

Logic of incompressible irrotational flows

1. Movement from stagnant fluid + Kelvins theorem = rot ~q = 0.

2. rot ~q = 0 = ~q = (Potential).
3. ~q = + Continuity equation = 2 =0 (Laplace equation).
4. ~q = + Momentum equation =

2.9

q2
2

= F (t)=0 (Bernoullis equation).

Governing equation for incompressible irrotatinal flows

2 = 0,
~q = ,

q 2 p
+
+ = C(t).
t
2

3
3.1

Basic flow potentials

Two general principals

Principle 1 If we have a function (x, y, z, ) that satisfies Laplaces equation, this

function can be considered as the potential of a certain irrotatinal incompressible flow.
Principle 2 (of superposition). If the functions 1 (x, y, z) and 2 (x, y, z) satisfy
Laplaces equation then the sum and difference of them also satisfy Laplaces equation.

17

3.2

Uniform stream

Let
= u x + v y + w z.
We have

= u ,

2
x2

= 0. In analogous way

2
y 2

= 0,

2
z 2

(3.1)
= 0. Therefore,

2 2 2
+
+ 2 = 0,
x2
y 2
z
and satisfies Laplaces equation.
Velocity field:
~q = = u~i + v~j + w~k.

(3.2)

This is the flow, whose velocities are equal in all points. Thus, the equation (3.1) defines
the potential of an uniform stream.
Let us denote
~q = u~i + v~j + w~k, ~r = x~i + y~j + z~k,
where r is the radius-vector of the point P (x, y, z). In vector form equation (3.1) can be
written as
= (~q ~r), (scalar product).

3.3

Point source

Consider the function

(P ) =

1
,
4 r

where r =

x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,

is a constant, r is the distance from the point P (x, y, z) to the origin of the coordinate
system. Let us prove that satisfies the Laplacess equation 2 = 0. Since = const
we should prove that 2 (1/r) = 0. We differentiate:
x
r
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )x
= 2
= ,
2
2
x
r
2 x +y +z
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )y
r
y
= 2
= ,
2
2
y
r
2 x +y +z
r
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )z
z
= 2
= ,
2
2
z
r
2 x +y +z
 

1
1 r
x
= 2
= 3,
x r
r x
r
 
1
1 r
y
= 2
= 3,
y r
r y
r

 

1
1 r
z
= 2
= 3,
r
r z
r


 
2  

x
1

1
1
3x r
1
3x2
=

x
=

+
=

+
,
x2 r
x
r3
r3
x r 3
r3
r 4 x
r3
r5

18
2
y 2

 

y
=
3
r
y
r

 

y
r3
y

z
1

2 1
=
3 = 3 x
2
z r
z
r
r
z
Summing the last three equations we get

1
r3
1
r3

1
3y r
1
3y 2
+
=

+
,
r3
r 4 y
r3
r5

1
3z r
1
3z 2
+
=

+
.
r3
r 4 z
r3
r5

 

1
3
3(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
3
3r 2
3
3
= 3 +
=

+
= 3 + 3 = 0.
5
3
5
r
r
r
r
r
r
r

1
So, we have proved that 2 (1/r) = 0. Therefore = 4
is the potential of a certain
r
flow.
The velocity field:

 

 

~q = =
=
4
r
4

 

1 ~

i+
x r
y

1 ~

j+
r
y

  !

1 ~
k ,
r

x~i y~j z~k

~q =
+ 3 + 3 ,
4 r 3
r
r

~r
.
(3.3)
4 r 3
It follows from equation (3.3) that ~q is directed like the radius vector r. Therefore all
streamlines are direct lines that start from the origin (0, 0, 0) of the coordinate system.
Consider in the space a sphere SR of radius R with the center at the origin (0, 0, 0).
Let us compute the flux trough the surface SR . The flux through any surface is the volume
quantity of fluid that goes through the surface per unit of time.
~q =

f lux =

ZZ
SR

(~q ~n)dS,

~r
~r
, ~n = ,
3
4 r
r
!
ZZ
ZZ 2
ZZ
~r ~r

(~r ~r)

dS

dS
=
dS
=
dS
=
.
r3 r
4
r4
4
r4
4
r2
~q =

f lux =

ZZ
SR

SR

SR

SR

On the surface of the sphere we have r = R = const. Consequently,

f lux =

4R2

ZZ
SR

dS =

Ssphere =
(4R2 ) = .
2
4R
4R2

So, f lux = . Since R is an arbitrary radius, this means that at the origin there is a
source of fluid. The strength of the source is .
If < 0 the flux will be negative, directions of velocity vectors take the opposite sign
and we will have a sink instead of source.
If a source is located at the point Q(, , ) then
~r(P, Q) = (x )~i + (y )~j + (z )~k,

r(P, Q) =

(x )2 + (y )2 + (z )2 ,

19
1

,
4 r(P, Q)
Calculate the magnitude of the velocity
=

|~q| =



 ~
r (P, Q) 



 4 r 3 (P, Q) 

~q =

~r(P, Q)
.
4 r 3 (P, Q)

r(P, Q)

1
=
.
3
2
4 r (P, Q)
4 r (P, Q)

As the point P (x, y, z) Q(, , ), we have r(P, Q) 0, and , |~q| .

Such points, where or |~q| , are called singular points or singularities.
Remark 3.1 The function r(P, Q) is a function of six variables: x, y, z, , , If we have
no ambiguity we shall denote ~r(P, Q) as ~r and r(P, Q) as r. The gradient with respect
to the variables x, y, z we shall denote by P . The gradient with respect to the variables
, , we shall denote by Q . Thus
P

3.4

 

1
~r
= 3,
r
r

 

1
~r
= 3.
r
r

Point Doublet

Consider a point Q(, , ), where the sink with the potential

1 =

1
4 r(P, Q)

is located. Let l be an axes that goes through the point Q and Q1 be a point, different
from Q, that lies on l. At the point Q1 let the source with the potential
2 =

1
4 r(P, Q1 )

be located. The distance between the points Q and Q1 let us denote by , so = QQ1 .
Let the strength of the source and sink depend on the parameter so, that = ,
i.e., = /. Consider = 1 + 2 as 0:

= lim
+
0
4r(P, Q1 ) 4r(P, Q)

1/r(P, Q1) 1/r(P, Q)

Q
lim
=
4 0

4 l

 

1
,
r

=
r(P, Q) = r.

The symbol lQ means that the derivative in the direction of the l-axes is taken with

respect to variables , , : lQ = (~n Q ), where ~n is a unit vector along l. So

Q
=
4 l
Thus

 

~r
= (~n Q ) =
~n 3 .
r
4
r
4
r

~r
=
~n 3
4
r

is the potential of the point doublet.

The line l is the axes of the doublet. This line is always oriented from the sink to the
source.

20

3.5

Combination of a doublet and uniform stream: flow over a

sphere

Let
u = (~q ~r)
be the potential of the uniform stream with the velocity ~q = ~q ,

~r
d =
~n 3
4
r

be the potential of the doublet located at the origin of the coordinate system. Assume
that the doublet axes is directed opposite to ~q . Then
~n =
Consider the sum

~q
q

and d =

(~q ~r)
.
4q r 3
!

= u + d = (~q ~r) 1 +
.
4q r 3

We denote

=k
4q

and obtain that

k
= (~q ~r) 1 + 3 .
r

(3.4)

Our goal is to define k in such a way that the potential (3.4) would be the potential of
the flow over a sphere of radius R with the center at the origin of the coordinate system.
To do so we should calculate the velocity field
~q = = [(~q ~r)(1 + k/r 3 )].

(3.5)

Check it yourself that

(AB) = BA + AB,

(~q ~r) = ~q ,

(1/r 3 ) = 3~r/r 5 .

(3.6)

Inserting formulae (3.6) into (3.5) we get

~q = ~q (1 + k/r 3 )

3k~r
(~q r).
r5

The velocity field on the surface of the sphere should be tangential to the surface. Therefore,
~q~r = (~q ~r) = 0 at r = R,
3k(~r ~r)
(~q ~r),
r5
(~r ~q) = (~q ~r)(1 2k/r 3 ) = 0 at r = R,

(~r ~q) = (~q ~r)(1 + k/r 3 )

1 2k/R3 = 0,

k = R3 /2.

21
So we obtain the final formulae. Potential for the flow over the sphere:
!

R3
(P ) = (~q ~r) 1 + 3 .
2r

(3.7)

Velocity field for the flow over the sphere:

~q(P ) = ~q

r3
1+
2R3

3R3 ~r
(~q ~r).
2 r5

(3.8)

On the surface of the sphere at r = R we have

= u

R3
3
1+
) = u
3
2R
2

(3.9)

~ ~r
3
R
3
~q = ~q ~q
2
2
R R

~
But since ~n = R/R
we come to the formula

3
~q = [~q (~q ~n)~n]
2

(3.10)

This formula means that to compute the velocity on the surface of the sphere we should
take the vector 32 ~q and project it onto the plane that is tangent to the sphere surface.
If the center of the sphere is located at the point Q(, , ) then the formulae (3.7),
(3.8) are correct, but
~r = ~r(P, Q), r = r(P, Q).
The flow over the sphere ia a good test for checking the accuracy of numerical methods,
because we have here the exact analytical solution (3.7), (3.8).

Integral representations of harmonic functions

4.1

Bounded domains

Consider two harmonic functions 1 and 2 :

2 1 = 0,

2 2 = 0.

Let us calculate
!

2~
2 ~
2 ~
div (1 2 ) = div 1
i + 1
j + 1
k = 1 2 2 + (1 2 ).
x
y
z
Since 2 2 = 0 we obtain that
div (1 2 ) = (1 2 ).

(4.1)

Changing in (4.1) the numeration of indexes we get that

div (2 1 ) = (2 1 ).

(4.2)

22

Figure 17:
RHSs in (4.1) and (4.2) are equal. Subtracting the formulae from each other we have
div (1 2 2 1 ) = 0.

(4.3)

Equation (4.3) is an identity which is correct for any two harmonic functions 1 and 2 .
Consider a vector field
~q = 1 2 2 1
and let this field be defined in a domain V , bounded by a closed surface S. Let ~n be an
inner unit normal vector of S. Applying the divergence theorem to this field we get
ZZ
S

ZZ
S

(~q ~nout )dS =

ZZZ

div ~qdV,

[(1 2 2 1 ) ~nout ]dS = 0,

where ~nout is an outer normal unit vector of S. Since RHS is zero, it is not important
which of the normal vectors we use, outer or inner, because ~nout = ~n. So we can write
ZZ
S

[(1 2 2 1 ) ~n]dS = 0.

(4.4)

This equation is one of Greens identities. We should note that the Greens identity is
certainly correct if the functions 1 and 2 depend not on x, y, z but on , , . Now we
set in (4.4) that
1 = (, , ) = (Q), 2 (Q) = 1/r(P, Q).
the point P (x, y, z) is a fixed point.
Let us assume that the point P lies inside the domain V . The variables , , are now
the variables of integration in (4.4). Since 2 as Q P , the function 2 (Q) in
(4.4) has a singularity at the point P . To exclude the singularity we surround the point
P by a sphere of a small radius with a surface S (see fig. 17). So, the integration in
(4.4) is over S + S . The equation (4.4) takes the form
Z Z "

S+S

1
1
(Q)Q

Q (Q) ~n dS = 0.
r(P, Q) r(P, Q)

23
For sake of brevity we shall write instead of Q , ~r instead of ~r(P, Q), r instead of
r(P, Q) and instead of (Q). Thus
Z Z

S+S

~r
3 ~n dS
r

Taking into account that ( ~n) =

ZZ
S

~r
3 ~n dS
r

ZZ
S

Z Z

S+S

1
( ~n)dS = 0.
r

we get

1
dS +
r n

ZZ
S

~r
3 ~n dS
r

{z

I1

ZZ
S

1
dS = 0.
r n

{z
I2

(4.5)

Let us denote the last two integrals by I1 and I2 correspondingly. Firstly we compute I1 .
Since S is a sphere, ~n = ~r/r and
I1 =

ZZ
S

ZZ

~r
3 ~n dS =
r

So

~r ~r
3
dS =
r r

1
I1 = 2

ZZ

ZZ

1
1
dS = 2
2
r

ZZ

dS.

dS.

Now let 0, then (P ) and

I1 =

1
2

ZZ
S

(P )dS = (P )

ZZ

1
2

dS = (P )

1
1
S = (P ) 2 42 = 4(P ).
2

Secondly, we compute I2 :
I2 =

ZZ

1
1
dS =
r n

ZZ
S

( ~n)dS.

Application of the divergence theorem leads to

ZZ
S

( ~n)dS =

ZZZ
V

ZZZ

div dV =

2 dV = 0,

since is a harmonic function. So we have just shown that

I1 = 4(P ),

I2 = 0.

We insert these values of I1 and I2 in the formula (4.5) to have

4(P ) =

ZZ
S

or
(P ) =

ZZ
S

~r
3 ~n dS
r
!

1 ~r

~n dS +
4 r 3

ZZ
S

ZZ
S

1
dS,
n r


dS.
n
4r

(4.6)

24
Let us denote
1
1
fs (P, Q) =
,
4 r(P, Q)

"

1 ~r(P, Q)
fd (P, Q) =
~n(Q) .
4 r 3 (P, Q)

These functions are the potentials of the source of unite strength and the doublet of unit
strength correspondingly. Then the formula (4.6) takes the form
ZZ

(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

n

(4.7)

Conclusion: Any harmonic function can be represented as a surface distribution of

sources and doublets.
Remark 4.1 The kernel function fs (P, Q) and fd (P, Q) depend only on the shape of the
boundary surface S.
Remark 4.2 The formula (4.7) holds true if ~n is the inner normal vector to the domain
V . If ~n is the outer normal to V , then we need to change the signs in the representation
(4.7):
ZZ
ZZ

(P ) =
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS.
n
S

Our representation is correct, if the point P (x, y, z) lies inside the domain V . Consider
now the case when P lies on the inner part of the surface S. Then to exclude the singularity
at the point P we surround it with an inner semi-sphere of radius . In this case
1
(P )(22 ) = 2(p),
2
and the formula (4.7) takes the form
I1 =

(P ) = 2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS + 2

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

n

(4.8)

If P lies outside V , then 1/r(P, Q) has no singularity. So we have no need to introduce

the sphere S . Then we get
0=

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

n

(4.9)

Thus, if (P ) is a harmonic function defined in the bounded domain V with the closed
boundary surface S and ~n(Q) is an inner to V unit normal vector, then the following
identities holds true
ZZ
ZZ

(P ) =
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS
P V,
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +
n
SZ Z
ZSZ

(P ) = 2
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS + 2
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS
P S,
(4.10)
n
SZ Z
S
ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS P 6 V + S,

0=

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

n
S

(Q)
n

where (Q) and

are the boundary values of the function (P ) and its normal
derivative on the surface S correspondingly.

25

4.2

Unbounded domains

Let V be an unbounded domain, for example, V is an exterior of a certain body. If

(P ) is a harmonic function defined in the domain V with a closed boundary surface S
and ~n(Q) is an inner to V unit normal vector (this vector is outer with respect to the
body), then the following identities holds true
ZZ

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS

P V,
n
SZ Z
ZS Z

(P ) = 2 (P ) 2
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS + 2
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS
P S,
n
S
S
ZZ
ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS

P 6 V + S,
0=
(P )
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +
n
S
S
(4.11)
where (P ) is the function that defines the asymptotic behavior of (P ) at infinity. In
aerodynamics (P ) is usually the potential of an undisturbed flow. For example,
(P ) =

(P )

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

if the undisturbed flow is in rest, then

(P ) = 0;
if it is uniform, then

4.3

(P ) = u x + v y + w z.

Ununiqueness of integral representations

Consider, for example, unbounded domain V , S is the boundary surface of V , V1 is

the inner domain bounded by S. In the domain V we have the representation
(P ) = (P )

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

n

If we denote
(Q) = (Q),
we can write
(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ

(Q) =

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

P V.

(4.12)

(Q),
n

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

P V,

(4.13)

where (Q) and (Q) are the strengths of doublets and sources distributed on the surface
S. So, the function (P ) is represented as the sum of source and doublet distributions
on S.
Consider any harmonic function (P ) in the inner domain V1 , bounded by the same
surface S. For example, we can take 1 = const or 1 = ax + by + cz (a, b, c are constant)
1
and so on. For the boundary values 1 (Q) and
(Q) of this function with accordance
n
to (4.10) we can write
1 (P ) =

ZZ
S

1 (Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

1
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,
n

P V1 ,

(4.14)

26
0=

ZZ

1 (Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

1
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,
n

P V.

(4.15)

1
In the formulae (4.14) and (4.15) the functions fd (P, Q) and
(Q) are constructed by
n
means of the outer normal vector with respect to V . If the normal vector is inner, as in
(4.12), then these functions change their signs. But since in the equation (4.15) the LHS
is zero the formulae are true also for the inner normal vector. Thus we can consider that
fd (P, Q) and n are the same in (4.12) and (4.15). Now we subtract (4.15) from (4.12) to
obtain

(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ
S

[1 (Q) (Q)]fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ "
S

1
(Q)
(Q) fs (P, Q)dS,
n
n
(4.16)

where P V . If we denote
1 (Q) = 1 (Q) (Q),

1 (Q) =

(Q)
(Q),
n
n

the representation (4.16) takes the form

(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ

1 (Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

1 (Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

P V.

(4.17)

Compare (4.13) and (4.17). For the same function (P ) we have obtained two different
integral representations with different source and doublet distributions.
Conclusion. The integral representation of a harmonic function in the form of the
sum of source and doublet distributions is not unique. There exists an infinite set of
functions (Q) and (Q) that define the same (P ).

Basic boundary-value problems (BVP) for harmonic

functions

5.1

Formulation of basic problems

Consider any domain V with a closed boundary S. Let ~n be an inner unit normal
vector of S with respect to V .
5.1.1

Dirichlets BVP (DBVP)

Find a harmonic function (P ):

2 = 0 (Laplaces eq.)
such that
= FD (Q),

Q S,

where FD (Q) is a given function of surface points.

27
5.1.2

Neumanns BVP (NBVP)

Find a harmonic function (P ):

2 = 0
such that

= FN (Q), Q S,
n
where FN (Q) is a given function of surface points.
We should note that the solution to Neumanns BVP is determined to the extend of
an additive constant. So, if is a solution to Neumanns BVP, then + C is a solution
too.
5.1.3

Mixed BVP

The surface is divided by two parts S = S1 + S2 . Find a harmonic function (P ):

2 = 0
such that
= FD (Q),

Q S1 ,

= FN (Q), Q S2 ,
n
where FN (Q) and FN (Q) are given functions of surface points.
The Dirichlet and Neumann BVP are particular cases of the mixed BVP.

5.2

Uniqueness theorem

Theorem 1 Mixed BVP has at most one solution except of the case of Dirichlets BVP,
for which the solution is defined to the extend of an additive constant.
Proof. In the previous section we have proved that
div (1 2 ) = (1 2 ),

(4.1)

if 1 and 2 are harmonic functions. Let us set in this identity that

1 = 2 = .
We obtain
div ( ) = ( ) = | |2 .

(5.1)

Let us assume that the mixed BVP has two solutions 1 and 2 and let
= 1 2 .
For the function we will have only zero boundary conditions (BC):
= 0,

Q S1 ,

(5.2)

28

= 0, Q S2 .
n
Now we apply the divergence theorem to the vector field ~q = :
ZZ
S

[( ) ~n]dS =

ZZZ
V

(5.3)

div ( )dV.

(5.4)

Firstly, we compute the LHS of (5.3):

LHS =

ZZ
S

( ~n)dS =

ZZ

dS =
n

ZZ

S1

dS +
n

ZZ
S2

dS = 0,
n

since we have only zero boundary conditions (5.2) on S. Now we compute RHS. It follows
from (5.1) that
ZZZ
RHS =

| |2 dV.

So, we have obtained

RHS = LHS =

ZZZ
V

| |2 dV = 0 = = 0 = = const.

If in the mixed BVP we have Dirichlets BC, then on S1 we have

= 0 = const = 0 = = 0.
Therefore the problem can have only one solution.
If we have only Neumanns BC, then the previous reasoning cannot be used, = const
and the solution is unique to the extend of an additive constant.
Remark 5.1 To make the solution of NBVP unique we can specify additionally the value
of at a certain point P0
(P0 ) = A, P0 V.
Remark 5.2 Our proof is correct only if the integral
ZZZ
V

| |2 dV

is bounded. But for unbounded domains this integral can tend to infinity. For unbounded
domains we need to specify some additional condition at infinity. For instance, ~q
as P . In this case
= 1 2 0,
and usually

ZZZ
V

as P ,

| |2 dV < .

29

Figure 18:

5.3

Unsolvable BVP

It is easy to specify BC so, that BVP has no solution. Consider, for example, NBVP
in the bounded domain:

= FN (Q), Q S.
n
Let us compute the flux of the fluid trough the surface S:
f lux =

ZZ
S

(~q ~n)dS =

ZZ
S

( ~n)dS =

ZZ
S

dS =
n

ZZ

FN (Q)dS.

But the flux mast be zero, because we have no sources or sinks in the fluid. Therefore
ZZ

FN (Q)dS = 0.

If the last integral is not zero the NBVP has no solution.

We can correct the problem by setting a sink in the volume with the strength
=

ZZ

FN (Q)dS

(see fig. 18).

5.4

External and internal BVP

Let S be a closed surface. This surface divides the space by two parts. If we need to
find in the part, that contains infinity, the BVP is called external, if we need to find
in the another part the BVP is called internal.

5.5

Mathematical formulation of the problem on movement of

a body in fluid

Let a body moves in a fluid and transforms its shape in its movement. Let ~q = ~qB (Q, t)
be a function that defines the velocity of the point Q of the body surface S at the moment
of time t. We assume that the function ~q = ~qB (Q, t) is known. The undisturbed flow is
the uniform one with the potential
u = u x + v y + w z.
We need to find the potential = (P, t) of the flow.

30
1. Governing equation: 2 = 0.
2. BC at infinity: u 0 as P ,
or in the equivalent form: ~q ~q as P .
3. BC on the surface of the body S.
Assume that at all points of the surface S we locate observers. From the point of view
of each observer the fluid moves with the velocity
~qobs = ~q ~qB ,
with ~q being the velocity of the fluid.
Physical principle: No fluid can go through any parts Sp of the surface S.
It follows from this principle that
f lux = 0 trough any Sp S.
Therefore,
f lux =

ZZ
Sp

(~qobs ~n)dS =

ZZ
Sp

(~q ~qB ) ~ndS = 0.

Since Sp is an arbitrary part of S, we get that

(~q ~qB ) ~n = 0 = (~q ~n) = (~qB ~n) = ( ~n) = (~qB ~n) =

= (~qB ~n).
n

Finally

= (~qB ~n) (Neumanns BC).

n
So we have obtained an external Neumann BVP with an additional BC at infinity. This
problem always has a unique solution.

Surface singularity distributions

6.1

Singular integrals

Consider the source distribution

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

or the doublet distribution

The problem is how to compute these integrals when P lies on the surface S? Indeed, if
P S, then the kernel function fs (P, Q) and fd (P, Q) both tends to infinity as Q P .
The points in the domain of integration at which the integrand tends to infinity are called
singular points or singularities. To explain the idea of computing surface integrals with
singularities consider firstly a more simple case of line integrals.

31
Case (A). Compute the integral
Z1

dx
.
|x|1/2

The integrand here tends to infinity as x 0. To compute the integral we remove the
segment [1 , 2 ] (1 > 0, 2 > 0) from the integration domain. So, by definition
Z1

Z 1

Z1

dx
dx
dx
= lim
+
= lim [4 2 1 2 2 ] = 4.
1/2
1/2
1/2
|x|
|x|
1 0 1 |x|
1 0
2
2 0
2 0

This procedure works with an arbitrary proportion between the positive values 1 and 2 .
Such integrals that can be computed by removing an infinitely small arbitrary segment,
containing the singular point, are called improper.
Case (B)
Z1

Z 1

Z1

dx
dx
dx
= lim
+
= lim
2
2
x
x2
1 0 1 x
1 0
2
2 0
2 0

1
1
2 + +
.
1 2

The limit does not exist. The integral has no sense. It is divergent.
Case (C)

Z1

Z
dx
dx Z dx
1
= lim
+
= lim log .
x
2
1 0 1 x 2 x
1 0
2 0
2 0

By choosing different proportions between 1 and 2 we will obtain different values of the
integral. For example, 1 = 22 , then the integral is log 2. The limit is undetermined.
Such integrals, for which the cut off of an infinity small segment leads to undetermined
values, are called singular. But by virtue of symmetry we could expect that this integral
is zero. Indeed, the right hand side of the graphic of the function y = 1/x equals exactly
to the left hand side, but with opposite sign. If we set that 1 = 2 = then
Z1

dx

= log = log 1 = 0,
x

and we have obtained the expected value. Such a value of integral obtained by a symmetrical cut-off is called Cauchys principal value. The Cauchy principal value can be
denoted by a slash or by the letters v.p. (valeur principal, French) before the integral.
So, by definition

Z1
Z
Z1
dx
dx
dx
.
v.p.
= lim
+
0
x
x
x

On a surface symmetrical cut-off is obtained by removing a circle S of a small radius

with the center at the point P . By definition
v.p.

ZZ
S

f (Q)dS = lim

Z Z

f (Q)dS.

SS

In table 2 we give the properties of integrals with different types of singularities.

32

Table 2:
DiType
mension
1-D
Line int.
2-D
Surface int.
3-D
Volume int.
Properties

Improper int.

r=
r=
r=

Singular
int.
(v.p.)

< < 1 r~r2

< < 2 r~r3
< < 3 r~r4
No jumps
Jumps
1
,0
r
1
,0
r
1
,0
r

Figure 19:

6.2

Surface distributions and their jump properties

Consider a double-sided surface S in the space (see fig. 19). Let S + and S be the
sides of S, ~n be the unite normal vector, oriented from S to S + . If (P ) is a function
in the space, then
+ (P ) = (P ), P S + ,
(P ) = (P ),

P S +.

So the function (P ) can have different values on the sides S + and S . In this case we
are saying that (P ) has a jump across S.
6.2.1

Surface source distribution

(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

r(P, Q) =

fs (P, Q) =

1
,
4r(P, Q)

(x )2 + (y )2 + (z )2 .

With accordance to table 2 without strict proof we can write

Property 6.1 Surface source distribution has no jump across S:
(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)ds,

P S +,

(6.1)

(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)ds,

P S ,

(6.2)

33

Figure 20:
+ (P ) (P ) = 0.

(6.3)

Corollary. The circulation along any contour is zero:

=

(~q d~l) = + = 0.

This means that no flow producing lift can be modelled with this distribution!
Velocity field:
~q = P

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)ds =

(Q)P fs (P, Q)ds,

P fs (P, Q) = P
Let us denote

ZZ

"

1
1 ~r(P, Q)
=
.

4r(P, Q)
4 r 3 (P, Q)

1 ~r(P, Q)
~
K(P,
Q) =
.
4 r 3 (P, Q)

Then
~q =

ZZ

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS.

Property 6.2 Normal component of ~q has the jump (Q) across S:

[~q + (P ) ~n(P )] [~q (P ) ~n(P )] = (P ),

P S.

(6.4)

Proof. Consider a small element S of the surface S containing the point P . We

assume the element S to be so small that it can be thought as flat and the velocities on
the upper and lower surfaces are constant (see fig. 20):
~q + = ~q + (P ),

~q = ~q (P )

for all points of S. The volume quantity of fluid injected by the element per unit of
time is
f lux = S.
The upper side of the element injects the flux
f lux+ = [~q + (P ) ~n]S.

34
The lower side injects the flux
f lux = [~q (P ) (~n)]S = [~q (P ) ~n]S.
We have here the sign minus, because in computing f lux the direction of the normal
vector on the lower side is reversed. But
f lux+ + f lux = f lux,
[~q + (P ) ~n]S [~q (P ) ~n]S = S

[~q + (P ) ~n] [~q (P ) ~n] = .

Property 6.2 is proved.

Property 6.3 ((without proof))
(P )
~q (P ) =
~n(P ) + v.p.
2
+

ZZ

(6.5)

(P )
~q (P ) =
~n(P ) + v.p.
2

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS,

ZZ

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS.

(6.6)

It follows from property 6.3 that the velocity vector induced by the source distribution
has a jump only in the direction normal to S, and no jump in the tangential direction.
6.2.2

Surface doublet distribution

(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS,

fd (P, Q) =

1 [~n(Q) ~r(P, Q)]

.
4
r 3 (P, Q)

Property 6.4 Surface doublet distribution has a jump of (P ) across S. The boundary
value are given by the formulae:
+ (P ) =

(P )
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS,

(6.7)

(P ) Z Z
(P ) =
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.
2

(6.8)

Proof. First we will prove

Lemma If (Q) = = const, then
(P ) =

(P )
,
4

if P lies above S,

(6.9)

(P )
, if P lies below S
(6.10)
4
where (P ) is the solid angle at the vertex P of the cone with the base S.
Proof of the lemma. Assume that P ia above S and locate at the point P a sink
with the strength (see fig. 21):
(P ) =

35

Figure 21:
sink (Q) =
~qsink =

,
4r(Q, P )

~r(P, Q)
~r(Q, P )
=
,
3
4 r (Q, P )
4 r 3 (P, Q)

(6.11)

since ~r(P, Q) = ~r(Q, P ), r(P, Q) = r(Q, P ). The flux of the fluid that goes into the sink
is
(P )
.
(6.12)
f lux =
4
On the other hand
ZZ
f lux =
[~qsink (Q) ~n]dS.
S

Using the formula (6.11) we get

f lux =

ZZ "
S

~r(P, Q)
~n dS
4 r 3 (P, Q)

Comparing this expression for f lux and (6.12) we get that

ZZ

ZZ
S

[~r(P, Q) ~n(Q)]
(P )
dS =
.
3
4r (P, Q)
4
{z

fd (P, Q)dS =

(P )
,
4

Finally

fd (P,Q)

if P lies above S,

and we have proved formula (6.9). To prove (6.10) we locate at the point P a sink and
repeat the reasoning. Lemma is proved.
Now we shall prove property 6.4. Consider a small element S of the surface S
(see fig. 22). We assume that the element is so small that it can be thought as flat and
(Q) = (P ) = const, where P is a point inside S, and Q is any point of S. According
to the lemma at the point P1 above S this element induces the potential
S =

(P1 )(P )
.
4

36

Figure 22:
If P1 P then 2 and
S =

(P )
2

(singular component).

It is worth noting that usually a small size induces a small value, but here, due to the
fact that P1 P , even infinitely small element induces a finite value of the potential.
The remaining part of S induces the potential
Z Z

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

SS

So,
+ (P ) =

(P )
+
2

Z Z

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

SS

If S collapses to the point P then the surface S S tends to S and

+ (P ) =

(P )
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

So we have proved (6.7). If P1 lies below S, then

S =

(P1 )(P )
.
4

Repeating previous reasoning we get

(P ) Z Z
(P ) =
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS,
2

and the property 6.4 is proved.

6.2.3

Connection between the surface doublet distribution and a vortex sheet

Now we compute the velocity field induced by the surface doublet distribution.
~q = P (P ) = P

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS =

ZZ

(Q)P fd (P, Q)dS.

For computing ~q the following property of the doublet distribution can be used.

37

Figure 23:
Property 6.5 ((without proof))
1
~q(P ) =
4

ZZ
S

~r(P, Q)
1
(2 ~n) 3
dS +
r (P, Q)
4

"

~r(P, Q)
(Q) d~l 3
,
r (P, Q)

(6.13)

where 2 is the 2-D gradient (surface gradient).

If ~e1 and ~e2 are unit vectors of two perpendicular directions, tangential to the surface S,
then

~e1 +
~e2 .
2 =
e1
e2
The line C is a closed contour that bounds the surface S. The direction of integration
along C is chosen so, that if one looks from the end of the vector ~n, this direction will be
counter clock-wise (see fig. 23).
Let us denote 2 ~n = (Q). Then the surface integral
1
4

ZZ
S

(Q)

~r(P, Q)
dS
r 3 (P, Q)

is a velocity field induced by the vortex sheet with accordance to Biot-Savars law: the
element of vorticity (Q)dS induces the velocity
(Q)dS
The line integral
1
4

1 ~r(P, Q)
.
4 r 3 (P, Q)

"

~r(P, Q)
(Q) d~l 3
r (P, Q)

represents the velocity field induced by the vortex ring C, that is the boundary of the
surface S.
So, doublet distribution is equivalent (with respect to the induced velocity) to a vortex
sheet plus a vortex ring of nonconstant strength. If = const, then 2 = 0. In this
case doublet distribution is equivalent to a vortex ring of constant strength .
Property 6.6 ((without proof))
2
1
~q (P ) =
+v.p.
2
4

ZZ
S

~r(P, Q)
1
(2 ~n) 3
dS+
r (P, Q)
4

"

~r(P, Q)
(Q) d~l 3
. (6.14)
r (P, Q)

38

Figure 24:

Numerical computation of surface source and doublet distributions

7.1

Low-order panel methods for computing surface integrals

Let S be a surface, f (Q) be a function of surface points. We need to compute

I=

ZZ

f (Q)dS.

Definition of the surface integral. Let us divide S in an arbitrary manner by N

parts (see fig. 24). Let us enumerate these parts from 1 to N. Let Si be the area of
every part and di be the diameter of every part. (Diameter of the domain is the leading
size of the domain.) Inside every part let us choose a point Qi (also arbitrarily), compute
f (Qi ) and construct the sum
sum =

N
X

f (Qi )Si .

i=1

By definition
I=

ZZ

f (Q)dS =

lim
N
max di 0

N
X

f (Qi )Si .

i=1

This definitions gives a direct way of computing surface integrals.

1. We need to define a number N of divisions.
2. We need to define a method of dividing the surface.
3. We need to define a method of choosing points Qi .
4. We need to define a method of computing Si .
Then
I

N
X

f (Qi )Si .

(7.1)

i=1

Computing the areas Si can be done by the method of quadrilateral panels. A quadrilateral is a flat quadrangle. Every part is approximated by a quadrilateral. The area of

39
quadrilateral can be computed analytically by representing it, for example, as two triangles. The whole approximated surface can have gapes or overlapping parts as shown on
the figure.
If we need to commute the integral, in which the integrand is a product of two functions, the following approximate formula is often used
ZZ

f (Q)f1 (Q)dS

N
X

f (Qi )

i=1

ZZ

f1 (Q)dS,

(7.2)

Si

where the integrals in the RHS are computed analytically.

The formulae (7.1) and (7.2) are so-called low-order approximate formulae for computing surface integrals. The main advantage of them in comparing with more truncated
formulae of higher order is their simplicity. To carry out the computation we need to
know only the values of the integrated function f (Q) at the collocation points Qi . Higher
order approximations require much more detailed information about f (Q).

7.2

Panel method for computing the surface source distribution

(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

fs (P, Q) =

1
.
4r(P, Q)

By making use of (7.2) we obtain

(P )

N
X

ZZ

(Qi )

i=1

If we denote
Si (P ) =

Si

fs (P, Q)dS .
{z

analytically

ZZ

fs (P, Q)dS,

(7.3)

N
X

(Qi )Si (P ),

(7.4)

Si

then
(P )

i=1

where Si (P ) is the potential, induced at the point P by the panel Si with uniform source
distribution of unit strength.
7.2.1

Quadrilateral source

Assume that the quadrilateral S is located at the plain XOY (see fig. 25). This
element has a uniform source distribution of unit strength. The potential induced by the
element is
1
(P ) =
4

ZZ
S

dS
1
=
r(P, Q)
4

ZZ
S

dd

(x )2 + (y )2 + z 2

This integral can be computed analytically. As a result we obtain the function of eleven

40

Figure 25:

Figure 26:
variables:
(P ) = Fs (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , x3 , y3, x4 , y4 , x, y, z).

(7.5)

There exist effective and fast programming code to compute the function Fs as well as
the partial derivatives for components of induced velocity:
u=

Fs
,
x

v=

Fs
,
y

w=

Fs
.
z

Properties of quadrilateral source

1. Fs is continuous with respect to x, y, z;
2. The w-component of velocity has a jump across S
1
w(x, y, +0) = ,
2

1
w(x, y, 0) = ,
2

if (x, y) S.

Beyond S we have w(x, y, 0) = 0.

3. The components u and v have no jump across S, but if P tends to the edges of S,
then u, v :
u log a, v log a,
(7.6)
where a is the distance from the point P to the nearest edge.
7.2.2

Global and local coordinate systems

Let us consider a part Si of the surface S that has not been flattened yet. Let us
introduce a local coordinate system (LCS) with basis vectors e~1 , ~e2 , ~e3 , so that the vector
~e3 coincides with the normal: ~e3 = ~n.

41

Figure 27:

Figure 28:
Let ~r1 , ~r2 , ~r3 , ~r4 be the angular point of Si . There exist a number of ways of introducing LCS and flattening the element. We describe here one of the most popular. Let
us compute the diagonal vectors
d~1 = ~r2 ~r4 ,

d~2 = ~r3 ~r1 .

If the panel is close approximately to a rectangle, then the vector d~1 + d~2 will be approximately parallel to the edges ~r2 ~r1 and ~r3 ~r4 . We define
~e3 =

(d~2 d~1 )
,
|d~2 d~1 |

~e2 =

d~1 + d~2
,
|d~1 + d~2 |

~e1 = (~e2 ~e3 ).

Thus, the vectors e~1 , ~e2 , ~e3 are found. The origin of the local coordinate system we locate
at the middle point of Si :
1
~rc = (~r1 + ~r2 + ~r3 + ~r4 ).
4
Now the local coordinate system is fully defined.
7.2.3

Transformation from the global to local coordinate system and back

If we know the components of the vectors e~1 , ~e2 , ~e3 , then we know the matrix

e11 e12 e13

E = e21 e22 e23

e31 e32 e33

42
that determines these components:
~e1 = e11~i + e12~j + e13~k,
~e1 = e11~i + e12~j + e13~k,
~e1 = e11~i + e12~j + e13~k.
Assume that in the global coordinate system (GCS) we have a given vector
~a = a1~i + a2~j + a3~k,
a1 , a2 , a3 are the components of the vector in GCS. In the local coordinate system (LCS)
this vector can be represented as
~a = a1~e1 + a2~e2 + a3~e3 ,
where a1 , a2 , a3 are the components of ~a in LCS. The transformations from a1 , a2 , a3 to
a1 , a2 , a3 and back are specified by the formulae
ai =

3
X

eij aj ,

i = 1, 2, 3;

(GCS to LCS),

(7.7)

3
X

eji aj ,

i = 1, 2, 3;

(LCS to GCS).

(7.8)

j=1

ai =

j=1

Equation (7.7) means that

a1 = e11 a1 + e12 a2 + e13 a3 ,
a2 = e21 a1 + e22 a2 + e23 a3 ,
a3 = e31 a1 + e32 a2 + e33 a3 .

()

For example, we will prove the first of the relations (*). The component a1 is the projection
of the vector ~a on the axis e1 . The projection of any vector on an axis equals the scalar
product of the vector and the unit vector of the axis:
a1 = (a ~e1 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (e11 , e12 , e13 ) = e11 a1 + e12 a2 + e13 a3 ,
and the first relation in (*) is proved. The remaining ones can be proved analogically.
Equation (7.8) means that
a1 = e11 a1 + e21 a2 + e31 a3 ,
a2 = e12 a1 + e22 a2 + e32 a3 ,
a3 = e13 a1 + e23 a2 + e33 a3 .

()

For example, we will prove the first of the relations (**). the component a1 is the projection of the vector ~a on the axis x with the unit vector ~i:
a1 = (~a ~i) = (a1~e1 + a2~e2 + a3~e3 ) ~i = a1 (~e1 ~i) +a2 (~e2 ~i) +a3 (~e3 ~i),
| {z }
e11

| {z }
e21

| {z }
e31

and the first relation in (**) is proved too. The remaining ones can be proved analogically.

43
It is convenient to write the relations (7.7) and (7.8) in matrix form. Let us denote

a1

a = a2 ,
a3

a1

a = a2
a3

where a and a are so-called matrices-columns. Then

a =

a=

Ea,
|{z}

Matrix
product

E T a ,
| {z }

Matrix
product

where E T is the matrix transposed to E:

e11 e21 e31

T
E = e12 e22 e32 .
e13 e23 e33
So, it is easy to remember that the transformation from
GCS to LCS is done with E,
LCS to GCS is done with E T .
Remark 7.1 Every element (panel) has its own matrix E.
7.2.4

Algorithm of computing the source distribution

Let P be a given point in the space. We need to compute

(P ) =

N
X

(Qi )Si (P ),

i=1

~q = P (P ) =

N
X

(Qi )P Si (P ).

i=1

1. Every quadrilateral panel is defined by its angular points: ~r1 , ~r2 , ~r3 , ~r4 . So, for every
panel with number i we determine its own local coordinate system, i.e. the unit
vectors ~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 :
~e3 =

(d~1 d~2 )
,
|d~1 d~2 |

~e2 =

d~1 + d~2
,
|d~1 + d~2 |

d~1 = ~r3 ~r1 ,

d~2 = ~r2 ~r4 ,

and the origin of LCS:

~rc =

~e1 = (~e2 ~e3 ),

4
1X
~ri .
4 i=1

44
2. By means of the matrix E we transform the coordinates of the point P (x, y, z) and
angular points of the panel in the LCS:

(x, y, z) ~rc ,
~r1 ~rc ,
~r2 ~rc ,
~r3 ~rc ,
~r4 ~rc .

LCS.

3. Because it is possible that the element is not flat, all z components of the corner
points in LCS are set to zero.
4. Using a standard code for Fs (x, y, z) we compute the induced potential Si (P ) and
the induced velocity ~q = Si (P ).
5. We transform the induced velocity vector ~q = uloc~e1 + vloc~e2 + wloc~e3 to the GCS:

uloc

E T vloc = GCS.
wloc
6. We find the sums of all induced potentials and velocities.
7.2.5

Test of accuracy for the source distribution

Consider a sink of strength 4 at the origin. The potential of the sink is

=

x2

1
1
= .
2
2
r
+y +z

The potential is defined to the extend of an additive constant. So we can set

=

x2

1
1
1 = 1.
2
2
r
+y +z

Consider a sphere S of unit radius. Then = 0 on S and is a harmonic function

outside S. From the integral representation (4.11) we obtain
(P ) = (P )

ZZ
S

(Q) fd (P, Q)dS +

| {z }
0

ZZ
S

fs (P, Q)dS,
n
|{z}
1

1
1 = = 1,
r

1
=
= 2 = 1 at r = 1.
n
r
r
=

As a result we get
1
1 = 1
r

ZZ
S

fs (P, Q)dS,

P is outside S,

45
(3D) 26 Oct 2003 shere shape

0.5

-0.5

-1
-1

-1
-0.5

-0.5

0
0.5

0.5
1

Figure 29: Panel representation of the sphere. The number of panels N = 900.
0 = 1

ZZ

fs (P, Q)dS,

P is inside S.

We find from the last formulae the test for the potential:
ZZ
S

1
fs (P, Q)dS = ,
r

P is outside S,

fs (P, Q)dS = 1,

P is inside S,

ZZ
S

and the test for the velocity field:

P

ZZ

fs (P, Q)dS =

ZZ

~r
,
r3

fs (P, Q)dS = 0,

P is outside S,

P is inside S.

The test computations were carried out for a sphere of unit radius with the center
located at the origin. The vector of velocity at infinity ~q = (1, 0, 0). The panel
representation of the sphere is shown in fig. 29. The representation has been obtained in
the following manner. In every section that goes through the x-axes we have 2 nx panels

46
(XY) 27 Oct 2003

Region of
check

30

30o

Figure 30: Region of the accuracy check. The bottom of the region consists of 5 panels.
distributed uniformly on the circumference of unit radius. So the angular size of all panels
is the same and at nx = 30 is 6 . In every section parallel to the coordinate plane Y OZ
we have nr panel, that also are distributed uniformly along the circumference bounded
the section. The total number of the panel is N = nx nr . We set nx = 30, nr = 30. Thus
the total number of panels is N = 900. Now we pass the section through the x-axes in
such a manner that the section goes trough the collocation points. By virtue of symmetry
ia all such sections the velocity field is the same. To investigate the accuracy of panel
method we choose the region shown in fig. 30. In this region we compute the potential
and the module of the velocity vector by means of the panel method and analytical
formulae. The distribution of the related errors of the panel method is shown in fig. ??
and fig. ??.
As one can see the results for the potential , obtained by the low-order panel method,
are accurate everywhere in the flow. For the velocity field ~q the low-order panel method
gives less accurate results, especially, if the point is very close to the panel edge. But yet
above and below collocation points the results are accurate enough for practical applications.
To explain this less accuracy for the velocity field we should recall that the potential
given by the quadrilateral source is continuous, but the velocity components have slight
singularities, defined by the formulae (7.6), as the point P tends to the edge of the panel.

47
Frame 001 5 Jun 2003 Sourse errors

1.1
phierr
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1.09
1.08
1.07
1.06

1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
30

36

42

48

54

60

tet

Figure 31: Typical distribution of errors of potential for quadrilateral sources along 5
panels.
Frame 001 5 Jun 2003 Sourse errors

1.1
qerr
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1.09
1.08
1.07
1.06

1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
30

36

42

48

54

60

tet

Figure 32: Typical distribution of errors of velocity for quadrilateral sources along 5
panels.

48

7.3

Panel method for computing the surface doublet distribution

We need to compute
=

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS,

where fd (P, Q) =

By discretizing we get
N
X

(Qi )

i=1

ZZ

fd (P, Q)dS .

Si

If we denote
Di (P ) =

~n(Q) ~r(P, Q)
.
r 3 (P, Q)

{z

analytically

ZZ

fd (P, Q)dS,

(7.9)

N
X

(Qi )Di (P ).

(7.10)

Si

then
(P )
7.3.1

i=1

Quadrilateral doublet

The element is located in the plane XOY . On this element we have a uniform doublet
distribution of unit strength:
(P ) =

ZZ

fd (P, Q)dS =

ZZ
S

~k [(x )~i + (y )~j + (z 0)~k]

dd.
4[(x )2 + (y )2 + (z 0)2 ]3/2

Finally, the potential of the quadrilateral doublet is

(P ) =

1
4

ZZ
S

[(x

)2

zdd
.
+ (y )2 + z 2 ]3/2

The integral in the RHS can be computed analytically. As a result we get the function of
11 variables.
(P ) = Fd (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 , x4 , y4, x, y, z).
(7.11)
For computation of this function also exists a fast and effective codes.
Properties of quadrilateral doublet.
1. Fd (x, y, z) has a jump across S:
Fd (x, y, 0) =

1
2

on S.

2. The velocity field ~q = P [Fd (x, y, z)] is equivalent to the velocity field induced by
a vortex ring:
I
1
~r(P, Q)
~q =
d~l 3
,
4 C
r (P, Q)

49
where C is the contour that bounds the quadrilateral. Because of that the velocity field is continuous across S, but near the edges of the element ~q has a strong
singularity:
1
|~q(P )| ,
a
where a is the distance from the point P to the nearest edge of the S.
The algorithm of computing the surface doublet distribution is the same as for the
surface source distribution. The only difference is that instead of the standard code for
Fs (x, y, z) we are using the code for Fd (x, y, z).
7.3.2

Test for the doublet distribution

Consider a flow over a sphere of unit radius. S is the surface of the sphere,
~q = u~i + v~j + w~k
is the velocity vector at infinity. For this flow we obtained earlier the exact solution:
(P ) = u (1 +

1
),
2r 3

where u is the potential of the uniform stream with the velocity ~q :

u = u x + v y + w z = (~q ~r),

~r = x~i + y~j + z~k.

On the surface S we have

= 0, = 32 u for the exact solution. By the integral
n
representation (4.11) for harmonic functions in an infinite domain we get
(P ) = (P )
| {z }
u

ZZ
S

(Q) fd (P, Q)dS +

| {z }

2 u

(P ) = u (P )

ZZ

ZZ
S

fs (P, Q)dS,
n
|{z}
0

3
u fd (P, Q)dS .
2
{z

doublet distribution
Test for doublet distribution:

ZZ
1
3
u (1 + 3 ) = u (P )
u (Q)fd (P, Q)dS,
2r
2

P is outside S,

0 = u (P )

ZZ
S

3
u (Q)fd (P, Q)dS,
2

P is inside S.

Check it yourself that



~q = u (1 +

1
1
3(~q ~r)~r
=
~
q
(1
+
)

2r 3
2r 3
2r 5

Test for the velocity field induced by doublet distribution:

~q = ~q

ZZ
S

3
u (Q)P [fd (P, Q)]dS,
2

P is outside S,

50
0 = ~q (P )

ZZ
S

3
u (Q)P [fd (P, Q)]dS,
2

P is inside S.

The test computations has been carried out in the region shown in fig. 30. They
have demonstrated that the results for the potential , obtained by the low-order panel
method, are accurate if the point P is not too close to the edges of the panels. For
example, at the collocation points we obtained accurate values of .
But for velocity field ~q the accuracy of computation decreases catastrophically, if the
point P is close to the surface of the body. The explanation can be found in the formula
(6.14):
2
1
~q (P ) =
+v.p.
2
4

ZZ
S

~r(P, Q)
1
(2 ~n) 3
dS+
r (P, Q)
4

"

~r(P, Q)
(Q) d~l 3
. (6.14)
r (P, Q)

On every panel the strength of doublets is constant 2 = 0. Because of that the singular
component 2 /2 disappears as the point P is on the surface S. This leads to the errors
that have the order of |2 |.
7.3.3

General conclusions for source and doublet distributions

Let dmax be the maximum diameter of the elements, that represent the surface S.
There exists a layer of width approximately dmax above and below S where approximate
formulae can give wrong results. The behavior of low-order panel approximations in this
boundary layer of possible errors is demonstrated in table 3.
Table 3: The behavior of low-order panel approximations in the boundary layer of errors

Accuracy of results for

source distribution
Accuracy of results for
doublet distribution

Potential
Everywhere

Velocity
Above and below collocation points
Above and below colloca- Nowhere in the layer
tion points
(disappearance of the
singular component)

In practical aerodynamic problems we need very often to compute the velocity field ~q
directly on the surface of the body. To make such computations correctly we should define
the singular component 2 /2 by some other way (e.m., by finite difference method)
and add it to the sum of the induced velocities obtained by the low-order panel method.

8
8.1

Method of integral equations for solving boundaryvalue problems (BVP)

Source-only and doublet-only formulations

Problems of aerodynamics usually reduce to external Neumanns BVP. So, as an example we consider the external NBVP. Let S be a closed surface, ~n be the external unit
normal vector, FN (Q) be a function of surface points.

51
Frame 001 5 Jun 2003 doublet errors

1.1
phierr
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1.09
1.08
1.07
1.06

1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
30

36

42

48

54

60

tet

Figure 33: Typical distribution of errors of potential for quadrilateral doublets along 5
panels.
Frame 001 5 Jun 2003 doublet errors

1.1
qerr
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1.09
1.08
1.07
1.06

1.05
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.01
30

36

42

48

54

60

tet

Figure 34: Typical distribution of errors of velocity for quadrilateral doublets along 5
panels.

52
External Neumanns BVP:
2
2
2
+
+
= 0 (Laplaces eq.),
2 x2 2 y 2 2 z 2

(8.1)

= FN (P ), P S,
n
(P ) 0 as P .

(8.2)
(8.3)

Integral representation (4.13):

= (P ) +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

(4.13)

For the representation (4.13) equation (8.1) will be satisfied automatically. The integrals
in the RHS tend to zero as P . Therefore the boundary condition at infinity (8.3)
for (4.13) will be satisfied automatically too. Thus we need to find (Q) and (Q) so,
that the boundary condition (8.2) would be fulfilled.
Let us set in (4.13) that (Q) = 0. In this case we obtain the source-only formulation:
= (P ) +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

(8.4)

= [P ~n(P )],
n
= (P ) +

ZZ

(Q)

ZZ

~r(P, Q)
dS,
4r 3 (P, Q)

= (P ) +

P S,
{z

~
K(P,Q)

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS.

The last formula is correct if P lies outside S. If P S + , then with accordance to the
jump property of the source distribution (formula (6.5)) we obtain

ZZ
S

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS =

(P )
~n(P )
+v.p.
| 2 {z
}
singular component

ZZ

~
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS,

ZZ
(P )
~
P = P (P ) +
~n(P ) + v.p.
(Q)K(P,
Q)dS,
2
S

[P ~n(P )] = FN (P ) (BC),

(P )
[P (P ) ~n(P )] +
[~n(P ) ~n(P )] +v.p.
{z
}
2 |
=1

(P )
+ v.p.
2

ZZ
S

ZZ
S

~
(Q)[K(P,
Q) ~n(P )]dS = FN (P ),

(Q)K1 (P, Q)dS = FN (P ) [P (P ) ~n(P )],

|

{z

RHS is known

(8.5)

53
where

~
K1 (P, Q) = [~n(P ) K(P,
Q)]

is a kernel function.
Equation (8.5) ia a Fredholm integral equation of the second kind (good equation,
after discretization we shall have a well conditioned linear system).
In a similar manner we can obtain an integral equation for solving Dirichlets BVP.
(P ) = FD (P ) (Dirichlet BC).
We recall that the source distribution is continuous across S. Therefore
(P ) +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS = FD (P ),

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS = FD (P ) (P ).

This is a Fredholms integral equation of the first kind. (Bad equation, after discretization we will have possibly a full matrix that is not diagonally dominant.)
To reduce a BVP to an integral equation we can use doublet-only formulation. In this
case (Q) = 0 and
ZZ
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

(P ) = (P ) +

Repeating previous reasoning we will obtain again an integral equation for finding the
doublet distribution (Q).
8.1.1

Summary of possible combination of singularity distributions and BC

1. External Neumanns BVP. Source-only distribution is unique, doublet-only distribution is not unique.
2. Internal Neumann BVP. Neither source-only nor doublet-only distributions are
unique.
3. External Dirichlet BVP. Source-only distribution is unique, doublet-only distribution is not unique.
4. Internal Dirichlet BVP. Both source-only and doublet-only distributions are unique.

8.2

Morinos formulation for solving external Neumann BVP

Consider again external NBVP (8.1)-(8.3). BC:

= ( ~n) = FN (P ),
n

P S,

(Neumanns BC).

The integral representation (4.12) for a harmonic function is

(P ) = (P )

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

fs (P, Q)dS ,
n

=FN (Q),
n

{z

(from BC)

54
(P ) = (P )

ZZ

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

{z

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS .

{z

(8.6)

sources
doublets
The representation (8.6) is correct if P lies outside S. Now let P S. We recall that
the source distribution is continuous across S. Therefore

ZZ

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS

ZZ

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS .

{z

no singular component

But the doublet distribution has a jump across S. So according to (6.7) we have

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS

(P )
=
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

It follows from (8.6) that

(P ) = (P ) +

(P )

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

Bringing out unknowns in LHS we get

(P )
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = (P ) +

ZZ
S

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS ,

{z

B(P )

(P ) Z Z
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = B(P ).
2

(8.7)

Equation (8.7) is called Morinos integral equation. (Fredholms equation of the second
kind, good for numerical solution). Equation (8.7) is very convenient for numerical computations. It allows us to find the distribution of the potential (Q) on the body surface
S. In the source-only or doublet-only formulations we are satisfying directly the Neumann
BC on the surface S. In Morinos formulation instead of BC we have a mathematical equation (8.7). BC are hidden in this mathematical equation. So, we are satisfying here the
BC indirectly. Since we can only solve (8.7) approximately, the BC will be also fulfilled
only approximately.

8.3

Method of reducing the external Neumann BVP to the internal Dirichlet BVP

Consider inside S any harmonic function in (P ). Stress your attention to the fact that
we are choosing in (P ) ourself. For example, we can set in (P ) = 0 or in (P ) = (P ).
So, in (P ) is given and the velocity field ~qin = in (P ) is also given inside S. Now
consider the function
G(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

(8.8)

55
Here (Q) and (Q) are unknown. We will try to find them in such a manner that
G(P ) = (P ),

P lies outside S,

(8.9)

P lies inside S.

(8.10)

G(P ) = in (P ),

First of all we are computing the jump of ~q = P (G) across S. We are using here the
formulae for the jumps that were deduced earlier for source and doublet distributions in
section 5. We obtain
~q + (P ) ~q (P ) = (P )~n

2 (P )

{z

(8.11)

2-D gradient

Now we calculate the normal component of this jump. In so doing we are taking into
account that 2-D gradient is tangential to the surface S. Therefore 2 ~n, and (2 ~n) =
0. Thus
[~q + (P ) ~q (P )] ~n(P ) = (P )(~n ~n) = (P ).
So, for ~q = G we have

[~q + (P ) ~q (P )] ~n = (P ).

(8.12)

On the other hand we can compute the jump by (8.9), (8.10). Indeed,
(~q + ~n) = [G(P ) ~n]+ = ( ~n) =

= FN (Q),
n

(~q ~n) = [G(P ) ~n] = (in ~n) = (~qin ~n),

[~q + (P ) ~q (P )] ~n = FN (P ) (~qin ~n).

(8.13)

(Q) = FN (Q) (~qin ~n).

(8.14)

Comparing (8.12) and (8.13) we can see that

Thus in (8.8) (Q) is known, and we need to find only (Q) (doublet distribution). To
find (Q) we shall use (8.10). But to provide (8.10) it is enough to fulfill
G (P ) = in (P ),

P S

(8.15)

Indeed, equation (8.15) is Dirichlet BC. Since DBVP has a unique solution, equation
(8.10) follows from (8.15). We satisfy (8.15) by the method of integral equations. For the
doublet distribution

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS

(P )
=
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.

For the source distribution

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS =

(P )
G (P ) = (P ) +
+
2

ZZ
S

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ
S

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

56

in (P ) = (P ) +

ZZ
(P ) Z Z
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,
2
S

ZZ

(P )
+
2

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = B1 (P ),

where
B1 (P ) = in (P ) (P )

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

(Q) = FN (Q) (in ~n).

This is again Morinos integral equation but the RHS B1 (P ) is different. From this new
formulation Morinos formulation can be obtained if we set in (P ) = 0, (Q) = (Q)
on S. In the general case
(Q) = [(Q) in (Q)].
Advantage of this general formulation compared with ordinary Morinos formulation is
can be obtained by choosing the function in (P ) so, that |B1 (P )| < |B(P )|. The smaller
RHS leads to the smaller function (Q), and the functions with smaller values are easier
to determine by numerical methods.

8.4

Discretization of integral equations for 3-D case. Influence

coefficients

Consider Morinos integral equation

(P )
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = B(P ),

B(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

By making use of the formula

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS =

(P ) Z Z
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS,
2
S

P S

we rewrite the Marino integral equation in the form

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = (P ) +

ZZ

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

So, we have included the singular component (P )/2 in the integral. To compute the
LHS and RHS of the Morino equation we use the approximate formulae (7.3), (7.4), (7.9),
(7.10) of the panel method, that were obtained in the previous section:
ZZ
S

FN (Q)fs (P, Q)dS =

N
X

j=1

FN (Qj )Sj (P ),

Sj (P ) =

ZZ

Sj

fs (P, Q)dS,

57

Figure 35:

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS =

N
X

(Qj )Dj (P ),

Dj (P ) =

j=1

ZZ

fd (P, Q)dS.

Sj

To apply the above formulae we approximate the surface S by N elements Sj . On every

element we locate the collocation point Qj , j = 1, 2, . . . , N, and assume that on every
element the sources and doublets of unit strength are distributed uniformly.
Consider two elements with numbers i and j (see fig. 35). The influence coefficient
Dij+ is the potential induced by the doublet element with the number j at the collocation
point Qi of the element with number i on the surface S + . The influence coefficient Dij is
the potential induced by the doublet element with the number j at the collocation point
Qi of the element with number i on the surface S .
By the function Dj (P ), introduced above, the coefficients Dij express as follows
Dij = Dj (Qi ).
Connection between Dij+ and Dij :
Dij+ = Dij
if i 6= j,
Dij = 1 if i = j.

Dij+

This is due to the jump properties of the doublet distribution.

The influence coefficients for sources are
Sij = Sj (Qi ).
The sense is the same, Sij is the potential induced by the source element of unite strength
with the number j at the collocation point Qi . Since the source distribution is continuous
across S, we have
Sij = Sij+ = Sij .

58
Now we will satisfy the Marino integral equation only at the collocation point Qi . If we
denote j = (Qj ) we shall have
X

Dij j = (Qi ) +

j=1

N
X

Sij FN (Qj ),

i = 1, 2, . . . , N.

j=1

This is a linear system of N equations with N unknowns j .

To find numerically the influence coefficients Dij and Sij we shall use the following
algorithm. Let Qi be a collocation point and j be the number of an element.
1. We know the coordinates of the collocation point Qi and the corner points r1j , r2j , r3j , r4j
of the element in GCS.
2. We transform Qi , r1j , r2j , r3j , r4j from the GCS to LCS.
3. Using standard codes for the potentials induced by the quadrilateral source and
doublet we compute the potentials induced at the point Qi . These potentials are
just the influence coefficients that we need: Sij and Dij .
4. To define Dii+ (influence of an element on itself) we proceed in the following manner.
We compute the integral Di (Qi ) not at the point Qi directly but at the point Qi =
Qi + ~n, where is a small value, for example, = 109 . To define Dii we compute
the integral at the point Qi = Qi ~n. Proceeding in this manner provides us the
jump Dij+ Dij = 1.

The system of linear equations can be solved by standard routines. After solving the
system we obtain the values of potential at the collocation points Qj :
j = (Qj ),

j = 1, 2, . . . , N.

If we use another formulation, then the influence coefficients have a different sense.
For example, consider the source-only formulation:
= (P ) +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

where (Q) is an unknown source distribution. Earlier, for finding (Q) we deduced the
integral equation
ZZ
(P )
+ v.p.
(Q)K1 (P, Q)dS = FN (P ) (P ) ~n(P ),
2
S

~r(P, Q) ~n(P )
.
4r 3(P, Q)
The LHS of the equation is the normal component of the velocity vector induced by the
source distribution at the point P of the surface S + . We define the influence coefficient Wij
as the normal components of the velocity vector at the point Qi , induced by the sources
of unite strength distributed on the element with the number j. Using this definition we
get
K1 (P, Q) =

N
X

j=1

Wij+ j = FN (Qi ) [( (Qi )) ~n(P )],

|

{z

i = 1, 2, . . . , N.

RHS is known
where j = (Qj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , N are unknown. To determine j we can again use
standard routines for solving linear systems.

59

9
9.1

Panel method for solving aerodynamic problems

Body in the fluid

Consider a body that moves in the fluid with constant velocity ~qB . The body moves
without changing its shape. The fluid at infinity is at rest. Let us introduce a coordinate
system in the body frame of reference. Then the body is at rest and the flow at infinity
has the velocity ~q = ~qB . We need to find the potential = (x, y, z). In section 4
we reduced this problem to the external BVP:
2 = 0 (Laplaces eq.),

= 0 (BC on the surface S),

n
u x v y w z 0, as P (BC at infinity).

(9.1)
(9.2)
(9.3)

To solve the external NBVP we can use the method of integral equations with discretization by the panel method. For Morinos formulation we obtain the equation
(P )
+
2

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS = u x + v y + w z,

(9.4)

where (P ) is the distribution of the potential on the body surface.

(P ) is the total potential defined by the integral representation
(P ) =

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS + u x + v y + w z.

Here we have no source distribution

ZZ
S

fs (P, Q)dS,
n

since
= 0.
n
Very often for solving hydrodynamic problems instead of the total potential (x, y, z)
it can be used a so-called perturbation potential
(x, y, z) = (x, y, z) u x v y w z.
If we rewrite the BVP (9.1)-(9.3) in terms of the perturbation potential we get
2 = 0,

(9.5)

= (~q ~n) (check it yourself!),

n
0 as P (BC at infinity).

(9.6)
(9.7)

Morinos integral equation for external Neumann BVP (9.5)-(9.7) takes the form
(P )
+
2

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS =

ZZ
S

(~q ~n)fs (P, Q)dS.

(9.8)

60

Figure 36:
If to compare equation (9.4) and (9.8) we can see that in (9.4) we have no integral in the
RHS. Numerical solution of this equation seems to be easier. But in equation (9.8) the
integrand (~q ~n) and the RHS are small if the body is slender and moves at a small angle
attack. This means that the function to be found (Q) will be also small. This can give
us a numerical advantage and greater accuracy.
Remark 9.1 Because in panel methods integral equations are fulfilled only in the finite
number of collocation points we will have leakage through the body surface S. The streamlines near S can go in S and leave out it.

9.2

Panel method for the flow over 3-D wings

The difference between flows over a smooth body and a wing is that behind the
trailing edge line of the wing a wake forms (see fig. 36). The wake in the potential flow
is an infinitely thin surface on which the potential and the tangential component of
velocity ~q have a jump. The BC on the surface SB of the wing are the same as for a
smooth body. If (x, y, z) is the perturbation potential then

= (~q ~n).
n
For the total potential
= 0.
n
The boundary condition for the steady wake:
1. The wake is impermeable, i.e.

= 0,
n+

= 0.
n

2. The wake is unloaded, i.e.

p+ = p ,
where p+ and p are the pressures on the Sw+ and Sw .

61
Let us write the integral representation for the perturbation potential
(P ) = (P ) u x v y w z.
In so doing we should take into account that the wake surface Sw has two sides Sw+ and
Sw . On these sides we have the different normals ~n+ = ~n and ~n = ~n. The values of
the potential on these sides are also different: + and . This gives
ZZ

(P ) =

fd P, QdS +

SB

ZZ
+
Sw

ZZ
+
Sw

ZZ
SB

fd P, QdS

(~
q ~
n)

ZZ

fd (P, Q)dS +

Sw

{z

()

fs (P, Q)dS +
n+

fs (P, Q)dS
n
|{z}

{z

ZZ

Sw

fs (P, Q)dS ,
n
}

()

(~n+ ~r)
(~n ~r)
=
on Sw+
fd (P, Q) =
3
3
4r
4r

(~n ~r)
(~n ~r)
fd (P, Q) =
=
on Sw ,
3
4r
4r 3
1
fs (P, Q) =
on Sw+ and Sw .
4r
Now
() =

ZZ
Sw

(+ )fd (P, Q)dS,

fd (P, Q) =

(~n ~r)
.
4r 3

On the wake surface from the impermeability conditions we have

=0
~n+

=0
~n
Therefore,
() =

ZZ
Sw

= (~q ~n+ ) = (~q ~n),

~n+

= (~q ~n ) = (~q ~n).

~n

[(~q ~n) + (~q ~n)]fs (P, Q)dS = 0,

and finally
(P ) =

ZZ
SB

fd (P, Q)dS

where w = + .

ZZ
SB

(~q ~n)fs (P, Q)dS

ZZ
Sw

w (Q)fd (P, Q)dS ,

{z

wake term

62
We see that the wake can be modelled by a doublet distribution. Now we recall that
= u x v y w z ,
|

{z

has no jump

w = + = + .

It follows from here that w is the circulation along the contour C that intersects the
wake:
I
+

w = = (~q d~l).
C

We should note that the wake surface Sw is unknown in advance and is to be found
in solving. Because of that we have two conditions on the wake. So far we have used
the impermeability conditions. Now we will use the condition that the wake is unloaded:
p+ = p . From Bernoullis equation it follows that
p+ +

(q )2
(q + )2
= p +
,
2
2

where q + and q are the modula of the velocity vectors ~q + and ~q on the surface Sw .
Let us introduce the average velocity
~qw =

~q + + ~q
2

on Sw .

This average velocity is also called the wake velocity. The vector ~qw forms a velocity field
on Sw . This velocity field forms some streamlines on Sw . These streamlines are called
mean streamlines.
Theorem 2 The doublet distribution w = + = + is constant along mean
streamlines.
Proof. It follows from Bernoullis equation that
(q + )2 = (q )2 .
Consider on Sw two perpendicular directions e1 and e2 that go trough the point P Sw .
We expand ~q + and ~q along this directions:
~q + = q1+~e1 + q2+~e2 ,

~q = q1~e1 + q2~e2 ,

q1 and q2 are the components of the velocity vector ~q .

(q + )2 = (q )2
(q1+

q1 )(q1+

= (q1+ )2 + (q2+ )2 = (q1 )2 + (q2 )2 ,

(q1+ q1 )

q1 )

(q2+

q2 )(q2+

q2 )

= 0,

q1+ + q1
q + + q2
+ (q2+ q2 ) 2
= 0.
2
2

We note that
~qw =

q1+ + q1
q + + q2
~e1 + 2
~e2 .
2
2

:2
(9.9)

(9.10)

63
Compute 2-D gradient of w :
2 w = 2 (+ ) = 2 (+ ) =
(+ )
(+ )
~e1 +
~e2 ,
e1
e2
2 w = (q1+ q1 )~e1 + (q2+ q2 )~e2 .

(9.11)

It follows from (9.9)-(9.11) that

(2 w ~qw ) = 0

2 w ~qw ,

~e = ~qw /|~qw | is the direction of the mean streamline that goes through the point P . Then
(2 w ~e) = 0

w
= 0.
e

This means that w is constant along the mean streamline. Theorem is proved.
9.2.1

Simplest wake model

1. The shape of the wake is given.

2. The mean streamlines on the wake are given two.
In this case it is possible to continue w from the trailing edge to the whole wake. the
values of w on the trailing edge can be determined by the Kutta-Joukovsky conditions:
the velocity at the trailing edge of the wing should be finite.
Consequences:
1. The wake surface bisects the trailing edge angle.
2. Since the T.E. line is common to the wing and wake we have
(+ )
9.2.2

T.E.


of wing

= (+ )

T.E.


of wake

Integral equation for 3-D wing (Morinos formulation)

(P ) =

ZZ
SB

Let P SB , then

ZZ
SB

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS

ZZ
SB

(~q ~n)fs (P, Q)dS

ZZ

ZZ

w fd (P, Q)dS.

Sw

(P )
=
+
(Q)fd (P, Q)dS.
| {z2 }
SB
singular
component

(9.12)

64

Figure 37:
By means of this formula we get
(P )
+
2

or

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

SB

ZZ
Sw

ZZ
SB

w fd (P, Q)dS =

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

|
ZZ

ZZ
SB

(~q ~n)fs (P, Q)dS

{z

B(P )

w fd (P, Q)dS = B(P ).

(9.13)

Sw

To discretize equation (9.13) we represent the surface of the wing as a collection of

N panels in a manner that the upper and lower panels, that adjoin to the trailing edge,
have a common edge (see fig. 37). The wake surface Sw is represented as a collection of
panels and on every wake row w = const. Now we need to find the influence coefficients
Dij and Sij . The influence coefficient Sij for the source distribution are defined as for a
smooth body:
Sij = Sj (Qi ).
But to define Dij we should take into account the influence of the wake. In computing
Dij we have three options.
1. The number j is not the number of the panel that adjoins to the trailing edge. In
this case
Dij = Dj (Qi ).
2. The number j is the number of an upper panel that adjoins to the trailing edge. To
compute Dij we should add to Dj (Qi ) the potential induced at the point Qi by the
wake row, that adjoins to the j-panel. All panel in the wake row have the strength
+1.

65
3. The number j is the number of an lower panel that adjoins the trailing edge. To
compute Dij we should add to Dj (Qi ) the potential induced at the point Qi by the
wake row, that adjoins to the j-panel. All panel in the wake row have the strength
1.
The discrete form of Morinos equation is
N
X

Dij j

j=1

N
X

(~q ~n),

j=1

where j = (Qj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , N.
The wake disappears in this equation. Its influence is included in the influence coefficients.
9.2.3

Computation of the pressure and lift

The discrete form of the integral representation for is

=

N
X

j=1

ZZ

Sj

fd (P, Q)dS

Nw
X

wj

j=1

ZZ

Sj

fd (P, Q)dS

N
X

(~q ~n)

j=1

ZZ

fs (P, Q)dS, (9.14)

Sj

where Swj are the elements of the wake, Nw is the number of elements of the wake,
= + u x + v y + w z,

(9.15)

~q = P = P + ~q .

To compute the pressure distribution we will use Bernoullis equation:

2
q
q 2
= p +
.
p+
2
2

Pressure coefficient

p p
q2
=
1

.
2 /2
2
q
q
To determine q we need to find P on the surface of the wing. But in our integral
representation (9.14) we have the doublet distribution, so the method of summing induced
velocities leads to great errors. To compute correctly q on the surface of the wing (in the
layer of error) it is possible to use the finite difference method. Indeed after solving
the Morino equation we know the accurate values of the perturbation potential at
the collocation points. By making use of (9.15) we can find the values of the total
potential at the same points. Since the surface of the wing is impermeable we have

= 0 and therefore q = |2 |. Finding of this 2-D gradient can be made by FDM. For
n
example, if the surface of the wing is represented by equidistant rectangles and x, y are
local coordinates whose axes are parallel to the edges of the rectangle with the number i,
then
v
!
!2
u
u 2

i3 i1

i2 i4

t
=
,
=
, q=
+
.
x
2h
y
2h
x
y
Lift:
N
2 X
q
~
L=
Cpj Sj ~n(Qj ),
2 j=1
Cp =

where Sj is the areas of elements, Cpj is the pressure coefficient, computed at the point
Qj .

66

Figure 38:

9.3

Six main steps in applying BEM

1. Choice of singularity elements.

2. Geometric representation of the body.
3. Computation of influence coefficients.
4. Computation of the RHS of the linear equation system.
5. Solving the linear equation system.
6. Computation of the lift, induced drag, pressure distribution, velocity field and so
on.

10
10.1

BEM for 2-D airfoils

Problem formulation

For 2-D case the potential depends only on two variables x, y:

= (x, y),

~q = ,

~q = u~i + v~j.

Boundary conditions (see fig. 38):

On the contour C we have the impermeability condition:

= 0.
n
On the wake Cw we have two conditions.
1. The wake is impermeable:

= 0 on Cw .
n
It follows from here that the wake is a streamline.

67
2. The wake is unloaded: p+ = p . From Bernoullis equation we get
p+ +

(q + )2
(q )2
= p +
2
2

(q + )2 = (q )2

= q + = q .

Since the wake is a streamline we obtain that ~q + = ~q . Therefore, we have no jump of

the velocity vector across the wake. We know that on the wake the jump of the potential
w = + = const

(10.1)

along mean streamlines (for proof see 3-D case). For 2-D case the mean streamlines
coincide with ordinary streamlines. Consequently, equation (10.1) is fulfilled along the
wake.
Since the velocity field is continuous and w = + = const along the wake the
shape of the wake does not influence the velocity field. (This fact we give without proof).
This means that as the wake we can take any line that starts from the trailing edge and
goes to infinity. For example we can take as the wake a direct semi-infinite segment. As
a result we come to the following boundary-value problem
2 2
+
= 0 (Laplaces eq. for 2-D case),
x2
y 2

= 0 on C,
n
w = + = const along Cw ,
~q

as P .

(10.2)
(10.3)
(10.4)
(10.5)

Beside equations (10.2)-(10.5) we have the Kutta condition that the velocity is finite at
the trailing edge.

10.2

2-D versions of basic singularities

Notation:
P (X, Y ) is a point in the domain;
Q(, ) is a point on the line of integration;

~r(P, Q) = QP = (xq )~i + (y )~j;

r(P, Q) = |QP | = (x )2 + (y )2 ;
10.2.1

Point source

Assume that the source is located at the point Q(, ). The potential of the source is
=

ln r,
2

is the strength of the source. Compare this 2-D potential with the 3-D one
=

.
4r

68

Figure 39:
If to integrate the uniform 3-D source distribution along the line that is parallel to the
z-axes we will obtain the 2-D case from the 3-D one.
2-D velocity field is
~r(P, Q)
~q = P =
,
2 r 2 (P, Q)
Q(, ) is a singular point, where , |~q| .
10.2.2

2-D doublet

The potential is
=

[~n ~r(P, Q)]

.
2 r 2 (P, Q)

~n here is the unit vector of the axis of the doublet. The axis of the doublet is always
pointed from the sink to the source. Let the axis be parallel to the line OY . For this
doublet ~n = ~j, (~n ~r) = y
=
10.2.3

y
.
2 (x )2 + (y )2

Point vortex

The vortex is located at the point Q(, ). The streamlines are circumferences (see
fig. 39). The potential is

= ,
2

where is the angle between the vector ~r(P, Q) = QP and the x-axis.
Let L be the cut that starts from the point Q and infinitely goes to the right. We
show now that
+ = = const.
(10.6)
Indeed

on L+
on L

+ = 0,

= 2 = .
2

= 0,

= 2,

It follows from here that (10.6) holds true.

By definition
I
= (~q d~l) = +
C

69
is the circulation of the vortex. Here C is a closed contour that surrounds the point Q.
How to compute . To make it correctly we should take into account the quadrant in
which the point P lies. Let us denote
= arctan
Then

y
.
x

1. x > 0, y > 0, (I) = = ,

2. x > 0, y < 0, (IV) = = + 2,
3. x < 0, x 6= 0, (II,III) = = + ,
4. x = 0, y > 0 = = /2,
5. x = 0, y < 0 = = 3/2.
The simpler way is to use the Fortran atan2(y, x) function. This function defines the
angle between the point P (x, y) and the x-axes with the cut that goes infinitely to the
left. Applying this function we get
= atan2( y, x) + .
(Check it yourself!).

10.3

Source and doublet distributions

10.3.1

Source distribution
=

(Q)fs (P, Q)dl,

where

1
ln r(P, Q).
2
The source distribution is continuous, but the normal component of the velocity vector
has a jump:
!+
!

= ()+ ~n () ~n = (P ).
n
n
fs (P, Q) =

10.3.2

Doublet distribution
=

(Q)fd (P, Q)dl,

where

~n ~r(P, Q)
.
2r 2 (P, Q)
The doublet distribution has a jump across C:
fd (P, Q) =

+ = .

70

Figure 40:
10.3.3

Constant strength source distribution along a segment (x1 , x2 )

Let us assume that on the segment (x1 , x2 ) the sources with the strength are distributed:
Zx2 q
Zx2

ln (x )2 + y 2 d.
= fs (P, Q)d =
2
x
x
1

The potential is
= Fs (x, y, x1 , x2 ),
where Fs (x, y, x1 , x2 ) is the function of four variables:
Zx2

q
1
ln (x )2 + y 2d.
Fs (x, y, x1, x2 ) =
2 x
1

The function Fs can be computed analytically. The velocity vector

~q = P = P Fs
can also be determined analytically.
10.3.4

Constant strength doublet distribution along a segment (x1 , x2 )

Assume that the axes of all doublet be parallel to OY . The potential of this distribution is
Zx2

(y )d
=
.
2 x (x )2 + y 2
1

The integral in the RHS can be computed analytically:

x2

= Fd (x, y, x1 .x2 ),

1 Z (y )d
Fd =
.
2 x (x )2 + y 2
1

It can be shown that the potential is equivalent with respect to induced velocities to
two vortexes located at the points x1 and x2 and having the opposite strengths and
correspondingly (see fig. 40):
=

(2 1 ).
2

71

10.4

Integral representation of the 2-D potential and its discrete

analog

In the 2-D case integral representation of the total potential takes the form
(P ) =

(Q)fd (P, Q)dl +

{z

doublets

fs (P, Q)dl
n

{z

w fd (P, Q)dl + (P ),

Cw

sources

{z

doublets

where w = up (B) low (B) = const (Kutta condition), up and low are the values of
the potential at the trailing edge B.
If we denote (Q) = (Q), (Q) =
, then
n
(P ) =

(Q)fd (P, Q)dl +

(Q)fs (P, Q)dl w

fd (P, Q)dl + (P ),

Cw

w = up (B) + low (B) on the wake.

Let us denote as in the 3-D case

Z

Dj (P ) =

fd (P, Q)dl,

Sj (P ) =

Cj

fs (P, Q)dl,

Cj

(Qj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , N.
n
On the wake we denote N +1 = w . Taking into account that up (B) = N , low (B) =
1 we obtain the Kuttas condition in the form
j = (Qj ),

j =

N +1 = N 1 .
In the discrete form the representation for (P ) can be written as
(P ) =

N
+1
X

j D j (P ) +

j=1

N
+1
X

j Sj (P ) + (P ).

(10.7)

j=1

In this representation j and j are unknowns. Since

(P ) = u x + v y
we get
~q = P (P ) =

N
+1
X
j=1

j P D j (P ) +

N
+1
X
j=1

10.5

Outlook of different formulations

10.5.1

Doublet-only formulation

j P Sj (P ) + ~q .

Let us set all source strengths to zero. Then

(P ) =

N
+1
X
j=1

j D j (P ) + (P ).

(10.8)

72
Boundary conditions:

=0
n

(Qi ) = 0,
n

i = 1, 2, . . . , N,

Qi are the collocation points.

(Qi ) = P (Qi ) ~n(Qi ) = 0,

n
N
+1
X
j=1

i = 1, 2, . . . , N,

j [P D j (Qi ) ~n(Qi )] +[~q ~n(Qi )] = 0.

|

{z

Eij

And we obtain the system of linear equations

N
+1
X
j=1

Eij j = (~q ~n(Qi )).

(10.9)

The unknowns are 1 , 2 , . . . N , N +1 , Eij are influence coefficients. But we have only N
equation. An additional equation is the Kutta-Joukovsky condition:
N +1 = N 1 .
10.5.2

Finding influence coefficients

Consider an element with the number j and the point P in the space. At the point P
we have a given vector
~n = nx~i + ny~j.
On the element we have the uniform doublet distribution of unit strength. We introduce
the local CS:

Aj Aj+1
e~1 =
= e11~i + e12~j,
|Aj Aj+1 |
e~2 ~
e1

e~2 = e12~i + e11~j,

~a = a1~i + a2~j

~a = a1 e~1 + a2 e~2
a1 = e11 a1 + e12 a2
a2 = e12 a1 + e11 a2
a1 = e11 a1 e12 a2
a2 = e12 a1 + e11 a2

(global CS),
(local CS),
global to local CS,
local to global CS.

We need to find [P Dj (P ) ~n]. This is the influence coefficient at the point P. The
influence coefficient Eij of equation (10.9) will be obtained if we set P = Qi , ~n = ~n(Qi ).

1. We should find the vector O P in the global CS.

2. We transform the vector O P to the local CS. Let its coordinates in LCS be (x , y ).

73
3. We are finding the induced velocity (u , v ) at the point (x , y ) in the local CS.
4. We transform the velocity (u, v ) to the global CS to get the velocity components
(u, v).
5. We find the influence coefficient at the point P :
inf l.coef. = nx u + ny v.
10.5.3

Morinos formulation for the total potential

(P ) =

N
+1
X

j Dj (P ) +

j=1

N
X

j=1

Let P Qj . We have the BC

=0
n

j Sj (P ) + (P ).

|{z}
0

j = 0.

We recall that j = (Qj ) and obtain a discrete analog of Morinos equation

i =

N
+1
X

j Dj+ (P ) + (Qi ),

N +1 = N 1
10.5.4

i = 1, 2, . . . , N,

j=1

(Kutta condition).

Super Morinos formulation

Now we assume that j 6= 0

1. We satisfy the Morinos integral equation.
2. We satisfy directly the BC

= 0.

Morinos equation:
i =

N
+1
X

j Dj+ (Qi ) +

j=1

j=1

BC: (Qi ) ~n(Qi ) = 0 =

N
+1
X
j=1

j [P Dj (Qi ) ~n(Qi )] +

N
X

N
X

j=1

j Sj (Qi ) + (Qi ).

|{z}
6=0

j [P Sj (Qi ) ~n(Qi )]+ + ~q ~n(Qi ) = 0,

N +1 = N 1

(Kutta condition)

74
10.5.5

Computation of the pressure distribution

From Bernoullis equation we find that

q2
Cp = 1 2 .
q
We need to compute the velocity q on the surface of the airfoil. If we have only the
source distribution ((Q) = 0) we can compute the induced velocity directly at the
collocation points. But if we use the formulation in which (Q) 6= 0, for example, Morinos
formulation the direct computation of the induced velocities leads to significant errors. For
Morinos formulation j = j , so we know the values of the potential in the collocation
points. To compute q we proceed as follows
1. We compute the lengths:

|BQ1 |, |Q1 Q2 |, . . . , |QN B|.

2. We locate these lengths on the s-axis. Now we are using the formula
q=

d
.
ds

Approximate differentiation can be made, for example, by means of the cubic spline
interpolation.

11
11.1

Full potential equations for irrotational isentropic

steady flows
Isentropic process

1. Adiabatic process. One in which no heat is added to or removed from the system.
2. Reversible process. One in which no dissipative phenomena occur, in particular
viscosity forces are absent.
3. Isentropic process. One which is both adiabatic and reversible.
For the isentropic process the entropy
Z

dq
= const
T
and the square of the velocity of sound is defined by the formula
S=

a2 =

dp
.
d

(11.1)

Moreover, the following isentropic relation holds

a2
1
1
q2
=
+
1

2
2
a2
M
2
q

(11.2)

and connects the local velocity of sound a and the local velocity of the fluid q. In (11.2)
M = a /q is the Mach number at infinity, = 1.4 (for air) is the isentropic exponent.

75

11.2

Deducing the full potential equation

We assume that the flow is irrotational, i.e. rot ~q = 0, steady and isentropic. The
continuity equation gives
(u) (v) (w)
+
+
=0
x
y
z

div (~q) = 0,

( ~q) + div ~q = 0,
div (~q) =

( ~q)
.

(11.3)

The momentum equation in the vector form :

or

q2
p
(~q rot ~q) =
| {z }
2

The relation
a2 =

dp
d

p
q2
=
.
2

(11.4)

dp = a2 d.

It follows from here that

p = a2 .
Indeed,
dp =
a2 d = a2

(11.5)

p
p
p
dx +
dy + dz,
x
y
z

dx + a2 dy + a2 dz.
x
y
z

By comparing these differential forms we get

p

= a2 ,
x
x

= a2 ,
y
y

= a2 ,
z
x

and, therefore, equation (11.5) holds true.

Let us take the momentum equation (11.4) and multiply it by ~q (scalar product):
(~q q 2 )
(p ~q)
=
.
2

Instead of P we insert in the RHS the expression (11.5) to obtain

(~q q 2 )
a2 ( ~q)
=
2

or

( ~q)
(~q q 2 )
=
.

2a2

76
Now making use of the continuity equation (11.3) gives
div ~q =

(~q q 2 )
.
2a2

(11.6)

In equation (11.6) we have excluded p and . The connection between a and ~q is given
by the equation (11.2). For the irrotational flow
rot ~q = 0

~q = ,

where is the total potential. Inserting ~q = in (11.6) and carrying out the differentiation, we obtain the following equation for
u2 2 v 2 2 w 2 2
2 2 2
+
+
=
+ 2 2 + 2 2+
x2
y 2
z 2
a2 x2
a y
a z
2
2uv
2uw 2
2vw 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
.
a xy
a xz
a yz

(11.7)

The equation (11.7) calls the full potential equation. A mnemonic rule to remember the
RHS of this equation is in comparing it with the formula
(u + v + w)2 = u2 + v 2 + w 2 + 2uv + 2uw + 2vw.
If we denote the RHS of the equation by v , we obtain
div ~q = v .
If to consider ~q(P ) as the velocity field of an incompressible fluid, then the divergence
is the strength of a source, that is located at the point P . Thus (div ~q(P ) V ) is a
volume quantity of fluid that appears (or disappears, depending on the sign div ~q) in the
small volume V arrounding the point P per unit of time. This gives us the possibility
to model compressible flows by incompressible ones by allowing the fluid to appear or
disappear in the flow domain.

11.3

Short form of the full potential equation

Taking into account that

q 2 =

q 2~ q 2 ~ q 2 ~
q
q
q
i+
j+
k = 2q ~i + 2q ~j + 2q ~k = 2qq
x
y
z
x
y
z

and using (11.6) we can write

scalar

z }| {

[~q (2q) q]
2q(~q q)
q2
div ~q =
=
=
2a2
2a2
a2

~q
q .
q

Consider any streamline of the flow and let ~s be the unit vector of the streamline. Then
div ~q =

q2
q 2 q
(~
s

q)
=
.
a2
a2 s

77

, where s
is the derivative in the direction of ~s. Noting
On the streamline we have q =
s
that q/a = M is the local Mach number, we get

div ~q = M

,
s2

2
.
(11.8)
s2
Equation (11.8) is the short form of the full potential equation.
The laplacian 2 is invariant with respect to the system of coordinates. Let us
introduce the coordinate system that is connected with the streamline. Then we have
2 = M 2

2
2 2 2
2
+
+
=
M
,
s2
m2
n2
s2

2 2 2
+
+
= 0.
(11.9)
s2
m2
n2
As one can see from (11.9) for M < 1 the full potential equation is of elliptic type, but
for M > 1 the one is of hyperbolic type. Shock waves in the compressible fluid are the
result of the change in the type of the equation.
(1 M 2 )

11.4

Goehert compressibility correction

Consider the case of a small perturbation flow. This means that the body in the flow
is slender, the angle of attack is small. Let us choose the system of coordinates so that
the flow at infinity is parallel to the x-axis, i.e. ~q = u~i. In this case it is possible to
show that
2
2

, M M .
s2
x2
The full potential equation takes the form
2
2 = M

2
x2

2
(1 M
)

2 2 2
+
+ 2 = 0.
x2
y 2
z

(11.10)

This equation is called the linearized full potential equation. Let us introduce the perturbation potential
(P ) = (P ) + (P ), (P ) = (P ) u x,

=
u ,
x
x

2
2
=
,
x2
x2

2
2
=
,
y 2
y 2

2
2
=
.
z 2
z 2

Inserting these derivatives in (11.10) we see that the linearized full potential equation for
is the same as for :
2
2 2
2
(1 M
) 2 + 2 + 2 = 0.
(11.11)
x
y
z
2
Assume that the flow is subsonic: 0 < M < 1 and denote 2 = 1 M
. Make the
change of variables
xe = x, ye = y, ze = z, e = 2 ,

(xe, ye, ze) = 2 (x, y, z),

e
.
2

78
Differentiation:

xe
1 e

=
= 2 ,
x
xe |{z}
x
xe
1

=
x2
x

1 e
2 xe

e xe
1 2 e
= 2 2,
xe |{z}
x
x

1
= 2
xe

ye
1 e
1 e
=
= 2 =
,
y
ye y
ye
ye
|{z}

2
1 2 e
= 2 2.
x2
x

=
2
y
y

1 e
ye

=
ye

1 e
ye

1 e
=
,
z
ze

ye
2 e
= 2,
y
y

|{z}

2
2 e
= 2.
y 2
y

2
2 e
=
.
z 2
ze2

Inserting these derivatives in (11.11) we obtain for e the Laplaces equation:

BC at infinity is

2 e 2 e 2 e
+ 2 + 2 = 0 (Laplaces equation).
xe2
ye
ze

0 as P (x, y, z)

BC on the surface of the body is

= (~q ~n)
n

e 0 as Pe (xe, ye, ze) .

( ~n) = (~q ~n),

where ~n is the outer normal to the body surface. Assume that the surface of the body is
defined by the equation
z = f (x, y).
Because the body is slender, we have

If we denote

<< 1,



 f 




 x 

<< 1,

f (x, y) z = F (x, y, z),

F
f
=
x
x



 f 




 y 

= O(1).

then F (x, y, z) = 0,


 F 




 x 

<< 1.

The normal unit vector to the surface is defined by the formula

~n =

F
.
|F |

79
BC on the surface of the body takes the form
F

|F |

F
= ~q
,
|F |

or
( F ) = (~q F ).
Taking into account that ~q = u~i we get
( F ) = u

F
,
x

F
F
F
F
+
+
= u
.
x x
y y
z z
x
Because

the first term

F
x x

<< 1,



 F 




 x 

<< 1

0 and the BC can be written as

u

F
F
F
+
+
= 0.
x
y y
z z

(11.12)

Equation (11.12) is the linearized impermeability condition on the surface of the body.
Now we rewrite this equation in terms of xe, ye, ze. Differentiation gives

1 e
=
,
y
ye

1 e
=
,
z
ze

F
F ye
F
=
=
,
y
ye y
ye
F
F ze
F
=
=
,
z
ze z
ze
F
F
=
.
x
xe

And finally the BC is

u

F
e F
e F
+
+
= 0.
xe
ye ye
ze ze

(11.13)

Comparing (11.12) and (11.13) one can see that they are of the same form. This means
that if we consider e as the perturbation potential of a certain imaginary incompressible
flow, this potential satisfies the impermeability condition on the surface of a new body
defined by the equation F (xe, ye, ze) = 0.
In the linear theory the pressure coefficient Cp can be calculated by the formula
Cp =
Since

2
x
.
u

1 e
= 2
x
xe

80
we have

2 ex
Cep
Cp =
=
,
u 2
2

where by Cep we denote the pressure coefficient of the imaginary flow.

Now we can formulate the Goehert rule:
1. Obtain a new body by means of the transformations
xe = x,

ye = y,

ze = z.

2. Consider the imaginary flow of an incompressible fluid over this new body and
compute Cep on its surface.

3. The real Cp coefficient is given by

Cp =

12
12.1

Cep
.
2

Field panel method

Idea of the method

Consider a body in an incompressible fluid. Let (P ) be the total potential. Then we

have the following BVP:
2 = 0,

(Laplaces equation),

= 0, (BC on the body surface),

n
~q as P .

(12.1)
(12.2)
(12.3)

We know that
(P ) = (P )

ZZ

or
(P ) = (P ) +

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

ZZ
S

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS

n
(Q)fs (P, Q)dS,

()

and the representation (*) for satisfies automatically (12.1) and (12.3) for any source
and doublet distributions (Q) and (Q). These distributions should be found so, that
the BC (12.3) would be satisfied. To find them we can use any of formulations that we
have studied (Morinos formulation, source-only formulation and so on).
Now consider the same body but in a compressible fluid. The BC for are the same
as for the incompressible flow, so the potential must satisfy (12.2) and (12.3). But in
the flow domain we have the full potential equation:
2 = v

(12.4)

81
with

u2 2 v 2 2 w 2 2
v =
+ 2 2 + 2
+
a2 x2
a y
a z 2
2uv 2
2uw 2
2vw 2
+
+
.
a2 xy
a2 xz
a2 yz

(12.5)

Using the same method as in section 4 it is possible to show that

(P ) = (P )

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS +

n

ZZZ

(2 )fs (P, Q)dV.

(12.6)
The formula (12.6) is correct for any function that has second continuous partial derivatives. Let us assume that v (P ) is a known function. Then
(P ) = (P ) +

ZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS +

If we denote
(P ) = (P ) +

ZZZ
V

(P ) = (P ) +
| {z }

known

v (Q)fs (P, Q)dV.

v (Q) fs (P, Q)dV,

| {z }

(12.7)

known

we obtain
ZZ

ZZZ

(Q)fd (P, Q)dS +

ZZ

(Q)fs (P, Q)dS.

()

Comparing (*) and (**) one can see that we have no difference. So to satisfy the BC
(12.2) we can use the panel method and find the source and doublet distributions (Q)
and (Q). The only equation that will not be satisfied is equations (12.5), because we
have specified the volume source distribution v (P ) ourselves. To find v (P ) we apply
the iterative process:
1. Specify v (Q), e.g. v (Q) = 0.
2. Using the formula (12.7) find (P ).
3. Using (**) and any of known formulations find (Q), (Q).
4. Using equation (12.5) find the new v (Q).
5. Go to step 2.
To compute the volume integral Sv (P ) =

12.2

RRR
V

v (Q)fs (P, Q)dV we shall use field panels.

Field panel

We represent the space around the body by a collection of parallelepipeds, that are
called field panels. Let us denote every field panel by Vi . Every field panel is specified
by the location of one angular point Ai (xi , yi, zi ) and by the lengths of edges ai , bi , ci (see
fig. 41). The basic field panel potential is

82

Figure 41:
Svi (P ) =

ZZZ

fs (P, Q)dS.

Vi

This integral can be computed analytically. As a result of integration we obtain that the
function Svi depends on nine variables:
Svi = Fvs (xi , yi, zi , ai , bi , ci , x, y, z).
Inside every panel we choose the collocation point
Qi (xi + ai /2, yi + bi /2, zi + ci /2).
So Qi is the centroid of the panel. Now we set vi = v (Qi ) to get the discrete representation of the volume integral
Sv (P ) =

Nv
X

vi Svi .

i=1

12.2.1

Subsonic, critical and transonic flows. Quasi-isentropic flows

The full potential equation was deduced under the assumption that the flow is isentropic. But if we have the shock wave in the flow we will have the jump S of the
entropy.
It is known that the jump S is a function only the Mach number M1 before the
shock. In the region 1 < M1 < 1.3 the jump S is less than 0.02. So, the flow can be
considered approximately isentropic. The flows with the local Mach number less than 1.3
calls quasi-isentropic. For such flows we can still use the full-potential equation.

12.3

Artificial viscosity

Numerical experiments show that the described above iterative procedure of finding
the volume distribution of sources v converges only if the flow is entirely subsonic. If in
the flow supersonic regions appears the procedure should be corrected to take into account
the jumps of the flow properties across the shocks. This can be made by the method of
artificial viscosity that comes from finite difference method (FDM). Consider again the
full potential equation
2
2 = M 2 2 ,
s

83

Figure 42:
where s is the direction of the streamline, that goes trough the point P . In FDM the
can be computed by


central differences

2
s2

C

;


left (retarded) differences

right differences

2
s2

R

2
s2

2
s2

L

.


A

Analytical computations we shall denote by s2 . The formulae for central and left
differences are
!C
2
i+1 2i + i1
=
,
2
s i
(s)2
2
s2

!L
i

i 2i1 + i2
=
=
(s)2

2
s2

!C

i1

The idea of the artificial viscosity method is to use left differences in the supersonic zone
(M > 1) and more accurate central differences in the subsonic zone (M < 1). This allows
2
the jump of the derivative s2 across the shock to be computed. In the field panel method
2
we shall use the analytical computation of s2 in subsonic zone, but in the supersonic
zone we add to the analytical derivative a special term that calls artificial viscosity and
equivalent to use of the left differences in the supersonic zone (see fig. 42).
Consider the difference
2

s2

!C
i

s2

!L

C
2
2
s
i

2
s2

!L

3
s,
s3

2
s2

!C

3
s.
s3

2
s2

!C

2
s2

!L

C
2
2
s
i1

s =

3
s,
s3

84
The central difference gives the most accurate result because of that we can set that
2
s2
and therefore

!C

2
s2

!L

!A
i

!A

2
3
2
=

s.
s2 i
s2 i
s3
Now from the full potential equation we deduce
2
2 2 2
2
+
+
=
M
,
s2
m2
n2
s2
2
2 2
2
+
=
(M

1)
,
2
n2
s2
m

(M 1) 2 ,
M < 1,

2 2
s
+
=

m2
n2

2
3

(M 2 1)

(M

1)
s, M 1.
s2
s3
In the last formula we have taken into account that in the supersonic zone we use the left
2
differences to compute s2 .

2 2 2
+
+
=
s2
m2
n2

M2

2
,
s2

M < 1,

2
3
2

(M

1)
s, M 1,
s2
s3

,
M < 1,
M

s
2
2
2



3

h 2
i
+
+
= M 2 1 1 s , M 1.
(12.8)
2
2
2
s
m
n
2
2
3

s
M
s

|
{z
}

artificial viscosity
Equation (12.8) is the full potential equation with a special term in the supersonic zone
3
that is the artificial viscosity. How to compute the s3 ? We denote

M2

v = M 2

2
.
s2

It follows from here that

2
v
=
,
2
2
s
M
!




2

v
v
3
=
=
= 2 ~s.
s3
s s2
s M 2
M
Here ~s is the unite vector along the streamline. Therefore ~s = ~q/q and


v
=
3
s
x M 2
The derivatives

+
q y


v
M2


+
q z


v
M2


w
.
q

v
,
,
2
2
x M
y M
z M 2
can be computed by some simple finite difference method. The value of s must be
proportional to the length of the edges of the field panel, e.g. s = max(ai , bi , ci ).

85

13

Formulae for computing induced potentials and

velocities of basic two-dimensional elements

Figure 43: a) Nomenclature for calculating the influence of the point source, doublet and
vortex; b) the same for the constant-strength doublet and source
Two-dimensional uniform flow
~q = ~q = u~i + v~j

= (~q ~r) = u x + v y,

Two-dimensional point source

=
where

ln r,
2

~r = (x )~i + (y )~j,

~q =
r=

~r
,
2 r 2

x )2 + (y )2 .

Two-dimensional point doublet

(~n ~r)
,
=
2 r 2

"

2(~n ~r)~r
~q =
~n
2
2r
r2

Two-dimensional point vortex

2
= atan2( y, x) +

y
u=
2 (x )2 + (y )2
=

v=

x
2 (x )2 + (y )2

Two-dimensional constant-strength source distribution

k = atan2(y, xk x) + ,
rk =

(x xk )2 + y 2

k = 1, 2

86
=

i
h
(x x1 ) log r12 (x x2 ) log r22 + 2y(2 1 )
4

r12

u=
log 2 , v =
(2 1 )
4
r2
2

On the element
u(x, 0) =

x x1
log
,
2
x2 x

v(x, 0) =

Two-dimensional constant-strength doublet distribution

"

(2 1 )
2
"
#
x x2 x x1
v=

2
r22
r12

=
#

y
y
u=
2 ,
2
2 r2 r1
On the element

(x, 0) = ,
2

u(x, 0) = 0,

1
1
v(x, 0) =

2 x x2 x x1

Combination of the uniform stream and 2D-doublet

= (~q ~r)

(~n ~r)
2 r 2

For the flow over cylinder of radius R:

~n =

14

~q
,
q

= 2q R2

Seminar tasks (1)

Variant 0 (example)

Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and a doublet .
Variant 1
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and two sources. Stress a special attention to the case of a source and sink of
equal strengths.
Variant 2
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and vortexes. Stress a special attention to the case the vortexes with equal but
opposite circulations.

87
Variant 3
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and an uniform source distribution on the segment (0.1) .
Variant 4
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of the uniform
stream and an uniform doublet distribution on the segment (0.1) .
Variant 5
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and a vortex and source . Stress a special attention to the case of the vortex and
source located at the same point.
Variant 6
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of an uniform
stream and a doublet and source. Stress a special attention to the case for which the axis
of the doublet is opposite to the uniform flow and the source locates on this axis behind
the doublet.
Variant 7
Investigate the streamlines and equipotential lines for the combination of the uniform
stream and three sources . Stress a special attention to the case of sources with zero sum
of strengths.

15

Seminar tasks (2)

Variant 0 (example)
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using Morinos formulation for the total potential , create the panel code that
finds the pressure distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient for an
arbitrary airfoil.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N
with the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by guk.vx for N = 500. Pay a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison by setting
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.

Variant 1
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using Morinos formulation for the perturbation potential , create the panel code
that finds the pressure distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient for an
arbitrary airfoil.

88
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N
with the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx for N = 500. Pay a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison by setting
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.

Variant 2
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using the doublet-only formulation create the panel code that finds the pressure
distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient for an arbitrary airfoil.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N
with the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx for N = 500. Pay a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison setting by
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.

Variant 3
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using the formulation with prescribed doublet strengths create the panel code
that finds the pressure distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient for an
arbitrary airfoil shape. The strength of doublet along the airfoil surface should be a linear
function of the arc-length and the function should be chosen so, that Kuttas condition
would be satisfied. To satisfy Kuttas condition create a wake panel at the trailing edge
that bisects the trailing edge angle. On this panel the impermeability condition must be
fulfilled.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N
with the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx at N = 500. Pay a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison by setting
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.
Variant 4
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a symmetrical Jukovskiy airfoil
for N = 60.
2. Using the source-only formulation create the panel code that finds the pressure
distribution at the collocation points for an arbitrary symmetrical airfoil.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 0o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N
with the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx at N = 500.Carry out the
comparison by setting N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.

89
Variant 5
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using super Morinos formulation for the total potential , create the panel code
that finds the pressure distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient for an
arbitrary airfoil.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N with
the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx for N = 500. Stress a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison setting by
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.
Variant 6
1. By means of the code gukvx generate the shape of a Jukovskiy airfoil for N = 60.
2. Using super Morinos formulation for the perturbation potential , create the panel
code that finds the pressure distribution at the collocation points and the lift coefficient
for an arbitrary airfoil.
3. Setting N=500 in the gukvx code find an accurate pressure distribution on the
airfoil surface at the angle of attack = 5o .
4. Prepare the graphs and compare the results of the panel codes for different N with
the accurate pressure distribution, obtained by gukvx for N = 500. Stress a special
attention to the suction peak near the leading edge. Carry out the comparison by setting
N = 30, 50, 70, 90 in the panel code.

90
Frame 001 27 May 2003

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 44: Streamlines for the 2D-doublet: q = 0, ~n = (1, 0), = /2.

Frame 001 27 May 2003

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 45: Streamlines for the combination of the uniform stream and 2D-doublet: q =
(1, 0), ~n = (1, 0), = /2.

91
Frame 001 27 May 2003

1
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 46: Streamlines

for the combination of the uniform stream and 2D-doublet: ~q =

(1, 0), ~n = ( 2/2, 2/2), = /2.
Frame 001 28 May 2003

1
0.8

fi
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-1

0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 47: Streamlines and equipotential

lines
for the combination of the uniform stream
and 2D-doublet: ~q = (1, 0), ~n = ( 2/2, 2/2), = /2.

92

Frame 001 13 Jun 2003 Comparison

0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02

0.25

0.5

0.75

Figure 48: The shape of the computed Joukovskiy airfoil: gam=15 , H=0.1, D=0.03

Frame 001 13 Jun 2003 Comparison

1
0.5
0

y, Cp, Cpin

-0.5
-1

-1.5
-2
-2.5
0.25

0.5

0.75

x
Figure 49: Comparisons of the pressure distributions. Adding to the sum of the induced
velocities the lost singular component.

93

Frame 001 13 Jun 2003 Comparison

1
0.5
0

y, Cp, Cpin

-0.5
-1

-1.5
-2
-2.5
0.25

0.5

0.75

x
Figure 50: Comparisons of the pressure distributions. Without adding the singular component.