Antennas For Communications: Course Outline

ANTENNAS FOR COMMUNICATIONS
Course Outline
Antenna in a System: parameters, modeling and antennas in a system.
Input characteristics: Impedance and matching, fundamental limitations.
Printed resonant antennas. Microstrip patches, slots.
Broadbanding techniques.
techniques
Miniaturization techniques. Fractal antennas.
UWB antennas design and specification.
Multielement antennas. Arrays. MIMO.
Smart and reconfigurable antennas.
CAD methods for antennas.
Antenna measurement.
Introduction
Antenna Definition
antenna. That part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or to receive
electromagnetic waves.
IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas IEEE Std 145-1993
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel1/2785/7109/00286098.pdf?tp=&isnumber=7109&arnumber=286098
In this course we will follow as much as possible the IEEE standard for antenna term definitions.
The concept of antenna is inherently associated with the system and electromagnetic waves.
It was the IRE (IEEE) that embraced the new field of wireless and radio, which became
the fertile field for electronics and later the computer age. But antennas and propagation
will always retain their identity, being immune to miniaturization or digitization.
Harold A. Wheeler, Antenna topics in my experience, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, vol. AP-33, no.2, February 1985.
Antenna in a System
Antenna Parameters
Antenna in a System
3. Fundamental Antenna Parameters
Balanis, Antenna Theory Ed. Wiley
Cardama, Antenas, Edicions UPC (In Spanish)
Orfanidis, Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas, available on-line
Antenna in a System
GLOSSARY
: radiation intensity [W/sr]
2]
:p
power densityy [W/m
[
: directivity
D0
: maximum directivity
: gain
G0
: maximum gain
et
: efficiency (total)
erad
: radiation efficiency
eref
: reflection/mismatch efficiency
ZA
: antenna input impedance []
ZG
: generator input impedance []
ZL
: load impedance []
ap
: aperture efficiency
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation pattern (or antenna pattern) is the representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates (, ).
Antenna
3D Radiation Pattern
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN
The radiation pattern is measured in the far-field region, where the spatial
(angular) distribution of the radiated power does not depend on the
distance.
One can measure and plot the field intensity or the radiated power at a
constant radius from the antenna:
E r r0 , ,
The plot of the spatial variation of

the electric (magnetic) field at a
constant radius from the antenna is
called
ll d the
h amplitude
lit d fi
field
ld pattern.
tt
2
1
E r r0 , ,
The plot of the spatial variation of

the power density at a constant
radius from the antenna is called
the power pattern.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
E E x E y E z Er E E E E E z
NOTE: RMS values for E, H, V and I will be always considered.

Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN
Usually, the pattern describes the normalized field (power) values with
p
to the maximum value.
respect
2
E r r0 , ,
2
Emax
E r r0 , ,
Emax
The power pattern and the amplitude field pattern are the same when
computed and plotted in dB.
E r r0 , ,
20log
E
max
E r r , , 2
10log
Emax
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN
The pattern can be a 3-D plot or a 2-D plot: a 2-D plot is obtained as an
intersection of the 3-D one with a given plane.
10
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN
2-D plots could be done in polar or cartesian axes:

Cartesian plots are useful to show the details of directive antennas.
Polar plots clearly show the spatial distribution of power.
[Image from: A. Cardama et al., Antenas, Ed. UPC, 2da. Edicin, 2002 (Barcelona)]
11
Antenna in a System
RECIPROCITY OF THE RADIATION PATTERN
If antenna #1 is a transmitting antenna and antenna #2 is the receiving one,

the ratio of transmitted to the received power will not change if antenna
#1 becomes the receiving antenna and antenna #2 becomes the
transmitting one.
#1
Ridge Horn
PR 2 PR1
PT 1 PT 2
#2
/2 Dipole
The ratio of received to transmitted power does not change if the antennas
interchange receiving with transmitting mode.
The radiation pattern is the same in receiving and in transmitting modes.
modes
The reciprocity theorem holds only if the whole system (antennas +
propagation environment) is homogeneous, isotropic and linear. In antenna
systems including circulators or isolators these properties do not hold.
12
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN CONCEPTS: DIRECTIONALITY
Isotropic pattern is an hypothetical pattern of an antenna having equal
radiation in all directions. It is used as a reference to compare antennas.
A directional antenna radiates (receives) much more power (efficiently)
in some directions than in others (e.g. parabolic antennas).
An omnidirectional antenna has a non-directional pattern in a given
plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (e.g. single-wire
antennas).
Isotropic
Omnidirectional
Directional
[Images from: A. Cardama et al., Antenas, Ed. UPC, 2da. Edicin, 2002 (Barcelona)]
13
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN CONCEPTS: MAIN Planes
Principal patterns are the 2-D patterns measured in the E-plane and in the
H-plane.
For linearly polarized antennas the E-plane is the plane that includes the direction
of maximum radiation of the antenna and the orientation of the E-field in that
di
ti
direction.
The H-plane is the plane that includes the direction of maximum radiation of the
antenna and the orientation of the H-field in that direction.
Both planes are orthogonal.
[Image from: A. Cardama et al., Antenas,

Ed. UPC, 2da. Edicin, 2002 (Barcelona)]
14
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN CONCEPTS: LOBES
Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern whose local radiation
intensity maximum is relatively strong.
Major lobe (main beam): lobe
containing the direction of
maximum radiation.
Minor lobe: any lobe except the
main beam.
Side lobe: lobes adjacent to the
main beam or adjacent to a
intended one.
Secondary lobe: lobe adjacent to
the maximum.
Back lobe: lobe making at angle of
approximately 180 from the main
beam.
[Images from: C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Wiley, 2nd Edition, 1997 (New York)]
15
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN CONCEPTS: LEVELS
Side Lobe Level (SLL): ratio between the maximum value of the side lobes and the maximum level of the main lobe.
Front to back ratio (F/BR): ratio between the maximum value of the back lobe and the maximum level of the main lobe.
Radiation intensity
Main Lobe
Secondary Lobe
SLL
F/BR
Back Lobe
00
900
1800
[deg]
16
Antenna in a System
RADIATION PATTERN CONCEPTS: BEAMWIDTHS
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW): is the angle in the major lobe where the
radiation intensity is half its maximum (measured in the plane that
contains the maximum of the main beam).
First
First-null
null beamwidth (FNBW): angular separation between the first nulls
of the pattern.
[Images from: C.A. Balanis,

Antenna Theory, Wiley, 3rd
Edition, 2005 (New Jersey)]
Field pattern
Power pattern
Power pattern (dB)
17
Antenna in a System
RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
(steradian) radiated in this direction by the antenna.
U
Prad
U d
4
Prad
dPrad
d
d
[[W/sr]]
[W]
Wrad dS Wrad r 2 sin d d Wrad r 2d

4
0 0
U , r 2 Wrad ,
The power pattern is a plot of the function U (usually normalized to its
maximum value).
18
Antenna in a System
RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity for an antenna at far-field:

1 2
Wrad Re E H * E r
r2 2
E
Isotropic antenna: radiation

independent of spatial direction.
Infinitesimal dipole:
kI l
Er j 0 sin e jkr
4 r
jk

e jkr
E r E0
sin
r
Does this radiation intensity

depend on distance?
Prad
d U 0 d
4
Prad 4 U 0
1 2 2
E0 sin
U0
Prad
4
19
Antenna in a System
RADIATION INTENSITY: SOLID ANGLE
Steradians are a measure of the angular 'area' subtended by a two
dimensional surface in a three dimensional space (just as a radian is a
measure of the angle in a one dimension space).
radian
steradian
S
R
[radians]
A circle subtends 2
radians about the origin.
A
R2
[steradians]
A sphere subtends 4
steradians about the origin.
20
10
Antenna in a System
DIRECTIVITY
The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity of the
antenna in a given direction and the radiation intensity of an isotropic radiator
fed by the same amount of radiated power.
D , 4
U ,
Prad
Directivity is a dimensionless quantity.

Directivity can be zero but the maximum directivity D0 is always 1.
If not specified, directivity will refer only to the direction of maximum radiation
(D0)).
Directivity is also expressed in dB (10 log D).
The spatial integration of the directivity is a constant:
D , d 4
4
21
Antenna in a System
DIRECTIVITY
The radiation intensity of an isotropic radiator is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4.
For directive antennas:
D0
4
4
-3 dB beamwidths in
two orthogonal planes
(in radians)
22
11
Antenna in a System
GAIN
The gain of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
and the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically.
G , 4
U ,
Pin
The gain of the antenna takes into account the losses in the antenna. It is
calculated via the accepted power Pin, which is a measurable quantity.
This definition does not account for the mismatch between the antenna and
the transmission line.
Pinc
Pin
Plosses
heat
Pref
Prad
23
Antenna in a System
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY AND RADIATION EFFICIENCY
RlossesPlosses
Pinc
Pref
0 eref 1
0 eradd 1
Prad
Rrad
Pin
The power accepted by the antenna is related to the

input power through a reflection/mismatch efficiency
eref .This efficiency accounts for the
dielectric/conduction losses of the antenna.
The radiated power is related to the accepted power e
h
h a coefficient
ffi i
ll d the
h radiation
di i efficiency
ffi i
through
called
erad . rad
The antenna (total) efficiency et is used to estimate
the total loss of energy at the input terminals of the
antenna and within the antenna structure.
eref 1 -
Rrad
Rrad Rlosses
et eref erad
24
12
Antenna in a System
INPUT IMPEDANCE AND RADIATION RESISTANCE
radiation
losses
(heat)
Antenna input impedance:
Z A RA jX A Rlosses Rrad jX A
The radiation resistance relates the radiated power to the voltage (or current)
at the antenna terminals.
if IA is rms:
Rrad
Prad
IA
25
Antenna in a System
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
Generator directly connected to
the antenna: impedance of the
generator
Generator connected to the
antenna through a transmission
line: impedance of the
generator transferred to the
terminals of the antenna
Maximum power delivered to the antenna when conjugate matching of
i
impedances:
d
RA Rlosses Rrad RG
X A XG
26
13
Antenna in a System
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF RECEIVING ANTENNA
Incident wave induces voltage VA at the antenna terminals.
Conjugate impedance matching is required between the antenna and the
load:
RL RA Rlosses Rrad
XL X A
27
Antenna in a System
ANTENNA EFFECTIVE AREA
When an antenna is receiving, it is convenient to define an effective area (or
effective aperture) Ae.
antenna + load
Winc
ZL
PL Winc Ae
power delivered to the load
incident wavefront
28
14
Antenna in a System
EFECTIVE ANTENNA AREA
The effective antenna area (aperture) is the area which multiplied by the
incident power density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna produces
the power delivered to the load.
Ae
PL
Winc
[m 2 ]
29
Antenna in a System
APERTURE EFFICIENCY
The aperture efficiency of an antenna is the ratio of the effective antenna

p
and its p
physical
y
area.
aperture
ap
Ae
A
For wire antennas, the effective aperture is much larger than the surface
of wire itself.
For aperture-type antennas, the effective area is smaller than the
physical aperture area.
30
15
Antenna in a System
DIRECTIVITY AND APERTURE AREA RELATIONSHIP
The ratio directivity vs. effective area is the same for any antenna (easy to
show for an Hertzian dipole):
D0 4
Aem 2
The subscript m denotes that it is the maximum effective area because there
are no heat losses in the antenna and no impedance mismatch. If losses are
included then the directivity is substituted for gain:
G 4
Ae 2
The formula holds for any type of antenna that has a well-defined aperture, or
surface area through which all of the radiated power flows.
This formula does not hold for monopoles.
31
Antenna in a System
FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH
FBW is the range of frequencies within which the antenna characteristics
conform to a specified standard (input impedance, radiation pattern,
beamwidth, polarization, side-lobe
side lobe level, gain, beam direction and width,
radiation efficiency,)
FBW
FBW of broadband antennas:
f max
f min
Notation
FBW:1
from fmin to fmax
Fractional Frequency Bandwidth FFBW of narrowband antennas (f0 is

the center frequency):
Fractional
bandwidth
FBW
f max f min
100%
f0
32
16
Antenna in a System
FREQUENCY BANDWIDTH
Example:
[Images and text from: Choi, W.; Kwon, S.; Lee, B.: Ceramic chip
antenna using meander conductor lines, Electronics Letters, 19th July
2001, 37, (15), pp. 933 934 ]
33
ANTENNA IN A SYSTEM
34
17
Antenna in a System
TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING ANTENNAS
The communication between a transmitting and a receiving antenna requires a
power budget that can be analyzed with the help of the concept of gain and
effective area.
transmitting antenna
t , t
ZG
receiving antenna
r , r
ZL
r
VG
Pt , Gt , erad ,t , Dt , t , t
Pr , Gr , erad ,r , Dr , r , r
Each antenna should be at each others far-field :

2D 2
35
Antenna in a System
POWER BUDGET EQUATION
The power budget relates de power fed to the transmitting antenna to the power
received by the receiving antenna when both are at each others far field.
TX antenna
ZG
r , r
t , t
RX antenna
ZL
r
VG
Pt , G t , e rad , t , D t , t , t
Pr Pt 1 t
Pr , G r , e rad , r , D r , r , r , A e , r
rad ,t
power radiated by the

TX antenna
Dt t , t
Ae , r r , r
4 r 2
effective area of
the RX antenna
power density received by the RX antenna
36
18
Antenna in a System
FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION
The effective area accounts for the mismatch, radiation losses and polarization
loss factor of receiving antenna and its load.
Ae ,r r , r t r
1 e
2
polarization
loss factor
rad , r
mismatch
Dr r , r
2
4
radiation
efficiency
Consequently the power budget or Friis Transmission Equation is:
Pr
erad ,t erad , r 1 t
Pt
1 r
Dt t , t D r r , r 2
t r
4 r 2
4
37
Antenna in a System
FREE-SPACE LOSS AND GAIN, ADDITIONAL LOSSES
The effect of the propagation path, which causes received power to attenuate
with the square of the distance r, can be quantified by defining the free-space
loss factor and free-space gain by:
1

Gf
L f 4 r
For impedance and polarization matched antennas:
Pr Pt G t t , t
1
G r r , r
Lf
An additional loss factor may be introduced

introduced, if necessary
necessary, representing other
losses (such as atmospheric absorption and scattering).
Pr Pt G t t , t
1
1
G r r , r
L f Lother
38
19
Antenna in a System
FRIIS TRANSMISSION EQUATION IN dB
It is common practice to express Friis equation additively in dB. For impedance
and polarization matched, lossless antennas:
Pr ddB Pt dB
d
G t ddB L f
Remark 1:
Pr [dBmW]
Remark 2:
Radiated power times the

directivity (or antenna gain times
accepted power by the antenna) is
called Equivalent Isotropically
Radiated Power (EIRP):
-20
Lother ddB G r ddB

-20 dB/decad = - 6 dB/octave
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
EIRP dB Pt dB Dt dB
dB
Remark 3:
-30
Free
e-space gain [dB]
Pr [dBW]
P [W]
Pr [dBW] 10log r
1W
Pr [mW]
Pr [dBmW] 10log
1 mW
-90
0
10
4 r
L f 20 log
10
10
Distance in terms of [r/ ]
10
39
Antenna in a System
NOISE IN SYSTEMS
Ways that noise follow to enter to communication systems:
From background radiation of the environment (not scattering of the
systems signal by the background -clutter): the receiving antenna picks
up noisy signals from the sky, the ground, the weather, and other natural
d noise
i sources.
or man-made
Noise is also generated by the components in the receive channel.
Under most conditions it is the internally generated thermal noise that
dominates and limits the system performance.
The total sum of all the noises introduced by such a cascade of receiver
components must be maintained at acceptably low levels (relative to the
amplified desired signal).
40
20
Antenna in a System
NOISE IN SYSTEMS
A high noise level will hide a weak signal and

possibly cause a loss in communications.
41
Antenna in a System
EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPERATURE
The average power N [W] of a noise source within a certain bandwidth B [Hz]
can be quantified by means of an equivalent noise temperature T [K] defined
through:
N kTB
Boltzmanns constant:
G
Gaussian
i White
Whit Noise
N i
W
k 1.38 1023
Hz K
The temperature T is not necessarily the physical temperature

of the source, it only provides a convenient way to express the
noise power (for a thermal source, T is indeed the physical
temperature).
The equation is commonly expressed in dB:
N dB kdB TdB BdB

(10log)
42
21
Antenna in a System
ANTENNA SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)
The performance of a telecommunications system depends on the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) at the receivers input. It defines the minimum received
power required by the system (sensitivity).
The SNR relates the system signal power and the system noise power.
For impedance and polarization-matched antennas:
SNR
Pr
Pt Gt t , t Gr r , r
1 1
L f Lother
kTB
Gaussian White Noise
43
Antenna in a System
ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE
The antenna itself is an important source of noise:
Noise due to the loss resistance of the antenna
Noise which the antenna picks up from the surrounding environment
(any object with a physical temperature radiates EM power): extraterrestrial
(sun, galactic noise), ground (dep. on physical temperature, rugosity, and
composition) and atmosphere (rain, water steam, composition, sparks), and manmade noise (power lines, engines).
man-made
The average noise power Nant at the

antenna terminals is characterized by an
equivalent antenna noise temperature
Tant, such that Nant = kTant B.
extraterrestrial
atmosphere
At frequencies ranging from 1GHz to 10GHz:

The noise temperature of night sky is 3
K to 5 K (very low).
The noise temperature of ground is 100
K to 300 K (quite high).
44
22
Antenna in a System
ANTENNA NOISE TEMPERATURE
The temperature Tant represents the weighted contributions of all the
radiating noise sources picked up by the antenna through its mainlobe
and sidelobes.
The value of Tant depends primarily on the orientation and elevation angle of the
antenna,
t
and
d what
h t th
the antenna
t
iis llooking
ki at.
t
T ( , ) G( , ) sin d d
B
TANT
0 0
G( , ) sin d d
TB: brightness temperature

of the background;
G: antenna gain
0 0
45
Antenna in a System
SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE
In a receiving antenna system, the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver must
take into account not only the noise picked up by the antenna, and quantified
by Tant, but also all the internal noises introduced by the various
components of the receiver.
System noise temperature Tsys will be the noise temperature at the input port
of a noisless device that generates the same noise power at the output port
than the real (noisy) device.
noisy device
(real device)
Sout G Sin
Sin
N in kTin B
N out kTout B
N out GkTsys B Gk Tin Te B

46
23
Antenna in a System
SYSTEM NOISE POWER
The amount of added noise power (at the input of a device) is expressed in
terms of the effective noise temperature Te of the device.
noisless device
noise (ideal device)
Sin
N in kTin B
Sout G Sin
N out kTout B
N e kTe B
N out G N in N e Gk Tin Te B
N out GN sys GkTsys B
System noise power Nsys is the sum of the noise power of the input signal Nin
and the effective noise of the device Ne.
47
Antenna in a System
SYSTEM SNR
If a desired signal with noise power Sin is also input to the device, then the
signal power at the output will be Sout = GSin. The system signal-to-noise ratio
is defined to be the ratio of the input signal power to total system noise power:
noise
i
contribution
noisless
i l
device
d i
(ideal device)
N sys
Sin
N in
Sout
N out
Ne
SNRout
Sout
GSin
S
in SNRsys
N out GN sys N sys
The SNR is the same whether it is measured at the input or the output of
the (noisless) device.
48
24
Antenna in a System
THE CASE OF AN ATTENUATOR
Last equation can be expressed in terms of the input and output powers
Nin=kTinB and Nout= kToutB:
N out
1
1
N in 1 kTphys
h B
L
L
attenuated input
noise power
added noise
Thus, the noise input power is attenuated (as expected), but the
attenuator also adds its own thermal noise power.
More generally, if the input power arises from signal plus noise Pin = Sin + Nin,
Pout Sout N out GSin N out
What happens to SNR?

1
1
Pin 1 kTphys B
L
L
attenuated
input power
added noise
49
Antenna in a System
THE ANTENNA RECEIVER
The signal to system-noise ratio of the receiving system (referred to point a)
will be the ratio of the received power Pr to the system noise:
SNR
1
1
Pr
Pt Gt Gr
N sys
L f kTsys B
This ratio is also called the carrier-to-system-noise ratio and is denoted by C/N.
For a given transmitter, PtGt, the receiver performance depends critically on the
ratio Gr/Tsys, referred to as the G/T ratio of the receiving antenna (it is a
figure of merit). In dB:
k dB B dB
T
sys dB
SNR dB Pt Gt dB L f dB Gr
The receiver SNR can be also be referred to LNA input (point b):
Gr G feed
Tb
SNR dB Pt Gt dB L f dB
k dB B dB
dB
50
25
Antenna in a System
APPLICATION TO DATA RATE LIMITS
An example of the application of the concepts of gain and

effective area and the use of Friis formulas is the
estimation of data rate limits.
According to Shannons theorem the maximum data rate
C (Shannons channel capacity, in bits/sec) that can be
achieved is:
C B log 2 (1 SNR)
C.E. Shannon (1916-2001)
C: capacity [bits/s]
B: noise bandwidth [Hz]
SNR: signal to noise ratio [adim]
For data rates smaller than C, Shannons theorem

states that there is an ideal coding scheme that would
guarantee error-free transmission.
Equation valid only for Gaussian noise.
The system SNR limits the data rates between the
two antennas.
51
Antenna in a System
For practical digital communication systems there is a certain Bit Error Rate (BER) that is expressed as
function of the ratio
Eb
No
Eb is the energy per bit.
No is the noise spectral density.
N o kTsys
For a g
given transmission rate R ((bits/s)) and bandwidth B ((Hz))
SNR
PL Eb R
N No B
52
26
Antenna in a System
For BPSK or QPSK modulation
BER
Eb
1
erfc
2
No
erfc is the complementary error fuction
erfc
e t dt
2
Maximum BER
Minimum Eb/No required

53
Antenna in a System
Eb
N o min
For a desired maximum allowable BER we can obtain the minimum
The maximum transmission rate is given by
B SNR
1
Prad DT DR erad
bits / s
kTsys
Eb
Eb
4 r
N
o min N o min
2
Rmax
54
27
Antenna in a System
Antenna parameters have fundamental role in the power balance of a wireless link.
Free-space losses imply a great penalty for short distances.
The antenna is a passive device. Increasing the radiated power in a certain direction
occurs at the expense of decreasing the radiated power in other directions.
Noise is always present.
55
28

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ANTENNAS FOR COMMUNICATIONS

Antenna in a System: parameters, modeling and antennas in a system.

Input characteristics: Impedance and matching, fundamental limitations.

Printed resonant antennas. Microstrip patches, slots.

Miniaturization techniques. Fractal antennas.

UWB antennas design and specification.

Multielement antennas. Arrays. MIMO.

Smart and reconfigurable antennas.

CAD methods for antennas.