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Wood in Landscape

How wood is used in Landscape Architecture

Wood as a feature of the built landscape
can be found in nearly all cultures through
history. Even in stone and masonary cultures
with limited lumber resources, wood was
used in the construction of pergolas, arbors,
and other garden structures. In this chapter,
the definition of wood in Landscape Design
will be discussed with examples from history,
as well as, the finishes used of wood in
Landscape Architecture projects will also be
described.

8.1 History of wood usage in Landscape

8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4

Wood as a Landscape Material

Wood in Roman Landscapes
Wood in Japanese Gardens
Wood in Modern History

8.2 Finishes on wood for use in Landscape

8.2.1 Wood Finishes
8.2.2 Varnish & Lacquers
8.2.3 Latex Semitransparent Stains
8.2.4 Latex Colour Stains
8.2.5 Oil
8.2.6 Wood Preserver
8.2.7 Considerations for Choosing Finishes

8.1 History of wood usage in Landscape

8.1.1 Wood as a Landscape Material
Wood, in its most natural form. was probably the earliest building
material, serving as the primary resource for shelters, weapons, and fuel
for the early nomadic cultures. Of all the building materials, however, it is
also one of the least permanent. Unless preserved through encapsulation
by mud, lava, or sand and water, thus prohibiting the cycles of water
penetration and drying, a majority of the examples of wood as it was used
in antiquity have completely. degraded. Most of the knowledge of early
wood construction is based on frag-ments, drawings, and other written
representations. Its many virtues include its relatively light weight.. ability
to span long distances, flexibility, and workability.. ease of extraction and
use for house and boat building caused a depletion in many parts of the
ancient world, and the once-wooded landscapes of the Mediterranean
region have never recovered.

Figure 8a : Wood is an important

material in landscape due to its
relationship with the chief elements
of this art, the trees. The use of wood
gives a natural tone to the design as
we can see in the image on the right.

8.1.2 Wood in Roman Landscapes

In ancient Rome timbers were largely reserved for shipbuilding and
similar uses, but in hillside villa gardens, expansive wood beams
reached across massive stone columns and formed trellised walkways
lining canals, orchards, and ornamental gardens. Rafters, trellises, and
doors were also typically constructed of wood. The scale of the wood
reconstruction of the peristyle and trellised walk-ways at Villa Guilia Felix
illustrates how large openings between columns allow easy access inside
and out (see Figure 1b). The shade from the wood members above the
walkway provides relief from the heat and a contrasting play of light with
the bright sun-soaked open-air garden in the center. Unlike the Greeks,
who considered their houses simply as a means of shelter, Romans
considered the house and its enclosed gardens sacred (Chatfield, 1991,
12). Two further examples of these early Roman preserved houses and
gardens can be seen at Villa dei Vettii and the Villa of Loreius Tiburtinis in
Pompeii.

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Figure 8b : View through the

impluvium and across the peristyle
at Villa Giulia Felix. Note the stone
columns. wood beams and rafters
of the impluvium and the masonry
columns and wood beams defining
the peristyle on the far side.

8.1.3 Wood in Japanese Gardens

The oldest known wood structure in the world still stands in Japan, a
manifestation of the legacy of wood craftsmanship from its construction
con-tinuing through its restoration. The Horyu-ji Temple, with its
spectacular five-storied tower building, Rondo, and elegant gate, is
hard to specifically date (see Figure 1c). The oldest buildings were in
a fire in A.D. 670, and the new structures found on-site today have
been continually rebuilt since the beginning of the eighth century;
thus, the oldest buildings standing today, forming the central core, are
approximately 1,300 years old.
Japanese craftsmanship in wood is found at the highest level of mastery
in court and monastery gardens from the Heian (784-1185) to the Edo
(1615-1867) period. Elegance of line, pattern of order, and harmony in
joining materials are illustrated in wood pavilions, bridges, fences, gates,
and teahouses. The early compounds, in which aristocratic mansions
were surrounded with paradise gardens taken from descriptions of the
idealistic Buddhist Pure Land, were part villa and part temple.
Each wood member was scrutinized before it was cut or carved, with
the master carpenter determining 'what it wanted to be." Examples of
wood and timber construction are found through-out the garden, in
arching bridges spanning miniaturized rivers and in wood and bamboo
fencing defining the interior spaces as separate from the exterior. In
Shinden waterside pavilions the nearly transparent railings of the decks
cantilevering over the ponds, along with the anchored stone foundations
rising out of the water, are a remarkable integration of building and
landscape. One of the most famous Japanese garden structures, the
Golden Pavilion in Kinkakuji (1397, Muromachi period) carries on the
Shinden style.

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Figure 8c : The oldest known wood

structure in the world, the famous
five-storied tower at Horyu-ji, has
been rebuilt many times and reflects
the enduring tradition of timber
frame construction in Japanese
building.

8.1.4 Wood in Modern History

Centuries later, practitioners of landscape architecture not only pursued
the design of residences but took on the design of the developing cities,
the planning of cemeteries as botanical parks. and, as history has borne
out, the creation of some of the greatest urban park systems in the
world. The detailing of the many wooden park structures, entryways, and
amenities incorpo-rated a high level of woodcraft and design.
The stylistic decisions were diverse and at times somewhat eccentric,
but always in keeping with the principles of the picturesque, as piecs of
bucolic countryside were being recreated in the growing urban centers
of preindustrial America. Wood, in both its natural and its milled form,
was commonly used for reconstruction of fencing, benches, bridges and
park pavilions. Many designers of the period found inspiration in John
Ruskin, writings and in the natural world itself. In an attempt to reflect this
celebration of and integration into the natural landscape, many landscape
architects found that wood possessed the character and natural and/or
manipulated form that best expressed these natural ideals.
Examples include W S. Cleveland, work on the bridge at Minnehaha Falls
in the Minneapolis park system and Calvert Vaux, spectacular rusticated
arbors and pavilions, now restored in Central Park, that became a
vernacular style of the picturesque (see Figure 1d). The designer probably
most influenced by Ruskin's writings and who felt impelled to link art
(landscape architecture) and nature to morality and the love of God
was the famous landscape designer Andrew Jackson Downing. Ruskin
advocated that craft will not be lost in the industrial revolution and
that expression through form and craftsmanship reflect the morals and
character of humanity.
In this pursuit, Downing explored and wrote about the craft of rustication,
believing it most stylistically and environmentally appropriate to the rural
landscape.
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Figure 8d : A rusticated pavilion

restored in 1993 in Central Park, New
York.

8.2 Finishes on wood for use in Landscape

8.2.1 Wood Finishes
Wood finishing refers to the process of refining or protecting a wooden
surface, especially in the production of furniture. In Landscape
architecture, this may further be applicable for pergolas, gazebos, trellis,
arbors and other wooden elements. Natural wood finishes, especially
those that soak into the grain, are often difficult to remove, so take time to
think about your requirements and choose the right product. Protection
offered by natural finishes varies. Dye, for example, may offer no
protection by itself. Always buy a suitable exterior formula. Consider if you
want an almost invisible coat or would prefer some color or gloss. Also,
think about how much time you are prepared to spend on application
there may be one-coat options available. Finally, look out for eco-friendly
options, such as water-based varnishes and stains or products made from
100-percent natural ingredients.
Natural oils and waxes are the most eco-friendly of wood finishes,
although synthetic alternatives do exist. Beeswax and linseed oil are well
known green finishes, but look out for safflower oil and carnauba wax as
well. Water-based varnishes and stains also have good green credentials.

8.2.2 Varnish and Lacquers

Varnishes and lacquers are clear and lack natural pigmentation to protect
wood; thus, UV light penetrates the finish, degrading the wood below.
Most of these finishes have extremely limited life spans, typically a
year in exterior conditions. The use of colorless UV inhibitors has been
moderately success-ful, but the weatherproofing qualities of even
the synthetic clear polymers are limited, as the UV light degrades the
underlying wood surfaces, undermining the adhesion. If varnishes are
to be used on exterior structures, the choice of location may present the
greatest opportunity for durability.
If possible, site the structure in an area that receives little or no direct
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sunlight. because expo-sure to UV rays causes the greatest damage.

Pigments can be added to both varnishes and lacquers to reveal the color
and grain of the surface or to provide a surface coloring. If varnishes or
lac-quers are to be used on previously finished wood, any remaining
finish must be removed before refinishing is attempted. Can be used on
bare wood or to protect unsealed finishes, such as dye. Covers 600 to 900
square feet per gallon. May need several coats. Apply with a brush for the
best finish.

Figure 8e : The varnish coating on a

wood can be seen in the image on
the right.

8.2.3 Latex Semitransparent Stains

Latex semitransparent stains, despite their name, do not penetrate the
wood surface but, instead, leave a thin film coating on the surface. The
stains are emulsions of polymers (acrylics or acrylic blends) and provide
protection for most wood surfaces. They are not, however, recommended
for coating decking boards.

8.2.4 Latex Colour Stains

Latex solid color stains, also called opaque stains, are both penetrating
and film forming. Many solid color stains contain preservatives and water
repellents, usually paraffin wax dissolved in solvents. The preservative
and solvents penetrate the wood surface, leaving the pigmentation
and binder on the surface, which form a film. These products are not
successful on horizontal surfaces used for traffic as the pigments are not
stable.
Use as a finish or coat with varnish for extra durability. Apply to clean,
bare wood for a true color. Covers 400 to 1,000 square feet per gallon. May
need several coats. Apply with a brush for the best finish.

Figure 8f : The latex color stain

coating on a wood can be seen in the
image on the right.
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8.2.5 Oil
Transparent finish that nourishes and protects wood. External surfaces
lose their finish but stay protected. Buff to achieve mid-sheen finish. Will
not penetrate a sealed surface.
For interior or exterior use. Must be applied to unsealed wood. Covers 400
to 750 square feet per gallon. Apply with a brush or cloth yearly. Highly
flammable.

Figure 8g : The oil coating on a wood

can be seen in the image on the right.

8.2.6 Wood Preserver

Prevents rot and insect damage. Available clear or colored with a matte or
a semigloss finish. Both water-based and oil-based types are available.
Exterior use. Used alone, or as base coat for another natural wood finish
or paint. Covers 4001,000 square feet per gallon. Apply in sections as for
stain or as specified.

Figure 8h : The wood preserver

coating on a wood can be seen in the
image on the right.

8.2.6 Considerations for Choosing Finishes

A number of factors an affect the performance of finishes, including the
type of finish selected. moisture content, natural weathering, and the
quality and species of the wood on which the finish is applied. All species
of wood are susceptible to degradation from UV saturation and the
natural effects of weathering.
Penetrating stains break down, but at a slower rate than unfinished wood,
and pigments increase IN resistance; however. once degradation of the
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finish begins, the pigment panicles debond and the protection is reduced.
To prevent debondum, additional stain appli-cations may be required.
Film-forming finishes (paints) offer two advantages. The film coating
effectively blocks UV saturation and is a sacrificial coating, protecting the
wood surface from abrasion. The most damaging elements to the wood
and to film coatings arc moisture penetration and the UV portion of light
exposure. which over time will break down a film coating.
Film finishes, providing protection against surface erosion, allow visual
inspection to determine when the primer is visible and an additional coat
should be applied. Many successive coats may be applied if the surface
con-tact to the wood has not been disturbed. which can extend the life
of the material. If water does penetrate through the film. decay below the
film can be extensive and should be addressed immediately with removal
of the loose layer.

Sources:
Books

Wood in the Landscape: A Practical Guide to Specification and Design

-Daniel M. Winterbottom
Landscape Architect's Pocket Book
-Siobhan-Vernon

Images

8a : http://images.landscapingnetwork.com/pictures
8b : http://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures
8c : http://www.truthsimplified.com/wp-content
8d : http://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s
8e - 8f : http://www.diynetwork.com/home-improvement/all-about-thedifferent-types-of-wood-finishes/pictures
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