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Editorial Board
July-October 2014
Jiban Shrestha (Dr.), Nepal
Adams Sadick, Ghana
Ming Meng (Prof.), China
Mostafa Moradzadeh (PhD.), Iran
Rachna Chandra (Dr.), India
Viktor J. Bruckman (Dr.), Austria
Talal Almeelbi (Dr.), Saudi Arabia,
Lin Du (Ass.Prof.), Denmark
Masayuki Aizawa (Dr.), Japan
Gordana Medunic (Prof.), Croatia
WFL Publisher
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CONTENTS
July-October 2014
61
12
19
77
40
Ozgur Ceylan, Aysel Uur, Nurdan Sara, Filiz Ozcan and Tuba
Baygar
82
46
93
98
100
ii
different temperatures
115
Agriculture
122
127
131
136
139
143
155
161
198
Biotransformation of 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)cyclopentanone by
Solanum aviculare and Rheum palmatum plant cells
Petr Soudek, Zdenk Wimmer and Tom Vank
187
182
213
iii
244
251
281
Environment
Microbes and dietary values of some major fish sources
in Nigeria
Olajide Adedayo Ajayi, Emmanuel I. Adeyeye and Anthony I.
Okoh
303
Impact of micro credit and training on efficiency of smallscale entrepreneurs: Evidence from National Directorate
of Employment (NDE) loan/training programmes in
Nigeria
Olumide Oyewole Akinrinola, M. M. Fasoranti and Oluyede
Adeleke Aturamu
307
312
iv
Mustafa Ozden
Adir Otto Schmidt, Slvio Cesar Sampaio, Ralpho Rinaldo dos Reis, Camila
Jussara Schmidt, Edison Barbosa da Cunha and Lisdefferson Hamann
Andrade
400
338
365
375
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
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Abstract
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum-Apiaceae) has been reported as a vehicle for Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7; and Shigella sonnei has been responsible
for shigellosis outbreaks. Plant-derived extracts have been proposed as alternatives to reduce food contamination without modifying food properties,
and several extracts have decreased pathogenic bacterial growth in vegetables. The objective of this study was to reduce E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella
and Shigella levels inoculated in parsley, after washing with an improved formulation of edible vegetable extracts. Extracts from five edible plants,
resuspended in ethanol, were tested for antimicrobial activity and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) determined. Extract mixtures were
analysed for synergistic activity. The mixture exhibiting synergism was used to wash parsley samples previously inoculated with 105 bacterial cells/
g. Following 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 d, viable bacterial counts were determined. Chlorine, Citrol, and ethanol were used as controls. Mexican lime and Mexican
oregano extracts (4.3 - 4.8 and 1.5 - 2.0 mg/ml MBC, respectively) were selected. Synergistic antimicrobial effects were observed under a 1.25:0.19
mg/ml mixture. The mixture exhibited a > 2 log reduction in the bacterial level in parsley on the first day. In this study, we followed a simple, low cost,
and laboursaving extraction system. The antimicrobial efficacy of the improved formulation was clearly demonstrated on parsley. Considering human
health and environmental hazards associated with chlorine use, the Mexican lime:oregano mixture provides a viable alternative to chlorine, and is
equally effective at significantly reducing bacterial pathogens associated with outbreaks stemming from leafy green vegetables.
Key words: Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, produce contamination, natural antimicrobials, parsley.
Introduction
Foodborne diseases (FD) caused by pathogenic microorganisms
remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Fresh
produce consumption has increased as a result of healthier
lifestyles. However, fresh produce is often consumed minimally
processed or raw, and raw foods are known vehicles for human
disease 1, 2. In 2008, WHO placed leafy greens at its highest priority
for fresh produce safety at a global level due to its potential to
cause widespread FD outbreaks 3. The most notably, Escherichia
coli O157:H7, Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. have been
associated with FD following contaminated leafy green vegetable
consumption. Parsley (Petroselinum crispum-Apiaceae) has been
reported as a vehicle for Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 4, 5; and
Shigella sonnei was responsible for eight shigellosis outbreaks
in Canada and the US 6.
A great variety of compounds and intervention measures have
been tested and used to reduce or eliminate foodborne pathogens
from produce. Chlorine is a common disinfectant used to
decontaminate fresh produce 7; however, a chlorine wash cannot
completely remove or inactivate microorganisms, and it can
generate chlorinated organic compounds, which result in safety
concerns for humans 8.
Synthetic chemical compounds have been applied by the food
industry to control microbial contamination, however, the new
trends of consumers include ingesting fewer synthetic food
additives, and consuming more natural or all-natural foods 9, 10.
The antimicrobial activities of many essential oils have been
reported, and studies have demonstrated these compounds exhibit
activity against foodborne pathogens 10. Yet, essential oils can be
6
Common name
Mexican lime
Roselle
Oregano
Sweet marjoram
Tamarind
Part used
Peel
Flower
Leaves
Leaves
Peel / Pulp of fruit
Mexican
lime extract
(mg/ml)
lower row
0.05
0
0.05
0.312
0.05
0.625
0.05
1.25
0.05
2.5
0.05
5
0.05
10
Oregano extract
(mg/ml) upper row
0.1
0.19
0.38
0
0
0
0.1
0.19
0.38
0.312 0.312 0.312
0.1
0.19
0.38
0.625 0.625 0.625
0.1
0.19
0.38
1.25
1.25
1.25
0.1
0.19
0.38
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.1
0.19
0.38
5
5
5
0.1
0.19
0.38
10
10
10
0.75
0
0.75
0.312
0.75
0.625
0.75
1.25
0.75
2.5
0.75
5
0.75
10
1.5
0
1.5
0.312
1.5
0.625
1.5
1.25
1.5
2.5
1.5
5
1.5
10
3
0
3
0.312
3
0.625
3
1.25
3
2.5
3
5
3
10
Table 3. Antimicrobial effects of plant extracts against Salmonella, E. coli, and Shigella bacteria determined
by the agar well diffusion method. All extracts were prepared using 96% ethanol.
Scientific name
Citrus aurantifolia
(Christm.) Swingle
Hibiscus
sabdariffa L.
Lippia graveolens
Kunth
Origanum
majorana L.
Tamarindus
indica L.
Fruit/
Vegetable
Part
used
Mexican
lime
S.
flexneri
12022
S.
sonnei
F2353
GFP
1.90.0
2.21.0
2.40.7
1.60.3
1.70.1
2.00.7
1.60.4
2.40.2
1.50.1
1.70.1
2.70.2
2.10.5
NI
NI
NI
NI
NI
E. coli
43890
(GFP)
E. coli
43894
Peel
2.10.1
1.70.2
2.00.3
1.80.3
Roselle
Flower
1.70.2
1.40.2
1.40.2
Oregano
Leaves
2.60.1
2.50.2
Sweet
marjoram
Leaves
NI
NI
Tamarind
Peel
Pulp of
fruit
NI
NI
NI
NI
NI
NI
NI
1.70.4
1.40.2
1.50.4
1.60.2
1.50.1
2.30.4
2.10.8
* NI indicates no inhibition.
Table 4. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the selected extracts against E. coli
O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Shigella sonnei.
Plant
(common name)
Roselle
Mexican lime
Oregano
Tamarind (pulp)
E. coli
O157:H7
43890 (GFP)
>10
4.30.3*
2.00.1
>10
E. coli
O157:H7
43894
>10
4.70.3
2.00.1
>10
MBC (mg/ml)
S.
E. coli
Typhimurium
43895
47028
>10
>10
4.80.3
4.50.0
1.50.1
2.00.1
>10
>10
S.
Typhi
19430
>10
4.50.0
2.00.1
>10
S.
flexneri
12022
>10
4.50.0
1.50.1
>10
S. sonnei
F2353
(GFP)
>10
4.30.3
1.50.1
>10
* Standard deviation.
Not washed
H2O
Chlorine
Citrol
4.70.09*
5.70.18
5.70.11
6.10.16
6.10.16
4.20.25
4.50.06
5.10.16
6.00.05
6.10.16
3.20.16
3.90.67
5.20.24
6.00.05
6.40.09
3.80.14
4.40.31
5.40.09
6.20.31
6.00.0
Mexican
Lime-Oregano
mixture
4.20.16
4.40.09
4.70.04
5.00.00
6.20.16
* Standard deviation.
Shigella sonnei
5
7
0
1
3
5
7
3.00.12
3.00.02
3.90.03
3.70.19
3.50.15
2.40.76
1.00.0
2.40.06
2.20.12
2.90.0
3.00.19
2.60.11
1.90.14
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
2.00.10
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
2.10.22
1.10.16
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.70.09
1.30.4
1.00.0
1.00.0
1.00.0
* Standard deviation.
Conclusions
In this study, we followed a simple, low cost, and laboursaving
extraction system. The antimicrobial efficacy of the improved
formulation was clearly demonstrated on parsley. Considering
human health and environmental hazards associated with chlorine
use, the Mexican lime:oregano mixture provides a viable alternative
to chlorine, and is equally effective at significantly reducing
bacterial pathogens associated with outbreaks stemming from leafy
green vegetables.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia
y Tecnologa de Mxico (CONACYT) grant #105389.
References
Berger, C. N., Sodha, S. V., Shaw, R. K., Griffin, P. M., Pink, D., Hand,
P. and Frankel, G. 2010. Minireview: fresh fruit and vegetables as
vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens. Environ. Microbiol.
12:2385-2397.
2
Jay, M. T., Cooley, M., Carychao, D., Wiscomb, G. W., Sweitzer, R. A.,
Crawford-Miksza, L., Farrar, J. A., Lau, D. K., OConnell, J.,
Millington, A., Asmundson, R. V., Atwill, E. R. and Mandrell, R. E.
2007. Escherichia coli O157:H7 in feral swine near spinach fields and
cattle, Central California Coast. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 13:1908-1921.
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Goodburn, C. and Wallace, C. A. 2013. The microbiological efficacy of
decontamination methodologies for fresh produce: A review. Food
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Gmez, M., Isunza, G., Heredia, N., Sols, L., Moreno, G., Tovar, O.
and Garca, S. 2012. Analysis of microbial contamination levels of
fruits and vegetables at retail in Monterrey, Mexico. J. Food. Agr.
Environ. 10:152-156.
5
Tschpe, H., Prager, R., Streckel, W., Fruth, A., Tietze, E. and Bhme,
G. 1995. Verotoxinogenic Citrobacter freundii associated with severe
gastroenteritis and cases of haemolytic uraemic syndrome in a nursery
school: Green butter as the infection source. Epidemiol. Infect. 114:441450.
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Naimi, T. S., Wicklund, J. H., Olsen, S. J., Krause, G., Wells, J. G.,
Bartkus, J. M., Boxrud, D. J., Sullivan, M., Kassenborg, H. H., Besser,
J. M., Mintz, E. D., Osterholm, M. T. and Hedberg, C. W. 2003.
Concurrent outbreaks of Shigella sonnei and enterotoxigenic Escherichia
coli associated with parsley: Implications for surveillance and control
of foodborne illness. J. Food Protect. 66:535-541.
7
Nou, X., Yaguang, L., LaVonda, H., Yang, Y., Feng, H., Millner, P. and
Shelton, D. 2011. Chlorine stabilizer T-128 enhances efficacy of chlorine
against cross-contamination by E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in
fresh-cut lettuce processing. J. Food Sci. 76:218-224.
8
Foley, D., Euper, M., Caporaso, F. and Prakash, A. 2004. Irradiation
and chlorination effectively reduces Escherichia coli O157:H7
inoculated on cilantro (Coriandrum sativum) without negatively
affecting quality. J. Food Protect. 67:2092-2098.
9
Burt, S. 2004. Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential
applications in foods - a review. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 94:223-253.
10
Conte, A., Speranza, B., Sinigaglia, M. and Del Nombile, M. A. 2007.
Effect on lemon extract on foodborne microorganisms. J. Food Protect.
70:1896-1900.
11
Garca-Alvarado, J. S., Verde-Star, M. J. and Heredia, N. L. 2001.
Traditional uses and scientific knowledge of medicinal plants from
Mexico and Central America. A review. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants.
8:37-89.
12
Valtierra, D., Heredia, N., Sanchez, E. and Garca, S. 2010. Reduction
of Campylobacter jejuni/coli in poultry skin by fruit extracts. J. Food
Protect. 73:477-482.
13
Orue, N., Garcia, S., Feng, P. and Heredia, N. 2013. Decontamination
1
10
11
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Food security of Northwest China under current water resources and food
consumption patterns
Jianping Li 1, Jing Chen 1 and Zhouping Shangguan 2*
1
School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan Ningxia, 750021, P. R. China. 2 State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and
Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yangling
Shaanxi, 712100, P. R. China. *e-mail: shangguan@ms.iswc.ac.cn
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of water resources and food consumption patterns on the food security of Northwest China. A regional water
requirement model (RWRM) and a food security model (FSM) were set up to evaluate the water shortage and food security of Northwest China,
respectively. The results showed that the water resource shortage of Northwest China is severe and thus the status of food security is unsafe without
food import; the urban food security of the region is better than the rural food security, and more water and energy are needed for the urban
population; and the water shortage of Northwest China has increased dramatically since 1983 and will continue to increase in the future, having
already reached 170 billion m3 in 2010 and will reach 400 billion m3 in 2050. Finally, some countermeasures that should be taken to safeguard the food
and water securities of Northwest China are as follows: control the population growth according to the local conditions and the population and
structure of the ethnic (minority) peoples; promote calorie-appropriate and energy-efficient diets instead of unhealthy diets; eliminate food wastes;
and develop water-saving agriculture and breed water-saving crop varieties. The models and proposed countermeasures are expected to provide
theoretical foundation and practical guidance for sustainable development and food security of Northwest China.
Key words: Food security, agricultural water resource, food consumption pattern, Northwest China, model.
Introduction
In addition to population growth, industrial development and
uncontrolled economic growth, water shortage is more and more
recognized as a major threat to food security due to its restriction
of agricultural production 1, 2. The changes in consumption
patterns, i.e., the increasing proportion of water-intensive food
(e.g. meat), may become the main cause of water shortage 3.
Currently, approximately one third of the worlds population lives
in countries suffering water shortage, including north China, west
Asia, and Libya and Saudi Arabia, who have used water for
irrigation that greatly exceeds their annual total water resources 4.
Many authors estimate that a large part of the worlds population
- up to two-thirds - will be affected by water shortage over the
next decades 5, 6.
In China, water resources uses can be divided into four forms:
agricultural water (62% of the total amount), industrial water (24%),
domestic water (12%), and eco-environmental water (2%) 7. Nearly
all agricultural water is freshwater 8 and a shortage of freshwater
exists all over the world 9. So water shortage fundamentally results
from insufficient freshwater for food production 3, 10. Generally
speaking, different amounts of water are required to produce
different foods. For example, about 1 - 3 m3 of water is required to
produce 1 kg of cereal, and about 13.5 m3 of water is required to
produce 1 kg of beef in California 11. Consequently, different food
consumption patterns require different amounts of water
resources. With economic development and improved living
standards, the proportion of water-intensive foods has been
growing in food consumption patterns, so that more water
resources are required to meet human food demands. For example,
12
200'0" N
200'0" N
300'0" N
300'0" N
400'0" N
400'0" N
500'0" N
500'0" N
1000'0" E
1100'0" E
1200'0" E
13
-1
Ei (kcal kg )
1.31
0.98
0.84
1.24
0.23
1.02
3625
2633
2872
2709
699
3481
3.2
5.08
3314
8720
0.19
0.5
188
413
12.56
4.46
2.39
4.5
5
3.55
1
0.18
2021
3500
1708
2005
497
1455
670
490
E EI = M i Ei
-1
Wi (m kg )
i =1
where EEI is per capita energy intake per day (kcal), Mi is daily
per-capita consumption of the food (kg), Mi = Mi /365, and Ei is
the energy of the i th food (kcal kg-1), n is foods number (Table 1).
Energy intake, recommended as the main indicator for measuring
food security by FAO 24, consists of four requirements:
i. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) for adults: 1300 - 1700 kcal per
person per day.
ii. Allowance for light activities: 1720 - 1960 kcal per person per
day.
iii. Allowance for appropriate activities: 2000 - 2310 kcal per person
per day.
iv. Allowance for labours or activities above the average intensity
or surpassing appropriate activities: 2600 - 2950 kcal.
This study adopted the average-weighted caloric requirement
of 2300 kcal/person/day to measure food security, which was the
calorie number required for appropriate activities. If EEI>2300 kcal,
then the food security was adequate; and if 1700 kcal<EEI< 2300
kcal, the food security was low; and if EEI<BMR, the energy
supply was insufficient and people were in the state of
malnourished and starvation. However, with development of
economic and improvement of the peoples living standard, the
Sources: Actual water consumptions of cereals, soybean, vegetables and fruits from Liu
et al. 21, fish and seafood from Zimmer and Renault 22, other food items from Chapagain
et al. 23.
Note: Wi is water amount necessary for to produce the i th food (m3 kg-1), Ei is the energy
of the i th food (kcal kg-1).
Table 2. Rural and urban food consumption patterns of northwest China over time.
Food items
Cereals and roots
Vegetables
Vegetable oils
Pork
Beef & goat meat
Poultry
Eggs
Fish and sea food
Milk
Fruits
Alcoholic
1980
Urban Rural
130
257
60
40
5
2
15
8
2
0
2
1
4
1
2
0
3
0
18
3
0
2
1985
Urban Rural
135
257
74
47
6
4
17
11
2
2
3
1
7
2
7
1
5
2
25
5
5
4
1990
Urban Rural
131
262
89
68
6
5
18
11
3
2
3
1
7
2
8
2
9
2
34
6
5
6
1995
Urban Rural
97
259
116
85
7
6
17
11
2
3
4
2
10
3
9
3
14
2
40
14
6
7
2000
Urban Rural
82
248
115
86
8
8
17
12
3
3
5
1
11
2
10
0
17
4
46
16
5
2
2005
Urban Rural
76
214
123
95
9
5
23
21
4
5
10
3
8
3
7
1
19
4
52
14
6
9
2010
Urban Rural
70
195
125
99
10
5
28
25
5
5
15
4
8
2
10
1
16
8
51
17
12
10
14
3500
Population (104)
6000
5250
Rural population
Per capita water resource
Urban population
4500
3750
3250
3000
2750
3000
2500
2250
1500
2250
1980
1985
1990
1995
Year
2000
2005
2010
Status of food security: The average per capita energy intakes per
day were obtained by the FSM model. The rural per capita energy
320
intake per day was less than the urban one during the past 30
years (Fig. 4). After 1983, the urban per capita energy intake per
280
day was over 2300 kcal, indicating that the urban food security of
240
Northwest China was safeguarded. The urban per capita energy
intake per day reached a high record of 3100 kcal in 2000 and
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
generally decreased from 2000 to 2010 but remained above 2700
Year
kcal, surpassing the food security threshold of 2300 kcal. This
Figure 3. Total water resources and total water requirement
decrease resulted from the changes in food consumption patterns,
of northwest China in the different years.
which was the consumption of less cereal and more
meat and vegetables. However, the rural food security
Table 3. Forecast models and water securities in the following 40 years.
was poor. The rural per capita energy intake per day
was 1400 kcal in 1980, which was lower than that
needed for the Basal Metabolic Rate for adults. The
rural population suffered malnutrition and starvation
in 1980s. The per capita energy intake per day has
generally increased from 1400 kcal in 1980 to 2290 kcal
Note: P is population, E is per capita energy intake per day (Kcal), W is amount of total water need for food, e is the base
in 1998 but has remained below the food security
360
15
3000
2700
2400
2100
1800
Urban area
Rural area
Food security line
1500
1980
1985
1990
1995
Year
2000
2005
2010
threshold; the per capita energy intake per day has generally
fluctuated around 2300 kcal after 1998, being 2400 kcal in 2000,
2250 kcal in 2005, and 2330 kcal in 2010. Thus, the food security
for the rural population was nearly average. Therefore, the food
security of Northwest China was safeguarded from 1998 to 2010,
but this sufficient food security may not last long because of the
population growth, water shortage, and living standard
improvement.
Food security and water security in the future: This study
developed the Population Forecast Model (P), the Energy Intake
per Capita per Day Model (E), and the Water Resource Requirement
Forecast model (W) depending on the populations, per capita
energy intakes per day, and total water resources and water
requirement from 1980 to 2010. W Wtotal, the differences between
the water requirements and the existing total water resources, was
used to evaluate the future water situation (Table 3). The forecast
models depended on the economies, population and food patterns
in the past 30 years to forecast the future.
Table 3 shows that the population of northwest China is
projected to grow exponentially from 110.5 million at the end of
2020 to 135.9 million in 2050, a 25.4 million increase, and more than
80% of the population will become urban residents in 2050.
Meanwhile, the per capita energy intake per day and the regional
water requirement will reach 3762 kcal and 625.5 m3 in 2050,
respectively. The water gap (W Wtotal) will increase sharply in the
next 40 years. The total water resources will meet only 50% of the
water requirement of 463.5 billion m3 in 2020 and the gap will reach
400.1 billion m3 in 2050. Consequentially, the population growth,
sharp water gap increase and energy intakes of northwest China
will threaten the food security because of the insufficient water
for producing food in the future.
Discussion
Water shortage and food security have become primary factors
that restrict the national economic progress of China. If water
shortage evolves into a crisis, the effects may be far more severe
than the crisis of oil shortage that we have experienced so far 27.
Water security is the basis for food security, which is the basis for
modern agriculture. Agriculture can save water resources to
safeguard food security by consuming less water to produce more
food 28, 29. At present, water resources for food security of China is
facing challenges resulting from the water shortage, due to
increasing industrial and urban water uses, lack of extensive water
resources management, and water loss and soil erosion.
Agricultural water use is crucial to China, because China has a big
16
RWRM model showed that there were five key factors affecting
the regional water requirement of Northwest China: population,
food consumption pattern, agricultural water, water supply
capacity, and crop water use efficiency. The following
countermeasures in terms of the five factors probably could
guarantee the future water security and food security of Northwest
China.
First, the population growth of Northwest China should be
regulated according to the local conditions. At present, the
population of northwest China is mainly rural with many ethnic
peoples living together, and thus the possibilities of the economic
security, societal security and cultural security should be
considered in a balanced way. Proper population countermeasures
should be taken and timely adjusted according to the population
and structure of the ethnic peoples to ensure common development
and prosperity of all the nationalities concerned. While the
population size will be controlled, the populations quality of life
should be improved.
Second, caloric-appropriate diets and energy-efficient food
consumption patterns instead of unhealthy diets should be
promoted, and food wastes should be prohibited. In general, food
consumption patterns are closely related to increasing affluence.
However, eating habits probably plays a role in affecting the food
preference of Chinas population. For example, the meat
consumption of China now exceeds what is recommended by China
Nutrition Society 33, and Northwest China has higher meat
consumption than other regions. In addition, the current diet shifts
of Northwest China may be detrimental to the populations health,
and could cause higher incidences of diet-related diseases 34.
Raising public consciousness and promoting the diet recommended
by the CNS may help mitigate the future water shortage of China.
Meanwhile, food losses of China resulting from seeding, feeding,
harvesting, food processing, storage, transportation, and cooking
are large, making up 30% of the total food production of the
country. Consequentially, to eliminate all such food losses by
educating the population in healthy diet, food producing and
nutrition are wise measures to save food and water resources.
Third, Northwest China should develop water-saving agriculture
to guarantee the food and water securities. It is necessary for
Northwest China to increase water use efficiency and then water
supply as the total water resources are limited in the arid area. The
key approaches for increasing the water supply of Northwest
China can be summarized as follows: constructing reservoirs and
implementing water diversion projects; reasonably exploiting and
scientifically managing urban groundwater resources under the
precondition of sustainable development economy and society;
and trying to recycle waste water. Water-saving agriculture should
be promoted to safeguard water security. Water-saving agriculture
as an integrated system should include four aspects: rational uses
of agricultural water resources, water-saving irrigation, agronomic
water-saving techniques, and agricultural management 24.
Governmental supports and encouragements will be necessary to
achieve this system.
Fourth, biotechnological as well as traditional breeding methods
should be adopted as the efficient method to develop water-saving
crops for the arid areas of northwest China to feed its growing
population. Water-saving crops developed by modern biotechnology
breeding cannot only improve water use efficiency but also can
increase food production. In other words, more foods will be
17
Wang, Y. J., Xie, Z. K., Malhi, S. S., Vera, C. L., Zhang, Y. B. and Wang,
J. N. 2009. Effects of rainfall harvesting and mulching technologies on
water use efficiency and crop yield in the semi-arid Loess Plateau,
China. Agr. Water Manage. 96:374-382.
19
Fang, Q. X., Ma, L., Green, T. R., Yu, Q., Wang, T. D. and Ahuja, L. R.
2010. Water resources and water use efficiency in the North China
Plain: Current status and agronomic management options. Agr. Water
Manage. 97:1102-1116.
20
Zhang, X. Y., Chen, S. Y., Sun, H. Y., Wang, Y. M. and Shao, L. W. 2010.
Water use efficiency and associated traits in winter wheat cultivars in
the North China Plain. Agr. Water Manage. 97:1117-1125.
21
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22
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global trade: Review of methodological issues and preliminary results.
In Hoekstra, A. Y. (ed.). Virtual Water Trade. Proceedings of the
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23
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saving through international trade of agricultural products. Hydrol.
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24
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www.fao.org/publications (accessed on 7.12.12).
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(ECCASY) 1980-2011. China Agriculture Yearbook. China Agriculture
Press, Beijing (China) 1:1-39 (in Chinese).
26
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pollutants in drinking water source in Shizuishan City - Northwest
China. Iran J. Environ. Healt. 8:41-48.
27
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issue. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 49:1409-1409.
28
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and food nexus in China. Food Secur. 1:413-430.
29
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biofuel and implications for food supply and the environment in China.
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30
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insecurity in protracted crises. Available from: http://www.fao.org/
publications/sofi/2010/en/(accessed on 29.10.11).
31
Wang, Y. B., Wu, P. T., Zhao, X. N., Li, J. L., Lv, L. and Shao, H. B.
2010. The optimization for crop planning and some advances for
water-saving crop planning in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China. J.
Agron. Crop Sci. 196:55-65.
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design procedure for a single-manifold subunit. Irrigation Sci. 28:359369.
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18
18
WFL Publisher
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Abstract
Banana (Musa acuminata), variety Poovan (Group AB) fruits of commercial maturity were stored inside the air-tight container under modified
atmosphere conditions using diffusion channels. The gaseous exchange was made through the glass channels called as diffusion channels of different
geometries viz., length 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm and inner diameter 3, 5 and 7 mm. The fruits were packed with rated quantities of moisture and ethylene
absorbents and the containers were stored at three different temperatures (RT-Room temperature, 24C and 14C). Gas samples were drawn from
the container and was analysed for oxygen concentration for every 24 h up to a period of 20, 30 and 40 days for RT, 24C and 14C storage,
respectively. Oxygen concentration was noted for the storage containers with different dimensions of diffusion channel and storage temperature. A
mathematical model was developed using non-linear multiple regression to fit the observed data. The developed model was found to be useful in
determining the length of the diffusion channel for the required steady-state oxygen concentration for banana. The shelf life of banana can be increased
to three to four folds by adopting diffusion channel technique compared to control fruits at all the respective storage temperatures.
Key words: Modified atmosphere storage, diffusion channel, banana, modelling, oxygen.
Introduction
Indias contribution to world production of banana is about
15.02% 9. The Indian banana growers are losing around 20 to 40%
of their production on account of existing handling practices 14.
The post harvest losses in India are much higher due to tropical
climate and also due to lack of technology for handling and
processing 18. Hence an attempt is made to enhance the shelf life
of banana using diffusion channels and to develop a mathematical
model for determining the steady-state oxygen concentration.
The principle behind modified atmosphere packaging is
reduction in respiration rate of fruits by modifying the gas
composition of the storage atmosphere and thus enhancing the
shelf life of the fruits 17. If the availability of oxygen is restricted,
the rate of respiration could be slowed down; thereby quality of
the commodities is preserved with enhancement of shelf life 11.
The appropriate atmosphere is made to evolve within the storage
chamber by the respiration of the produce and maintaining that
atmosphere by selective permeability of the gases through
membrane or by diffusion through channels 12, 19. Diffusion channel
is a hollow tube or channel fitted to an airtight storage chamber in
which produce is stored, and the other end of the tube is exposed
to the ambient air. The diffusion channel storage system is one of
the methods of modified atmosphere packaging in which the
storage chamber is impermeable to gas of concern and the exchange
of gas takes place only through the diffusion channels. The
presence of diffusion channel controls the flow of gases on either
direction (i.e., from package atmosphere to ambient atmosphere
and vice versa), thus maintaining the gas composition.
The gas composition surrounding the fruit material within the
package plays an important role in determining shelf life of fruits
19
T1
Channel dimensions
L
d
5
3
T2
10
T3
15
T4
20
T5
T6
10
T7
15
T8
20
T9
T10
10
T11
15
T12
20
Treatment
rmsV f
v
yO container
KAc DO2 N 2 DO2 N 2 2
ln(
)
rmsV f
v
yO2 air
KAc DO2 N 2 DO2 N 2
(1)
DO2 N 2
rm V a a y
1
ln( s f 2 1 O2 container )
a1
rmsV f a2 a1 yO2 air
where:
a1
a2
(2)
v
DO
N2
1
KAc DO2 N 2
where:
L - Length of the diffusion channel (cm)
DO2 - N2 - Diffusivity of O2 in N2 (cm2 h-1)
Ac - Cross sectional area of the diffusion channel (cm2)
yO2 - Oxygen molar fraction
k - Total mole of gas within the storage container (mole)
Vf - Free volume inside the storage container (cm3)
Ambient
Am
24
24C
14
14C
d
(mm)
3
5
7
Ambient
a2
a1
0.4927 0.0222
0.3676 0.0165
0.4075 0.0183
14C
Sample
Storage
temperature
Banana
Ambient
24qC
14qC
2
1
T1
T2
14qC
a1
a2
0.2208 0.0297
0.1788 0.0217
0.2012 0.0225
24qC
a1
a2
0.1745 0.0128
0.1725 0.0126
0.1724 0.0125
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
Treatment
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
Control
(fruits stored in air)
Shelf life
(days)
4
7
11
21
00
88
1010
l = 5cm
cm
I-5
10
10
15
15
10
10
1515
l = 10cm
cm
I-10
l = 15cm
cm
I-15
Storage
period (days)
Storage
periods
(days)
55
20
20
l = 20cm
cm
I-20
2020
20
20
d = 7 mm
d = 7 mm
55
d = 5 mm
d = 5 mm
d = 3 mm
d = 3 mm
10
10
1515
55
Storage period (days)
Storage periods (days)
Ambient
00
22
44
66
88
00
0
0
00
1010
00
22
44
66
88
1010
00
22
44
66
88
1010
l I-5
= 5 cm
cm
55
55
15
15
l=
15 cm
I-15
cm
25
25
l =I-20
20 cm
cm
25
25
d = 7 mm
30
30
30
30
30
30
d = 5 mm
d = 7 mm
10
15
20
20
15
10
Storage period (days)
Storage periods (days)
lI-10
= 10cm
cm
25
25
d = 3 mm
d = 3 mm
d = 5 mm
20
20
10
10
10
15
20
10
20
15
Storage period (days)
Storage periods (days)
24C
q
8
10 10
0
0
00
0
0
10 10
lI-5
=5
cm
cm
5
5
55
55
10
10
10
10
10
10
14C
15
15
20
20
25
25
20
20
25
25
l I-10
= 10cm
cm
35
35
lI-20
= 20cm
cm
35
35
40
40
40
40
40
40
d = 7 mm
d = 7 mm
30
30
30
30
l I-15
= 15cm
cm
15
15
35
35
d = 3 mm
d = 3 mm
d = 5 mm
d = 5 mm
15
20
25
30
20
25
15
30
Storage
(days)
Storageperiod
periods
(days)
g 2: Oxygen concentration attained by Poovan at different channel lengths diameters and temperatures during storage (where d is
00
22
44
66
00
00
00
22
44
66
88
1010
00
22
44
66
88
Oxygen concentration (% )
1010
Oxygen concentration (%)
Figure 2. Oxygen concentration attained by Poovan at different channel lenghts,diameters and temperstures during storage.
Oxygen concentration (% )
22
Conclusions
The smallest channel length of 5 cm attained the steady state
quickly compared to largest channel length of 20 cm at all the
storage temperatures. Also, the variation in attainment of steadystate period was more pronounced for smaller channel diameter of 3
mm compared to 5 and 7 mm. The maximum and minimum values of
steady-state oxygen concentration were noted for T9 and T4,
respectively, for all the storage temperatures which represented
that the steady-state oxygen concentration was directly
proportional to diameter and inversely to length of the channel.
The developed mathematical model will be a useful tool for
determining the length of the diffusion channel for said oxygen
concentration. Also the shelf life of banana can be increased to
three to four folds by adopting diffusion channel technique
compared to control fruits at all the respective storage
temperatures.
Highlights:
The time of attainment of steady-state oxygen concentration
within the package increased as the storage temperature
increased.
The attained of steady-state oxygen concentration was directly
proportional to the diameter and inversely proportional to the
length of the channel.
The developed mathematical model will be a useful tool for
determining the length of the diffusion channel for banana for
the required steady-state concentration.
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely express their gratitude towards the funding
agency viz., University Grants Commission, New Delhi, India for
carrying out the research work.
References
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M. N. K. and Ramana, K. V. R. 2004. Effect of modified atmosphere
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Isaak, G. P., Kudachikar, V. B., Kulkarni, S. G., Vasantha, M. S., Prakash,
M. N. K. and Ramana, K. V. R. 2006. Shelf life quality of modified
atmosphered packed plantains during low temperature storage. Journal
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7
Pinheiro, J. M. D. S., Mizobutsi, G. P., Mizobutsi, E. H., DeSouza, B.
N., Cordeiro, M. H. M., Aguiar, M. C. S., Ferreira, D. M., DaMota,
W. F. and Maia, V. M. 2012. Maturation control of sugar apple using
1-methylcyclopropene, modified atmosphere packaging and cooling.
Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 10(2):217-220.
1
23
WFL Publisher
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Zoology Department, 2 Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt.
e-mail: abeerbadr@gmail.com, dr-effatshabana@hotmail.com, hodasenousy1@hotmail.com, hendgooonet@hotmail.com
Abstract
Natural -carotene was continuously extracted from Dunaliella bardawil in a two phase system by milking with the biocompatible solvent dodecane
(20% v/v) at 20,000 lux and 170 rpm for 15 days. The b-carotene yield was 23.30 g/ml at the end of the experiment. High performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that b-carotene is formed of the two isomers 9-cis and all trans in a ratio of 1.13. We aimed to assess the
protective and therapeutic effects of natural b-carotene at various doses (30, 140 and 350 g/kg) compared with synthetic b-carotene at a fixed dose
(350 g/kg) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory cytokines in CD1 mice, and also to test the cytotoxicity of natural b-carotene on
breast cancer (MCF-7) and hepatoma (HepG2) human cell lines in vitro. In pre- and post-treatment of LPS injected mice, low dose (30 g/kg) of
natural b-carotene treatment caused a significant reduction in the levels of interleukin (IL)-1a, interferon (IFN)-g and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a
compared with LPS-treated control group. Administration of natural b-carotene at dose of 140 g/kg exhibited a significant decrease in the levels of
IL-1a and IFN-g as protective and IL-1a as therapeutic. In contrast, high dose (350 g/kg) of natural of b-carotene failed to exert anti-inflammatory
effect either in pre or post-treatment. Synthetic b-carotene pretreatment induced protective inhibition of IL-1a and IFN-g levels while post-treatment
had no influence. IC50 of natural b-carotene was 14.58 and 7.44 g/ml, while IC50 of doxorubicin was 7.51 and 2.67 g/ml for HepG2 and MCF-7 cell
lines, respectively. Hence, natural b-carotene is capable of enhancing anti-inflammatory activity in vivo and is a promising anti-cancer drug.
Key words: Dunaliella bardawil, -carotene, milking, lipopolysaccharides, anti-inflammation, pro-inflammatory cytokines, breast cancer MCF-7 cell
line, HepG2 cell line, anti-cancer, acute inflammation.
Introduction
Drug research in marine environment has shown that algae are an
important source of innovative biochemically active compounds.
Carotenoids biosynthesized by algae have commercial
applications in food science, pharmaceutical industry, cosmetics,
and nutritional health 1. -carotene, as an important carotenoid, is
metabolized in the mammalian cells and acts as a natural source of
vitamin A 2. It is considered as a powerful antioxidant and has
been suggested to inhibit the development of inflammationassociated diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis 3, inflammatory
bowel disease 4, and atherosclerosis 5.
Dunaliella bardawil, a marine unicellular halotolerant green
alga, showed an environmental adaptation through excess
production of -carotene and glycerol to maintain its osmotic
balance 6. Natural -carotene produced by D. bardawil is
composed of equimolar mixture of two stereoisomers, all-trans
and 9-cis -carotene 7. Milking, a kind of in-situ extraction process
in which the starting cell mass is reused for continuous production
to overcome the low productivity of algal cultures in producing
high-value compounds, i.e. the first step in the experiment did not
need to be repeated. Milking has been found successful in carotene production from D. salina 8-10. Production of carotenoids
from D. salina by milking is selective since mainly secondary
carotenoid was extracted when gentle mixing was used 10.
Production of -carotene under stress conditions was higher than
24
25
and 350 g/kg (Group 15). Mice were euthanized with isoflurane.
The blood was collected by cardiac puncture and centrifuged at
3500 rpm for 10 min. The collected sera were stored at - 20C for
further analysis.
Quantitative determination of cytokines: Levels of cytokines
(IL-1, IFN- and TNF-) were assessed by an indirect enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (eBioscience, GmbH, Vienna,
Austria). ELISA was performed following the instructions of the
ELISA test kits. The levels of cytokines were expressed as pg/ml.
In vitro cytotoxicity assay of -carotene extract: Cytotoxic
activity of natural extract of -carotene was determined by
sulphorhodamine-B assay (SRB) 30. HepG2 of hepatoma cancer
and MCF-7 of breast cancer human cell lines were maintained at
the National Cancer Institute (Cairo, Egypt). -carotene was
prepared in dimethyl sulphoxide (DEMSO) and tested as negative
control. The cells were seeded in 96-well microplates (5104-105
cells/well) for 24 h. The monolayer cells were incubated with serial
dilutions of -carotene (5, 12.5, 25 and 50 g/ml) for 72 h at 37C in
a humidified incubator with 5% CO2. Triplicate wells were prepared
for each concentration. After 72 h, the cells were fixed, washed
and stained with 0.4% SRB stain dissolved in 1% acetic acid.
Excessive dye was washed with 1% acetic acid, the plates were
air-dried, and protein-bound dye was solubilized with 10 mM Tris
base solution. Colour intensity of each well was measured at 564
nm with microplate reader. The anticancer drug doxorubicin was
used as a positive control. IC50 is the concentration necessary to
cause 50% cell inhibition (or 50% cytotoxicity).
Statistical analysis: The present data were analysed by one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS statistical package
version 20 to test the effect of -carotene on the investigated
parameters. In addition, the comparison between various studied
log Poct
Chlorophyll a
(g/ml)
Cell count
(x106 cell /ml)
6.25
6.6
7.6
8.8
8.51
6.050.08a
7.030.01b
8.750.06c
9.310.08e
8.990.07d
2.220.04a
3.890.02b
4.140.03c
5.020.06e
4.900.04d
Intracellular
-carotene
(g/ml)
2.510.20a
5.610.11d
4.080.02b
4.910.05c
4.020.06b
Extracellular
-carotene
(g/ml)
5.600.15d
3.300.05c
1.390.02b
1.030.02a
1.330.04b
Cell membrane
integrity (O.D.)
0.190.01a
0.270.01b
0.280.02b
0.300.01b
0.860.01c
Initials: chlorophyll 9.99 g/ml, cell count 5.31106 cell/ml, -carotene 6.52 g/ml. Means marked with the same superscript letters are not-significant
(P>0.05). Data are average of three replicates; each value represents the mean SEM.
Table 2. Milking of Dunaliella bardawil for continuous production and extraction of carotene using dodecane (20% v/v) at 20,000 lux and 170 rpm.
Growth paramerters
Mixing
rates (rpm)
170
Time
(days)
0
3
6
9
12
15
Chlorophyll a
(g/ml)
Cell count
(x 106 cell /ml)
Intracellular
-carotene
(g/ml)
Extracellular
-carotene
(g/ml )
Total
-carotene
(g/ml)
9.940.03
7.19 0.04
3.580.06
2.010.03
1.910.01
1.280.04
5.840.06
3.110.01
2.340.05
0.790.07
0.620.02
0.190.05
6.400.08
8.820.05
9.610.03
10.350.03
11.290.01
12.340.03
___
6.190.11
8.100.07
9.070.05
9.650.09
10.960.04
6.40
15.01
17.71
19.42
20.94
23.30
Data are average of three replicates; each value represents the mean standard error of mean.
26
A
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
mAU
1000
4
6
Retention time (min)
min
800
600
400
200
0
0
min
27
Table 3. The levels of IL-1, IFN- and TNF- (pg/ml) in serum of mice
orally administered an olive oil, synthetic -carotene (synth, 350
g/kg) and various concentrations of natural -carotene (nat, 30,
140, and 350 g/kg) in absence and presence of lipopolysaccharide
(LPS, 2.5 mg/kg).
ANOVA
F2,15=14.16, P>0.05 F2,15=6.62, P<0.05 F2,15=2.541, P>0.05
causes some shear stress to the cells and also can increase
r
+0.99
+0.99
+0.96
Data were represented as mean of six mice standard error of mean (SEM). In the columns: Means marked with the
contact of the cells with the organic phase. Our
same superscript letters are similar (insignificant difference, P>0.05).
continuous milking experiment here could not be run for
: the effect of various concentrations of natural -carotene on the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
P>0.05: insignificant effect of various natural -carotene concentrations on the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
more than 15 days due to decreased growth levels of
r: correlation coefficient between the concentrations of natural -carotene and the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
cells (the decreased levels of chlorophyll a and cell count).
It has been found that the mixing of aqueous and organic
Table 4. The levels of IL-1, IFN- and TNF- (pg/ml) in serum of mice
phase may enhance extraction but can also enhance
administered with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 2.5 mg/kg) followed
damage caused by organic solvent, so a compromise
by olive oil, synthetic -carotene (synth, 350 g/kg) and various
between toxicity and extraction ability has to be taken
concentrations of natural -carotene (nat, 30, 140, and 350 g/
into consideration when choosing the organic solvent 35.
kg) after 6 h of LPS injection.
It was obvious from the present data that extracted Cytokines (pg/ml)
Group
carotene
is composed of two isomers; these are 9-cis IL-1
IFN-
TNF-
carotene and all trans -carotene. The ratio of 9-cis to all
lps+olive oil
127.57.90b
1203.097.01b
959.1615.8c
trans -carotene is 1.13, which is in harmony with
LPS+synth350
120.619.70b
1038.4263.75b
520.0 96.5bc
LPS+nat30
68.49.20a
407.473.57a
321.2 42.8a
Kleinegris et al. 10, who reported that when high light
LPS+nat140
65.023.80a
1129.4193.26b
737.6 95.4bc
intensity was used to stress the cells, the ratio of 9-cis to
LPS+nat350
114.012.50b
1056.4229.11b
966.2 109.9c
ANOVA
F2,12=0.543, P>0.05 F2,12=3.464, P>0.05 F2,12=13.941, P>0.05 all-trans -carotene increased from 0.55 to 1.27. It was
observed that the increase in 9-cis to all-trans -carotene
r
+0.92
+0.70
+0.94
Data were represented as mean of six mice standard error of mean (SEM).
ratio was mainly due to accumulation of carotenoid
In the columns: Means marked with the same superscript letters are similar (insignificant difference, P > 0.05).
containing globules (over 50% 9-cis -carotene) and a
: the effect of various concentrations of natural -carotene on the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
P > 0.05: insignificant effect of various natural -carotene concentrations on the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
decrease in thylakoid-bound carotenoids (mainly all-trans
r: correlation coefficient between the concentrations of natural -carotene and the levels of cytokines (pg/ml).
-carotene) 36.
W
-carotene
Doxorubicin
12
22
32
42
52
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
W
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-carotene
Doxorubucin
y = 32.752ln(x) - 32.246,
r= +0.99
12
22
32
42
52
Figure 3. Dose-response curve of natural -carotene and doxorubicin cytotoxicity against HepG2 and MCF-7 human
cell lines using SRB assay.
Percentages of cells inhibition of (A) HepG2 and (B) MCF-7 cell lines after 72 h of incubation with natural -carotene and doxorubicin at various
concentrations (5, 12.5, 25, 50 g/ml). Each value was a mean of three samples standard error of mean. r: correlation coefficient.
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4
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Effects of some technological parameters on chemical and sensory qualities and free
fatty and amino acids of various probiotic cultures in Beyaz cheese during
ripening process
Filiz Yanglar 1* and Salih Ozdemir 2
1
Department of Food, Engineering Faculty, Ardahan University, 75000, Ardahan, Turkey. 2 Department of Agricultural, Food
Engineering, Atatrk University, 25000, Erzurum, Turkey. *e-mail: f_yangilar@hotmail.com, filizyangilar@ardahan.edu.tr
Abstract
It was aimed in the present study to assess the effects of four probiotic strains on the chemical, physical and organoleptic properties of Beyaz cheese.
For all experimental samples taken into consideration in the study, total chemical parameters were found to increase during ripening (p<0.05) process
in the study. The FFAs concentration in control cheeses was significantly higher than that of made with probiotic dahi cheese samples (p<0.05). In
addition, probiotic B. bifidum BB-12 appeared to increase the production of FFAs (caproic, 1.67; caprilic, 0.16 and capric, 2.57%). Bifidum BB
12+L. acidophilus LA5 increased significantly the rate of nitrogen compounds with low molecular weight and individual free amino acids
(p<0.05). Length of ripening period contributed to a significant increase in the content of free amino acids. For the sensorial characteristics, cheese
sample E was found to the least preferred by the panellists.
Key words: Beyaz cheese, probiotics, free fatty acids, free amino acids.
Introduction
Today consumers are concerned in great majority with not only
food security and its nutritional values, but also its health
benefits 1, 2. Such kind of demands helped shape new concepts in
food industry, e.g. functional food, where probiotic ingredients
take important parts 3. Probiotics are defined in an overview to be
living non-pathogenic microorganisms used in food industry to
be dietary supplements due to their health benefits 4-9, such as
increasing the intake rate of low-fat dairy products and the
reduction of the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD),
preclinical atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular risk factors in
middle-age and older age persons 3, 10-16. Although the number of
probiotic bacteria that provides health benefits has not been
firmly established, levels between 106 and 109 cfu/g have been
suggested 17, 18. Various parameters must be considered when
adding probiotic bacteria to foods: type of culture to use, addition
level required to obtain a physiological effect, survival during
process parameters, stability during storage, and effect on the
sensory properties 8, 19, 20.
Dairy products have been used as carrier foods for probiotic
bacteria, as many of them had already been optimized for survival
of lactic cultures 21, 22 , while new products including milk, yoghurt,
fermented milk, desserts, fruit juice and some cheese types have
also taken their places among probiotic products 23. Cheese owns
a deserved fame to be a good carrier for probiotic bacteria by
allowing them to survive throughout gastrointestinal tract 15, 24-32.
Beyaz cheese (Turkish acronym of white cheese) is a soft or semihard cheese type produced from sheep or cow milk or mixture of
them 26. Cheese may offer several advantages over fermented milk
products such as yoghurt by serving as a delivery system for
32
33
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
2
15
30
Ripening time (day)
60
Ripening
time
(days)
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
Dry
matter (%)
Protein
(%)
Fat (%)
Salt (%)
Ash (%)
Fat in dry
matter (%)
Salt in dry
matter (%)
pH
WSN (%)
40.600.18
41.330.13
42.450.11
44.430.08
40.460.15
41.900.18
42.060.44
43.600.71
37.490.62
38.950.31
40.760.58
41.920.65
39.850.69
41.590.78
42.200.86
43.230.12
39.950.93
39.990.24
41.590.50
42.910.41
13.750.14
14.070.12
14.500.05
15.200.16
13.440.11
13.530.50
13.720.44
15.010.29
14.030.42
14.150.51
15.030.85
15.040.29
16.140.58
15.530.42
15.620.26
15.660.32
15.440.71
15.320.25
15.660.43
15.900.20
19.370.30
20.560.28
21.230.43
22.180.52
20.260.37
21.310.65
22.110.91
22.480.76
18.410.85
19.450.19
20.200.16
20.240.34
18.500.29
20.060.27
19.870.61
20.630.74
18.600.36
18.540.61
19.070.25
19.470.48
4.370.42
5.660.38
6.070.39
6.420.34
4.150.47
4.330.58
5.500.54
6.270.32
4.300.46
4.580.82
5.340.51
5.750.46
4.560.53
5.460.36
6.170.62
6.340.48
5.450.39
5.830.53
6.480.42
7.050.57
4.890.24
6.110.42
6.690.50
6.770.38
4.700.63
4.840.37
5.910.28
6.790.45
4.830.47
5.080.32
5.520.35
6.260.29
5.100.37
6.020.26
6.660.63
6.840.56
5.980.61
6.120.23
6.820.74
7.510.32
47.710.52
49.740.70
49.990.59
49.920.41
50.080.35
50.860.26
52.570.47
51.550.39
49.110.64
49.940.43
49.550.34
48.280.56
46.410.39
48.070.45
47.090.17
47.720.23
46.550.47
46.350.39
45.860.70
45.380.55
10.760.50
13.680.71
14.310.32
14.450.68
10.260.41
10.340.60
13.070.77
14.370.35
11.480.39
11.770.23
13.090.18
13.710.46
11.440.70
13.200.52
16.630.38
14.660.67
13.630.49
14.580.20
15.580.38
16.440.41
5.320.69
5.460.76
5.870.39
6.080.43
5.030.46
5.130.37
5.630.62
5.740.25
6.060.28
6.260.42
6.440.31
6.230.49
5.360.16
5.430.32
5.660.15
5.720.43
5.580.64
5.830.39
5.950.26
6.140.57
1.920.14
2.030.20
2.660.18
3.120.37
2.840.26
2.450.52
2.820.47
2.750.24
2.930.02
2.990.40
2.970.18
3.260.20
2.150.11
2.190.37
2.180.45
2.210.38
2.110.31
2.240.60
2.230.12
2.650.29
Ripening
degree
(%)
13.970.09
14.440.24
18.380.52
20.560.13
21.170.17
18.100.35
20.550.42
18.360.51
20.860.78
21.150.05
19.800.11
21.400.85
13.350.41
14.090.03
13.960.64
14.100.07
13.700.32
14.610.03
14.250.99
16.650.83
** The values presented are the average of three recurrences. A(Control): Only lactic culture. B: B. bifidum BB-12+lactic culture. C: B. bifidum BB-12+L. acidophilus LA-5+lactic culture. D: B. bifidum+lactic culture.
E: B. longum+lactic culture.
34
2.5
TCA-SN (%)
Beyaz
Cheese
Samples
1.5
1
A
0.5
B
0
15
30
Ripening time (day)
60
Figure 2. Changes in trichloroacetic acid-soluble nitrogen (TCASN) of probiotic Beyaz cheese samples.
C
D
E
Butiric
(C4)
0.560.63
0.530.32
0.530.56
0.520.35
0.580.50
0.520.42
0.540.28
0.500.45
0.550.29
0.520.64
Capric
(C10)
2.290.32
2.850.24
2.510.32
2.570.22
2.290.30
1.920.24
1.820.43
2.200.29
2.100.50
1.970.21
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
60
Ripening time (day)
nitrogen (WSN) and trichloroacetic acid-soluble nitrogen (TCASN) over 60-day ripening period at 4C. The ratio of WSN to total
nitrogen (TN) in all samples increased consistently. Cheese
produced from B. bifidum BB-12+L. acidophilus LA-5 (3.26%)
revealed the highest water-soluble protein rate. WSN rates
reported by Ong and Shah 65 in the samples of probiotic Cheddar
cheese are similar to those found in the present study.
The rate of TCA-SN also increased continuously and intensified
more until 60th day (Fig. 2). Ong and Shah 65 found that the levels
of SN-TCA in probiotic Cedar cheeses increased during ripening
period similarly with those in the present study. Reason for such
a situation may be the responsibility of the starter and probiotic
bacteria proteinases for the formation of TCA-SN. Cheese samples
produced from B. longum (2.27%) in general showed the highest
rate of TCA-SN. Such a condition may show that upon the
formation of soluble peptides by rennet and starter culture, the
peptidases and proteinases of probiotic adjuncts hydrolysed these
peptides and released more intermediate- and smaller-size peptides.
This situation was easily seen at the end of 12 weeks when the
primary proteolysis gave products as substrates for the
subsequent proteolysis by the probiotic organisms.
Ripening
time
(days)
2
60
2
60
2
60
2
60
2
60
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
60
Ripening time (day)
35
2
216.9a
321.2a
125.6a
78.3a
115.6a
295.7a
139.5a
179.3a
357.6a
1424.2a
175.9
1582.7
479.6a
301.4a
92.5a
318.6 a
392.1a
1729.8a
Conclusions
Objective of this study was to investigate chemical and
organoleptic characteristics of probiotic bacteria added Beyaz
cheese. In B. bifidum BB-12+L. acidophilus LA-5+lactic culture
cheese samples, increase in FFA was found to be higher than that
in probiotics added cheese samples at the end of ripening process.
It was thought by considering the increased content of some free
amino acids in cheese samples that when probiotic bacteria were
added in cheese samples, they might have accelerated the ripening
process. It may be concluded from the results of the study that
Beyaz cheese bears the ability of being one of the most suitable
tools, which can be used to vehicle for delivering the tested strains
of probiotic bacteria via human diet.
a: Values are given in nmoles g-1 cheese slurry and are means of triplicate analyses.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported financially by the Atatrk University
Research fund (Project No: 2008/64).
Control
Glycine
Alanine
Valine
Isoleucine
Methionine
Proline
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Tryptophan
Serine
Threonine
Cystine
Lysine
Histidine
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Asparagine
Glutamine
642.5
2041.0
7149.6
3962.8
4503.4
736.2
1257.0
272.8
959.0
10.143.6a
551.3
2261.9
3125.4a
1252.8
1412.8
4131.5
3511.9
9984.6
B. longum
503.9
1167.4
7835.1
3219.0
3606.4
791.2
1245.7
267.4
804.3
7340.6ab
39.4
1522.6
2819.2a
1293.1
1192.4
4629.5
2020.1
8752.0
a: Values are given in nmoles g-1 cheese slurry and are means of triplicate analyses.
36
Table 5. Results of sensory analysis of probiotic Beyaz cheese samples for 60 days.
Beyaz Cheese
Samples
A
Ripening
time (days)
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
2
15
30
60
Colour
Texture
8.030.28
7.620.45
7.310.37
7.190.63
7.000.74
7.660.32
7.330.21
7.000.61
6.330.47
6.330.35
7.000.29
6.660.32
7.330.19
7.000.31
6.660.03
7.000.15
8.000.56
7.660.63
7.330.37
8.000.26
7.550.21
7.440.14
7.330.08
7.440.32
7.190.18
7.550.32
7.490.63
7.550.07
7.440.49
7.440.24
7.580.12
7.600.57
7.440.84
7.520.29
7.380.33
7.270.69
6.460.28
6.450.12
6.660.55
6.530.19
Taste and
Aroma
7.600.41
7.440.70
7.300.76
7.440.12
7.210.18
7.600.06
7.660.24
7.440.35
7.410.91
7.350.27
7.520.14
7.710.65
7.380.16
7.490.49
7.330.07
6.800.12
6.940.18
6.910.36
6.770.25
6.580.08
Foreign taste
and odour
8.250.80
7.610.43
7.490.62
7.720.54
7.300.10
7.940.13
7.670.05
7.330.11
7.980.62
7.380.56
7.690.32
7.810.45
7.300.33
7.750.68
7.550.16
7.240.64
7.430.44
7.190.30
7.190.55
6.900.39
Saltiness
7.440.98
7.410.63
7.220.76
7.490.15
7.050.80
7.660.63
7.490.43
7.330.49
7.550.24
7.440.77
7.220.90
7.380.21
7.300.52
6.910.43
6.470.28
6.530.78
7.020.27
6.500.19
5.800.63
5.720.19
General
acceptability
7.600.65
7.470.37
7.360.43
7.220.52
7.270.30
7.550.28
7.660.55
7.550.44
7.360.33
7.550.20
7.410.58
7.490.42
7.300.13
7.440.35
7.210.18
7.240.62
6.000.93
6.760.58
6.000.39
6.230.37
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1
37
39
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The effects of mint (Mentha spicata) essential oil fortified edible films on the physical,
chemical and microbiological characteristics of lor cheese
Gkhan Kavas 1* and Nazan Kavas
Department of Dairy Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, 35100 zmir, Turkey.
Dairy Products Programme, Ege Vocational Training School, Ege University, 35100 zmir, Turkey.
*e-mail: gokhan.kavas@ege.edu.tr, nazan.kavas@ege.edu.tr
1
Abstract
Sorbitol (S) + whey protein isolate (WPI) and 4 different edible films containing mint (Mentha spicata) essential oil were prepared in 1% (v/v) (Me1),
2% (v/v) (Me2), 3% (v/v) (Me3) and 4% (v/v) (Me4) concentrations. These films were used for coating lor cheese (the traditional whey cheese of
Turkey) samples and stored at +4C for 15 days. Microbiological and physico-chemical analyses were carried out on the 1st, 7th, 10th and 15th days
of storage. Coating the lor cheese with edible film had a positive effect on the weight loss. The increase in the concentration of essential oil had a
significant effect on the fat content, titratable acidity, water vapour permeability, weight loss and antimicrobial activity. For the determination of
antimicrobial activity, the cheese samples were artificially contaminated with Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus
aureus, and yeast-mold enumeration was made immediately after the cheese production and accepted as the initial value. E. coli O157:H7 was the
most resistant microorganism to the essential oil, and the most sensitive ones were S. aureus, L. monocytogenes and yeasts and molds, respectively.
The general results showed that addition of mint essential oil to S+WPI based film in 2% (v/v), 3% (v/v) and 4% (v/v) concentrations had a positive
effect on the extension of the shelf life of lor cheese.
Key words: Lor cheese, edible film, essential oil, mint.
Introduction
Whey is revealed during cheese production and its composition
depends on the milk processed to cheese and the cheese
production method, and it is processed to cheese types such as
Mysost, Ricotta, Serac and Requezjao in the world and to lor
cheese in our country. Lor is a traditional cheese type. For the
production of lor cheese, whey is boiled for the precipitation of
serum proteins and separation from whey, kept for 24 hours, and
drained (for 1-4 days) with the help of fine-mesh cloth with weights
placed on. When the desired consistency was obtained, 2-3%
salt was added to the product and offered to consumption as
fresh 1. Despite the elimination of the natural microbial flora with
the heat treatment applied in production, contaminations create
risks after heat treatment and generally the shelf life of the cheese
is limited to 7 days. Microflora of the lor cheese changes even in
storage at low temperatures, microbial load increases in terms of
Enterobacter, yeasts, E. coli and Staphylococcus species. Also,
due to not using lactic acid bacteria in the production, Listeria
monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus
aureus may grow in the product after contamination 2-4. In this
study, for the extension of the shelf life of lor cheese, which is a
subject that few studies were made on, lor cheese was coated
with Sorbitol (S) + (WPI) based film. WPI films are used in edible
films for their properties such as low oxygen permeability,
gelatinization, thermal stability, foaming and forming polymers
with carbohydrates with covalent binding, as well as their high
nutritional value and functional properties 5, 6. However, due to
their low moisture barrier properties related to their hydrophilic
groups, plasticizers (glycerol, propylene, glycol and sorbitol) are
40
41
Fat (%)
Me1
Me2
Me3
6.562.46 bB 6.592.78c B 6.620.32 dB
6.613.99 bB 6.684.57 cB 6.753.78 dB
6.680.29 bB 6.780.24cB 6.922.54 dB
6.701.00 bB 7.000.08 cB 7.070.02 dB
Weight loss (%)
14.920.23B 13.450.18B 12.050.33B
11.90.32B 10.540.22B 7.680.24B
6.090.41B 5.420.15B 3.450.16B
Day/
sample
K
1
6.52.42 aA
7
6.523.97 aA
10
6.542.70 aA
15
6.553.50 aA
1
7
10
15
15.212.27A
12.453.90A
6.741.72A
Me4
6.6911.8 eB
6.9124.5 eB
7.1116.8 eB
7.2415.7 eB
Fat (%)
Table 1. The average weight loss (%), fat (%) and SH values and
standard deviations in mint essential oil film coated samples
and K sample (p < 0.01), (n = 3).
11.140.29B
7.040.12B
3.250.14B
Me1
Me2
Me3
Me4
Thickness
(mm)
0.179 0.013
0.180 0.010
0.181 0.012
0.182 0.014
Sample
pH
Me1
Me2
Me2
Me3
Me3
10
Acidity (SH)
K
K
Me1
Me1
Me2
Me2
15
Me3
Me3
7
10
Storage time (days)
Me4
Me4
15
Me3
Me3
Me4
Me4
7
10
Storage time (days)
Me1
Me1
Me2
Me2
Me3
Me3
15
Me4
Me4
7
10
Storage time (days)
15
Me4
Me2
Me2
5.85
5.8
5.75
5.7
5.65
5.6
5.55
5.5
5.45
5.4
5.35
5.3
1
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Me1
Me1
A, B, C, D, E: The differences between the values in the same column are statistically
significant (p < 0.01).
KK
K
K
K
K
a, b, c, d, e: The differences between the values in the same column are statistically significant (p < 0.01).
A, B, C, D: The differences between the values in the same line are statistically significant (p < 0.01).
7.3
7.2
7.1
7
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
E. colli O157:H7
A
Log10 (cfu/g)
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
7
10
Storage time (days)
15
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
Staphylococcus aureus
B
Log10 (cfu/g)
Log10 (cfu/g)
Log10 (cfu/g)
a, b, c, d: The differences between the values in the same column are statistically significant (p < 0.01).
A, B, C, D: The differences between the values in the same line are statistically significant (p < 0.01).
7
10
Storage time (days)
15
K
K
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
Me1
Me1
Listeria monocytogenes
10
77
10
Storage time (days)
D
Yeast - Mold
11
Me2
Me2
15
15
10
77
10
Storage time (days)
Me3
Me3
15
15
Me4
Me4
Figure 3. E. coli O157:H7 (A), S. aureus (B), L. monocytogenes (C) and yeast-mold (D) growth in samples coated with
mint essential oil added film and C sample.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
43
44
45
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Improving the layout of ventilation ports in packaging for fresh produce using
computational fluid dynamics
Hiroaki Kitazawa * and Naoko Hasegawa
Food Engineering Division, National Food Research Institute, NARO, 2-1-12, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan.
e-mail: ktz@affrc.go.jp, naohase@affrc.go.jp
Received 2 June 2014, accepted 10 September 2014.
Abstract
Packaging for fresh produce must sometimes include features that ensure uniform and rapid airflow to enable cooling and gas exchange. For this reason,
such packaging usually has ventilation ports. However, attempting to understand cooling and ventilation efficiency by actually manufacturing various
types of packaging in order to develop packaging with maximum ventilation efficiency would require substantial time and effort. Therefore, the size
and layout of the vent ports in the packaging of fresh produce is presumably not determined based on any scientific rationale. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) is a method to analyse the behaviour of fluids in space. By setting appropriate parameter values, no great difference was found
between the simulation value and the measured value for temperature change when air passes through the packaging. Consequently, in this study, to
optimise the layout of ventilation ports in packaging made of corrugated fibreboard for fresh produce, we used CFD simulation to propose an
improved vent layout for uniform internal ventilation of one-layer packaging for strawberries. Simulations were conducted in three steps: the first
step involved estimating airflow of packaging with various port layouts; the second step was proposing improved port layouts for the packaging; and
the last step was the estimation of the packagings ventilation ability based on improved port layouts. Our results suggested that, with the improved
port layout resulting from CFD simulation, it is possible to induce large airflow in the lower level of one-layer packaging for strawberries. However,
further study to investigate the shape and number of ventilation ports is needed to achieve uniform ventilation in the upper layer of packaging.
Therefore, in future studies, differences in the number and shape of ports that affect airflow in this space will be considered.
Key words: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), fresh produce, packaging, ventilation port.
Introduction
Packaging for fruits and vegetables must sometimes include
features that ensure uniform and rapid airflow to enable cooling
and gas exchange 1. For this reason, such packaging usually has
ventilation ports. However, attempting to understand cooling and
ventilation efficiency by actually manufacturing various types of
packaging in order to develop packaging with maximum ventilation
efficiency would require substantial time and effort. Moreover, it
would be difficult to measure the flow of air within each part of a
closed and narrow space. Therefore, the size and layout of the
vent ports in the packaging for fruits or vegetables are presumably
not determined based on any rigorous or tested rationale.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a method used to analyse
the behaviour of fluids in space. CFD is employed for analysis in
a wide range of fields, including meteorology 2, automotive
engineering 3, and agriculture 4. Therefore, CFD simulation may
be a useful technique for improving ventilation efficiency in fruit
and vegetable packaging. In fact, CFD has been used in several
reports analysing changes in airflow and/or temperature in
packaging containers for certain fruits, such as apples 5, 6 and
strawberries 7-11.
In a previous study 12, the authors used CFD simulation to
study the effect of inlet velocity and port size on airflow in onelayer packaging for strawberries 13; this type of packaging had a
single port in the centre of the boxs long side, and this study
46
96 48 0 48 96
96 48 0 48 96
120 72 24 24 72 120
120 72 24 24 72 120
Distance from the centre of the
Distance from the centre of the
long side [mm]
long side [mm]
shows inlet ports on the front side.
shows outlet ports on the other side.
shows that the position of inlet ports overlaps with outlet ports.
47
Line 1
0.020
0.015
0.011
0.009
0.006
0.008
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.008
0.006
0.007
0.007
0.011
0.009
0.010
0.015
0.010
0.039
48
SDZ
0.026
0.026
0.035
0.030
0.037
0.005
0.009
0.035
0.005
0.010
0.008
0.011
0.038
0.004
0.036
0.038
0.049
0.007
0.003
0.015
0.30
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.18
0.15
(Z = 34.6 mm)
96 48 0 48 96
120 72 24 24 72 120
Distance from the centre of the
long side [mm]
0.12
0.09
0.06
96 48 0 48 96
120 72 24 24 72 120
Distance from the centre of the
long side [mm]
0.03
0.00
Velocity [m/s]
(Z = 10.5 mm)
96 48 0 48 96
120 72 24 24 72 120
Distance from the centre of the
long side [mm]
96 48 0 48 96
120 72 24 24 72 120
Distance from the centre of the
long side [mm]
Line 1
0.003
0.004
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.004
0.006
0.010
0.024
0.026
SDZ
0.004
0.041
0.007
0.007
0.043
0.011
0.008
0.043
0.044
0.008
Z: refer to Table 1.
49
Table 3. Effect of differences in port diameter on the airflow distribution in packaging with improved port layouts.
Port diameter (mm)
Upper
Lower
layer
layer
13.44
14.10
13.44
14.78
13.44
16.12
13.44
17.46
13.44
18.80
14.10
13.44
14.78
13.44
16.12
13.44
17.46
13.44
18.80
13.44
Analysis
pattern
Case 31
Case 32
Case 33
Case 34
Case 35
Case 36
Case 37
Case 38
Case 39
Case 40
Lower layer
Line 1
Line 2
Line 3
Line 4
Line 5
Average
SDZ
Line 6
Line 7
Line 8
Average
SD
0.032
0.035
0.041
0.048
0.053
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.019
0.020
0.022
0.025
0.028
0.027
0.027
0.027
0.025
0.024
0.019
0.020
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.009
0.010
0.012
0.013
0.015
0.052
0.057
0.067
0.079
0.091
-
0.048
0.052
0.062
0.073
0.084
-
0.041
0.045
0.054
0.064
0.075
-
0.047
0.051
0.061
0.072
0.083
-
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.006
0.007
-
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.011
0.30
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.18
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
Velocity [m/s]
Acknowledgements
The simulations using GAMBIT 2.4.6 and ANSYS Fluent 14.5
were performed with the assistance of the Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries Research Information Technology Center for
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Research, MAFF, Japan.
References
Kitazawa, H. 2012. Optimisation of packaging for fresh produce by
applying computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Food Packag. 53(5):1923 (in Japanese).
2
Flaherty, J. E., Stock, D. and Lamb, B. 2007. Computational fluid
dynamic simulations of plume dispersion in urban Oklahoma City. J.
Appl. Meteor. Climatol. 46:2110-2126.
3
Fu, L., Ishima, T., Long, W. Q. and Tian, J. P. 2009. Research on the
ignition-chamber GDI engine combustion system. J. Therm. Sci. Tech.
4:53-62.
4
Kacira, K., Short., T. H. and Stowell, R. R. 1998. A CFD evaluation of
naturally ventilated multi-span, sawtooth greenhouses. Trans. ASAE
41:833-836.
5
Zou, Q., Opara, L. U. and McKibbin, R. 2006. A CFD modeling system
for airflow and heat transfer in ventilated packaging for fresh foods: II.
Computational solution, software development, and model testing. J.
Food Eng. 77:1048-1058.
6
Opara, L. and Zou, Q. 2007. Sensitivity analysis of a CFD modeling
system for airflow and heat transfer of fresh food packaging: Inlet air
flow velocity and inside-package configurations. Int. J. Food Eng.
3(5):article No. 16.
7
Ferrua, M. J. and Singh, R. P. 2009a. Modeling the forced-air cooling
process of fresh strawberry packages. Part I: Numerical model. Int. J.
Refrig. 32:335-348.
8
Ferrua, M. J. and Singh, R. P. 2009b. Modeling the forced-air cooling
process of fresh strawberry packages. Part II: Experimental validation
of the flow model. Int. J. Refrig. 32:349-358.
9
Ferrua, M. J. and Singh, R. P. 2009c. Modeling the forced-air cooling
process of fresh strawberry packages. Part III: Experimental validation
of the energy model. Int. J. Refrig. 32:359-368.
10
Ferrua, M. J. and Singh, R. P. 2009d. Design guidelines for the forcedair cooling process of strawberries. Int. J. Refrig. 32:1932-1943.
11
Ferrua, M. J. and Singh, R. P. 2011. Improved airflow method and
packaging system for forced-air cooling of strawberries. Int. J. Refrig.
34:1162-1173.
12
Kitazawa, H., Funaki, T., Nakao, M., Ohshiro, Y., Hiruta, M. and
Ishikawa, Y. 2012. Air flow visualization for fresh produce packaging
by CFD analysis. Food Sci. Tech. Res. 18:525-534.
13
Kitazawa, H., Ishikawa, Y., Lu, F., Hu, Y., Nakamura, N. and Shiina, T.
2010. Alleviation of strawberry bruising due to vibration using 1-layer
packaging with cushioning. J. Packag. Sci. Tech. 19:33-42.
1
Y
X
(Z = 10.5 mm)
WFL Publisher
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Peanut protein isolates improve the nutritional quality of muffins that can be handy
tool to cure protein energy malnutrition in developing economies
Muhammad Sibt-e-Abbas 1*, Masood Sadiq Butt 1, Muhammad Tauseef Sultan 2, Atif Nisar Ahmad 2,
Muhammad Abrar 1 and Mir Muhammad Nasir Qayyum 3
1
2
National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan.
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60000, Pakistan. 3 Karakram University, Gilgit 15100, Pakistan.
*e-mail: abbas_fst14@yahoo.com
Abstract
The developing economies are facing the menace of malnutrition particularly due to inadequate intake of quality proteins. The people using wheat
and rice as staples need to increase the intake of quality proteins, e.g. nuts and animal proteins. In the present research, proteins extracted from
partially defatted peanut flour (DPF) of indigenous varieties, i.e. GOLDEN and BARI 2011, were supplemented with straight grade wheat flour in
various proportions. These flours were subjected to rheological characteristics studies. After rheology muffins were prepared using these flour
blends. Muffins were then tested for physical characteristics including colour, texture and volume. At the end, the sensory evaluation was performed
by trained panellists. Results regarding the rheological properties, i.e. farinograph and mixograph, revealed that peanut protein isolates positively
affected the rheology of dough. Best results for water absorption (%) were shown by T4. Similar results were noted for dough development time (min)
and dough stability time (min). The physical characteristics of muffins indicated an increase in quality and nutritional status by the addition of protein
isolates. T3 showed notable result for colour. Furthermore, sensory evaluation of muffins showed remarkable results on 15% supplementation of
wheat flour with peanut protein isolates. Conclusively, the protein isolates obtained from defatted peanut flour or meal left after oil extraction can be
effectively utilized for the supplementation of bakery products, i.e. muffins. As these bakery products are gaining much popularity in the developing
economies, hence these can play an imperative role to curtail the increasing risks of malnutrition.
Key words: Peanut, protein isolates, composite flour, muffins.
Introduction
Malnutrition is a major nutritional dilemma in the developing
countries. It persists due to insufficient intake of nutrients resulting
in adverse effects on body building and function. Malnourished
people either do not have enough calories in their diet or are
eating a diet that lacks protein, vitamins or trace minerals 1. Protein
malnutrition is one of such example that causes severe effects on
immune functions, growth and development of children, their
learning ability and work efficiency. Approximately 70% of the
worlds malnourished children live in Asia, resulting in the region
having the highest concentration of childhood protein energy
malnutrition 2, 3.
The role of proteins in human nutrition is substantial. According
to Modern Nutrition Recommendations, human beings should
rely mostly on vegetable and legume proteins to meet the protein
requirement in their diet. In addition to their nutritional value,
proteins provide great potential as functional food ingredients
enhancing the useful properties when incorporated into food
commodities. In order to utilize a byproduct as a protein source, it
should contain high protein content and protein value (quality)
based on well-balanced essential amino acids.
Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) are among the most vital sources
of vegetable oil throughout the world. Peanuts also contain
appreciable quantity of valuable proteins. Peanut protein isolates
generally contain 47-55% high quality protein with high essential
amino acid content, which lends itself being used in many food
applications 4-6. These protein isolates can be utilized as functional
ingredients in various food products to improve the nutritional
and textural properties of the product 7.
The supplementation of various food products with peanut
protein isolates can play a vital role in the reduction of protein
deficiency 8. As the demand of bakery products is increasing at
the rate of 10.07% per annum so these are considered as excellent
vehicle for fortification, value addition and feeding at mass scale.
Among the bakery products, muffins (cupcake) prove to be an
excellent tool for the supplementation of peanut protein isolates
as their consumption in world is more than 46% of all other savoury
foods 9. The present research project explicated the role of peanut
protein isolates as a tool against protein deficiency and potential
source for supplementation of baked products.
Materials and Methods
Procurement of raw materials: Two varieties of peanut (GOLDEN
and BARI 2011) were procured from Barani Agriculture Research
Institute Chakwal. Chemicals and other consumables were
purchased from local market. The protein isolates were prepared
in the post graduate laboratories of National Institute of Food
Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan.
51
Straight
grade flour (%)
100
95
90
85
80
95
90
85
80
Peanut protein
isolates (%)
(GOLDEN)
0
5
10
15
20
---------
Peanut protein
isolates (%)
(BARI 2011)
----------5
10
15
20
Water
absorption (%)
62.760.15a
64.900.20a
63.400.20a
64.100.20a
65.100.20a
62.100.30a
62.300.20a
65.400.30a
66.900.30a
Dough development
time (min)
6.700.10a
5.400.10d
4.700.20e
5.300.20d
5.800.30c
6.500.20ab
5.600.25cd
6.800.30a
6.200.30b
Dough stability
time (min)
11.500.20d
14.500.20a
13.600.20b
12.200.20c
14.200.30a
11.900.20c
13.300.20b
11.300.20d
14.400.20a
Mixing tolerance
index (BU)
30.002.51e
35.002.00d
40.002.08c
50.002.52a
20.002.00f
33.002.00de
40.002.00c
35.002.00d
44.003.00b
Softening
of dough (BU)
47.002.51ef
63.002.52cd
71.002.52b
61.003.05d
48.003.00ef
75.002.00a
50.002.00e
66.003.00c
46.002.00f
* Means sharing the same letter in a column are not significantly different. T0 = 100% straight grade wheat flour (SGF). T1 = 95% SGF and 5% peanut protein
isolate (GOLDEN). T2 = 90% SGF and 10% peanut protein isolate (GOLDEN). T3 = 85% SGF and 15% peanut protein isolate (GOLDEN). T4 = 80% SGF
and 20% peanut protein isolate (GOLDEN). T5 = 95% SGF and 5% peanut protein isolate (BARI 2011). T6 = 90% SGF and 10% peanut protein isolate (BARI
2011). T7 = 85% SGF and 15% peanut protein isolate (BARI 2011). T8 = 80% SGF and 20% peanut protein isolate (BARI 2011).
52
indicated that the highest value (6.800.30 min) was found Table 4. Physical characteristics of muffins supplemented with peanut
in T7 followed by T0 (6.700.10) while it was lowest for T2
protein isolates.
(4.700.20 min). These results are in agreement with the
Firmness
Fracturability
Volume
Treatments Colour (CTn)
findings of Azizi and Rao 19, Sim et al. 20. The mean values
(g)
(mm)
(cm3)
T0
159.334.16cd
216.6728.86a
865.2731.24a
86.740.14a
showed that the highest value for dough stability time
T1
162.678.73bcd 116.6714.43de 769.2224.24b 87.610.33b
was observed in T1 (14.500.20 min) and the lowest value
162.674.93bcd 133.3314.43bcd 715.238.07c
84.580.10c
T2
was obtained in T7 (11.300.20 min). The above findings
a
cde
d
181.974.72
116.6714.43
675.3316.94
84.380.15c
T3
are in close agreement with the results of Ravi et al. 18 and
161.674.04bcd
83.33314.43e
589.5610.10e 83.760.10d
T4
Indrani and Rao 21.
159.6719.00d 116.6738.18cde
514.138.15f
83.140.09e
T5
d
bc
g
153.3311.54
141.6738.18
478.1315.13
81.170.13f
T
6
The data for the analysis of variance for mixing tolerance
abc
de
h
174.009.00
91.66728.87
429.418.65
80.140.07g
T7
index indicate a highly significant difference among
176.009.00ab
166.6728.87b
412.3713.36h 79.310.12h
T8
treatments. The mean values for mixing tolerance index * Means sharing the same letter in a column are not significantly different.
show the highest value for T3 (50.002.52 BU) followed
by T8 (44.003.00 BU) and T2 (40.002.00 BU) while it was lowest and fracturability. Hardness (firmness) was calculated in terms of
for T4 (20.002.00 BU). These results are in conformity with the maximum force (g) and fracturability was determined in terms of
values as observed by Ravi et al. 18 and Azizi and Rao 19. The distance (mm). Hardness can be defined as the peak force during
mean values for softening of dough showed a maximum value for the first compression cycle (first bite). It is the force required to
T5 (75.002.00 BU) and a minimum value for T8 (46.002.00 BU). attain a given deformation. The values for the hardness of muffins
The above mentioned results are in conformity with the findings ranged from 412.37 g to 865.27 g. The mean values (Table 4)
indicated maximum hardness value for T0 (865.2731.24 g) and
of Asghar et al. 22.
The results of mixographic studies are shown in Table 3. These minimum value for T8 (412.3713.36 g). The results are in agreement
results showed that maximum mixing time was observed for T3 with the observations of Azizi and Rao 19 and Ashwini et al. 25.
(3.000.20 min) while it was minimum for T5 (1.150.02 min). The Fracturability (also known as brittleness) is the force at first
present results are in harmony with the findings of Indrani and significant break in the curve. It is the force with which the material
Rao 21 and Asghar et al. 22. Mean values for peak height percentage or the product fractures. The mean values for the fracturability of
indicated that ranged between 31% and 50%. The mean values muffins are given in Table 4. It is obvious from the mean values
explicated maximum peak height percentage for T5 (50.003.00%) that maximum fracturability was observed in T1 (87.610.33 mm)
followed by T3 (43.006.55%) and T7 (41.500.20%) while the followed by T0 (86.740.14 mm) and T2 (84.580.10 mm) while
minimum value was observed for T6 (31.500.10%). These results minimum value for fracturability was observed in T8 (79.310.12
mm). These results are similar to the findings of Ashwini et al. 25.
are in concurrence with the findings of Indrani and Rao 21.
Table 3. Mixographic characteristics of flour blends.
Treatments
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
* Means sharing the same letter in a column are not significantly different.
53
Colour
6.500.54a
6.000.63a
6.500.54a
6.660.51a
4.830.75b
6.160.75a
6.160.40a
6.660.51a
5.000.63b
Flavour
7.000.89a
6.330.81a
6.660.51a
6.500.54a
5.330.51b
7.000.89a
6.330.81a
6.500.54a
5.500.54b
Texture
6.830.75ab
6.500.54ab
6.160.75bc
6.500.54ab
5.500.54cd
7.000.89a
6.500.54ab
6.660.51ab
5.000.89d
Tenderness
6.000.63ab
6.330.51a
6.330.51a
6.660.51a
5.330.51bc
6.160.75a
6.330.51a
6.660.51a
5.000.63c
Moistness
6.500.54a
5.660.51bc
6.160.40ab
6.500.54a
5.660.81bc
6.660.51a
5.500.54c
6.500.54a
5.330.51c
Shape
6.830.98ab
6.330.51ab
6.160.75b
7.160.75a
4.660.81c
6.500.83ab
6.160.75b
7.000.89ab
4.830.75c
Acceptability
5.161.16c
5.500.54bc
6.331.03ab
6.500.54a
5.000.89c
6.160.98ab
5.500.54bc
6.500.54a
5.000.63c
* Means sharing the same letter in a column are not significantly different.
54
55
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Department of Microbiology, Forensic Science Institute, Istanbul University, 34098, Istanbul, Turkey. Department of
Microbiology, Public Health of Agency, 34020, Zeytinburnu, Istanbul, Turkey. 3 Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Forensic
Medicine Department, Istanbul University, 34098, Istanbul, Turkey. *e-mail: skaradayi2000@yahoo.com
1
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to assess the microbiological quality of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods produced at catering companies in Istanbul, Turkey.
RTE food was collected from May 2009 to May 2010 in Istanbul and a total of 750 samples including 13 food types were examined for the presence
of coliform bacteria, E. coli, S. aureus, B. cereus, Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes. Comparison with the Microbiological Turkish Food Codex
(TFC) shows that 3.6% of 532 meats, 18.3% of 120 salads, and 50% of 12 pastries were at an unacceptable level of microbiological quality. However,
all pasta (32 samples), puddings (41 samples) and patties (14 samples) were at an acceptable level of microbiological quality according to the TFC.
In the samples that were examined coliform bacteria, E. coli, B. cereus and S. aureus, respectively, were isolated to 4.8%, 2.4%, 2.25% and 6.4%.
Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were not detected. RTE food should be served to the consumer in a microbiologically safe form. The results
from this study can be used to assess of microbiological risks in food safety. The present study proposes that to minimize bacterial level in RTE foods
in Turkey regular microbiological quality control programs and good hygiene practices are necessary. The use of microbiologic results of ready-to-eat
foods in the Istanbul will provide an example for similar regions.
Key words: Ready-to-eat foods, foodborne pathogen, microbiological quality, food safety.
Introduction
RTE food production has recently increased due to the fast growth
in population density, which brings rapid, on the go consumption
of food in both in the world and Turkey, especially in Istanbul 1-3.
Catering companies producing RTE food offer cheap, economical
and easily accessed products. Therefore, many private or official
foundations have been using such a service at hospitals, nursing
homes, nursery schools and military posts. The inclination to buy
in services from catering companies brings a new changed lifestyle
and consequently increases the importance of microbiological
analysis in food safety 4. Therefore, assessment of the
microbiological quality of RTE food based on the initial bacteria
level becomes very important 5.
Foodborne diseases due to bacteria occur with the consumption
of food contaminated by pathogen microorganisms 6. At present,
the spectrum of foodborne diseases is increasing and these
diseases create a major health problem 7. Different foodborne
pathogens have been associated with outbreaks of foodborne
diseases 8. Many studies have shown that the most common
bacteria associated with RTE food are Salmonella spp., Listeria
monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni, Staphylococcus aureus,
Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens 9, 10. Foodborne
diseases have been studied in many national and international
researches. A study which was done in Taiwan has shown that
the percentage of foodborne diseases, which occurred due to
bacterial pathogens between the years of 1986 and 1995 was 65% 11.
In France in the years of 1999 to 2000, 17,378 people were tested,
and foodborne disease was found in 1,267 people and the deaths
of ten people were determined 12. In Turkey, according to the
56
Number
120
70
23
100
20
52
48
98
12
41
120
14
32
750
Kind
23
8
10
23
4
2
27
32
5
10
34
7
12
218
Sample n
709
750
718
577
Positive n
34
18
46
13
Positive %
4.8
2.4
6.4
2.25
Analysis
method
Confirmation technique
Brilliant green lactose bile broth (BGB) (Oxoid
CM0031)
57
Table 4. Microbiological analysis results of coliform, E. coli, S. aureus, B. cereus, Salmonella spp. and Listeria
monocytogenes.
Food type (detailed)
Soup (120)
Rice (70)
Turkish Kebab (23)
Veg. meal(100)
Food legume (20)
Meatball (52)
Chicken meal (48)
Meat dish (98)
Pastry (12)
Pudding (41)
Salad (120)
Patty (14)
Pasta (32)
Coliform
1(%0.8)
4(%5.7)
3(%13)
4(%4.2)
ND
ND
2(%4.2)
ND
4(%33.3)
NT
14(%11.7)
1(%7.1)
1(%3.13)
CFU/g
101-102
105-106
101-102
101-103
103-104
102-104
101-104
102-103
102-103
Salmo. spp.
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
E. coli
1 (%0.8)
1 (%1.5)
1 (%4.4)
2 ( %2)
ND
ND
2 (%4.2)
ND
4 (%33.3)
1 (%2.4)
6 (%5)
ND
ND
CFU/g
101-102
105-106
101-102
101-103
103-104
101-103
101-103
101-104
L. monoc.
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
S. aureus
2(%1.7)
4(% 5.8)
1(%4.4)
5(%5)
1(%5)
3(%5.8)
3(%6.3)
4(%4.1)
4(%33.3)
2(% 4.9)
17(%4.2)
ND
NT
CFU/g
102-103
101-106
101-103
102-104
102-103
102-104
101-103
102-103
102-105
102-103
102-105
B. cereus
1(%0.8)
1(%1.4)
3 (%13)
3 ( %3)
ND
1 (%1.9)
2(%4.2)
2 (%2)
NT
NT
NT
ND
ND
CFU/g
104-105
104-105
102-104
102-103
102-103
102-104
101-103
Table 5. Microbiological quality of RTE (meal, salad, pasta and pudding) in Turkish Food Codex.
RTE meals (CFU/g)
Microbiological
Criterion
quality
E. coli
<101
S. aureus
103
B. cereus
Salmonella spp.
103
Not detected in
25 g-mL
Acceptable
512
98
32
14
41
6
703
%
96.43
81.67
100
100
100
50
93.3
Unacceptable
19
22
0
0
0
6
47
%
3.6
18.33
0
0
0
50
6.7
59
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Chemical composition of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.) flesh flours used for food
Jurgita Kulaitien 1, Elvyra Jarien 1, Honorata Danilenko 1, Judita erniauskien 1, Agata Wawrzyniak 2,
Jadwiga Hamulka 2 and Edita Jukneviien 1*
1
Institute of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Agronomy Faculty, Aleksandras Stulginskis University, Studentu str. 11, LT 53361
Akademija, Kaunas distr, Lithuania. 2 Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences
(WULS-SGGW), 02-776 Warsaw, 159C Nowoursynowska str., Poland. e-mail: jukneviciene.edita@gmail.com,
judita.cerniauskiene@asu.lt, jurgita.kulaitiene@asu.lt, honorata.danilcenko@asu.lt, elvyra.jariene@asu.lt
Abstract
Pumpkin flours (Cucurbita maxima D.) are alternative horticultural products and functional properties of food components. The main aim of this
study was to investigate the quality parameters of the pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.) fruit flesh flours of different cultivars: Justynka F1,
Karowita and Amazonka. Standard methods were applied to determine dry matter, crude fibre, crude protein, crude fat, crude ash, the neutral
dietary fiber (NDF), modified acid-detergent fibre (MADF), water-soluble carbohydrates (WSC) and carotenoids (-carotene, lutein + zeaxanthin,
lycopene). The pumpkin fruit flours of Justynka F1 accumulated significantly highest content of dry matter, crude ash, crude fiber, water-soluble
carbohydrates (WSC). The highest amount of crude protein, crude fat and lutein + zeaxanthin were in the pumpkin fruit flours of Karowita. The
maximum of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and modified acid-detergent fibre (MADF) was accumulated in Amazonka pumpkin flour, respectively,
21.37, 20.13% DM, so that the flour of this pumpkin variety is most suitable to enrich food with dietary fiber.
Key words: Pumpkin, flesh, flours, quality, nutritional value.
Introduction
Pumpkins can be processed into flour which has a longer shelflife. This flour can be used for its flavour, sweetness, deep yelloworange color and considerable amount of dietary fiber. It can be
also used to supplement cereal flours in bakery products, soups,
sauces, instant noodles and also as a natural coloring supplement
for food 28, 29.
Currently Lithuanian consumers also buy more vegetables that
are grown in small farms and have exclusive properties (organic
products), vegetables of exceptional quality. In this way changes
are inevitable in the cultivation of raw materials, their processing
and marketing. Lithuanian climate is suitable for growing pumpkins
as well. They grow well in the soil which is sheltered from the
winds, in sandy loam or in clay, warming soil.
Pumpkins produce high yields in comparison with other
vegetables and they are rated for the simple production
technology14. The breeders have already created shrubby type of
pumpkin plants. Cucurbita maxima is cultivated for flesh and
seeds for human nutrition, either for direct consumption or for
preparation of other foods such as syrups, jellies, jams, and purees.
This vegetable can be processed in different ways. It can be baked,
frozen, dried, crystallized, marinated or lyophilized 10. The fruits of
pumpkins have a lot of biologically active compounds : vitamin C,
vitamin E, minerals, pectins and carotenoids. The beneficial
influences of carotenoids on human health have proven by many
researchers. In the human body carotenoids keep same chemical
reactivity as in plants - catching free radicals and active atomic
oxygen 11. Carotenoids also potentially play an important role in
human health by acting as biological antioxidants, protecting cells
and tissues from the damaging effects of free radicals and singlet
oxygen. The protective role of xanthophyll pigments lutein and
zeaxanthin have been recently added to the list of potentially
beneficial nutrients for coronary heart diseases and stroke, cataract
and macular degeneration (AMD) 18. In China, Yugoslavia,
Argentina, India, Mexico, Brazil, and America pumpkins are utilized
in the pharmaceutical industry 30.
Pumpkins are good sources of proteins and fibre. Proteins are
irreplaceable, because other nutrients dont have nitrogen or amino
acids. Many investigations have been reported which concerning
the health benefits or the quantities of the fibre found in fruits and
vegetables 13, 25. Most of the research has concentrated on the
physiological properties of fibres and how they influence the
gastrointestinal tract. The fibre plays an important role in the
prevention and cure of diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, heart
diseases and colon cancer 7, 8. The structural polysaccharides are
the major part of plant cell walls. The types of plant material that
are included within the definitions of dietary fiber may be divided
into two forms based on their water solubility: insoluble dietary
fiber, which includes celluloses, some hemicelluloses and lignin
and soluble dietary fiber which includes -glucans, pectins, gums,
mucilages and some hemicelluloses 4.
Minerals play an important role for the human body. They affect
the utilization of dietary vitamins and are integral parts of bones,
teeth, soft tissues, muscles, blood and nerve cells. At least 22
mineral elements are required for the well-being of humans and
these can be supplied by a balanced diet 33.
Pumpkin flour is currently the main processed product of
61
pumpkin fruit, because it can be easily stored for long time and
conveniently used in manufacturing formulated foods. Adding
pumpkin flour in the processing of noodles, breads and cakes,
not only enhances the content of various nutrients, but also
improves the flavour of products 6.
The main aim of this study was to investigate the quality
parameters of the pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.) fruit flesh flours
of cultivars Justynka F1, Karowita and Amazonka.
Materials and Methods
Three pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima D.) cultivars Justynka F1,
Karowita and Amazonka were grown in the experimental field
of ecological farm (Lithuania, Kaunas distr.). The field was not
fertilized. Pumpkins were sown in the plastic cups in the end of
April, 20122013 (23 seeds were put into one hole of 24 cm
depth) and were considered in the glasshouse. Into the constant
growing place of the field shoots were planted on the middle of
May, 2012-2013. Plants were grown in four replications. Pumpkins
were harvested at the end of September.
Plant material and flour preparation: The pumpkin fruits were
washed, halved and the seeds were removed. The flesh and peel
were sliced, and dried at 60C in the thermostat (Termaks, Norway).
Dried slices of pumpkin were grinded using ultra centrifugal mill
(ZM 200, Retsch, Germany) to produce flours, which were kept
chilled in an air-tight container at 1218C temperature, until the
laboratory analysis. The samples were evaluated in triplicate for
each analysis.
'Justynka F1'
'Karowita'
'Amazonka'
%
12.441.89b*
8.351.33a
7.570.08a
% DM
9.911.1ab
11.331.33b
8.350.16a
% DM
8.890.62b
6.851.61a
6.610.02a
% DM
6.660.82a
6.090.71a
5.610.47a
% DM
2.450.40a
3.211.35a
2.901.19a
*Means in column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05) for the different cultivars.
Our results show that great pumpkin flesh flours are rich in
source of carotenoids, especially in lutein and zeaxanthin. Of
course there are other carotenoids that are good precursors of
vitamin A. It was established that the amount of lutein and
zeaxanthin was significantly different in all cvs. pumpkin fruit flours
(Table 2). According to our results significantly highest amount
of lutein and zeaxanthin was in pumpkin flours of Karowita 12.31
mg/100 g.
Murkovic et al. 23 reported that three species of pumpkin (C.
pepo, C. maxima and C. moschata) consisted of beta-carotene
(0.06-7.4 mg/100 g), alpha-carotene (0-7.5 mg/100 g) and lutein (017 mg/100 g).
Lycopene concentration is lower than that of other carotenoids.
The fruit flesh of cv. accumulated lycopene amount varied from
0.72 to 0.81 mg/100 g, and the significant highest was identified in
Justynka F1 flours (Table 2).
Table 2. Carotenoids content (mean s.d.) in great
pumpkin flesh (mg/100 g).
Cultivars
'Justynka F1'
'Karowita'
'Amazonka'
Lutein+zeaxanthin
7.960.07a*
12.310.03c
7.960.02b
Lycopene
0.810.01c
0.790.01b
0.720.02a
- carotene
2.420.02b
1.860.02a
2.440.02b
*Means in column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05) for the different
cultivars.
References
Achinewhu, S., Ogbonna, C. C. and Hart, A. D. 1995. Chemical
composition of indigenous wild herbs, spices, fruits, nuts and leafy
vegetables used as food. Plant Foods for Human Nutritions 33(4):226261.
2
Bisognin, D. 2002. Origin and evaluation of cultivated cucurbits. Ciencia
Rural 32(4):859-865.
3
Danilenko, H., Jarien, E., Gajewski, M., erniauskien, J., Kulaitien,
J., Sawicka, B. and Aleknaviien, P. 2011. Accumulation of elements
in some organically grown alternative horticultural crops in Lithuania.
Acta Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus 10(2):23-31.
4
Elleucha, M., Bedigian, D., Roiseuxc, O., Besbes, S., Blecker, Ch. and
Attia, H. Dietary fibre and fibre-rich by-products of food processing:
Characterisation, technological functionality and commercial
applications: A review. Food Chem. 124:411-421.
5
Faithfull, N. T. 2002. Methods in Agricultural Ghemical Analysis: A
Practical Handbook. Wallingford, USA, 266 p.
6
Que, F., Mao, L., Fang, X. and Wu, T. 2008. Comparison of hot airdrying and freeze-drying on the physicochemical properties and
antioxidant activities of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) flours.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 43:11951201.
7
Ferguson, L. R. 2005. Does a diet rich in dietary fibre really reduce risk
of colon cancer? Digest. Liver Dis. 37:139-141.
8
Ferguson, L. R. and Harris, P. J. 2003. The dietary fibre debate: more
food for thought. The Lancet 361:1487-1488.
9
Halling, M. A., Longland, A. C., Martens, S., Nesheim, L. and OKiely,
P. 2004. Accumulation of water-soluble carbohydrates in two perennial
ryegrass cultivars at nine European sites. Grassland Science in
Europe 9:954-956.
10
Hamed, S. Y., El Hassan, N. M., Hassan, A. B., Eltayeb, M. M. and
Babiker, E. E. 2008. Nutritional evaluation and physiochemical
properties of processed pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seed
flour. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 7:330-334.
11
Han, R. M., Zhang, J. P. and Skibsted, L. H. 2012. Reaction dynamics
of flavonoids and carotenoids as antioxidants. Review. Open Access
Molecules 17:2140-2160.
12
Helsper, J. P. F. G., Vos, de C. H. R., Mass, F. M., Jonker, H. H.,
Broeck van der H. C., Jordi, W., Pot C. S., Keizer, L. C. P. and
Schapendong, A. H. C. M. 2003. Response of selected antioxidants
and pigments in tissues of Rosa hybrida and Fuchsia hybrida to
supplemental UV A exposure. Physiol. Plant. 117:171178.
1
NDF
MADF
WSC
amount, % DM
18.800.10a* 16.430.06a 44.730.12c
18.870.25a 18.860.28b 36.400.26a
21.370.47b 20.130.15c 39.830.06b
*Means in column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05) for the
different cultivars.
The MADF content in the flour of all the pumpkin cultivars was
different. The MADF content varied between 16.43 and 20.13%
DM depending on cultivars (Table 3). The highest MADF content
was in Amazonka flour, the lowest content in Justynka F1.
It was observed that Justynka F1 pumpkin flour contains
maximum amounts of water-insoluble fiber. However, in Amazonka
pumpkins the highest number of NDF and MADF fiber was
indicated.
WSC quickly digested energy-rich compounds are the primary
products of photosynthesis, so their content is highly dependent
on temperature, sunlight and other environmental factors 9.
63
64
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Facultad de Ciencias Agronmicas, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 1004, Santiago, Chile. 2 Facultad de Ciencias Qumicas y
Farmacuticas, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 223, Santiago, Chile. *e-mail: rinfante@uchile.cl
Abstract
Analysing the texture of fresh fruit is a fundamental aim in the food industry because it is the main factor that affects consumer acceptance, and it must
therefore be measured objectively. However, as it is a sensory property, human beings should be involved in assessing it. To achieve this goal, panels
of trained judges describe and quantify certain previously defined textural attributes for a particular food. For fresh peaches and nectarines, there are
no established methodologies for training a specific panel to describe texture. Therefore, the aims of this investigation were (1) to select sensory
attributes, develop lexicon and intensity scales for training a sensory panel and (2) to describe peach and nectarine cultivars according to their textural
properties. An appropriate lexicon was generated using five descriptors: hardness, juiciness, melting, crispness and crunchiness. The panel
was able to describe twelve peach cultivars and segregate them according to their textural properties in three groups: melting flesh, non melting flesh,
and an intermediate group formed by MF and NMF genotypes.
Key words: Peach, nectarine, sensory properties, trained panels, texture attributes, lexicon, descriptive analysis, principal components analysis,
hierarchical clustering.
Introduction
The most important attributes that define the quality of a food are
appearance, flavour, aroma, texture and nutritional attributes.
However, from the consumers point of view, texture is the main
quality attribute that influences acceptance or rejection of food 1,
and for most fresh fruit, texture is more important than the aromatic
properties 2. Therefore, when the food satisfies consumers
psychological and physiological expectations, the perception of
texture is placed on a subconscious level, but if there is a defect,
it becomes the main cause for rejection 3.
There are two approaches to study texture of foods: rheological
properties and sensory analysis 1, 4. However, the so-called texture
testing instruments can detect and quantify only certain physical
parameters which must be interpreted in terms of sensory
perception 1. For any kind of food, descriptive profiling is an
essential tool that involves the evaluation of both qualitative and
quantitative sensory characteristics of a product by a panel 5. The
beginning of this process is product familiarization and
development of a lexicon that comprehensively and accurately
describes the product dimension 5. The lexicon of texture can be
so varied that there are studies examining the differences between
languages, such as between English and Finnish 6, English, French,
Japanese and Chinese 7, and a study by Hayakawa et al. 8 that
reports the complexity of Japanese and classifies 445 different
terms to describe components of texture. There are also studies
that go more deeply into the description of the specific language
for texture in red apple 9, tomato 10 and mango 11.
Publishing lexicons is beneficial because it promotes
standardization of sensory vocabulary across multiple panels,
companies and countries. Ideally, a published lexicon has the
complete list of products from which it was developed; all attribute
terms, definitions for every attribute and references for every
attribute 12.
65
Table 1. Definition, evaluation technique and references for fresh peach and nectarine textural descriptors.
Medium
reference
(medium
intensity = 7.5)
High
reference
(extreme
high= 15)
Ripe banana
Granny Smith
apple
Raw carrot
Ripe banana
Apricot
Raw carrot
Ripe banana
Radish
Green pepper
Ripe banana
Strawberry
Watermelon
Raw carrot
Ripe Nectarine
Canned sliced
mango
Low reference
Descriptor
Definition
Crispness
Hardness
Crunchiness
Juiciness
Melting
66
Technique
Place the sample between the
incisors (front teeth) and penetrate
it. Evaluate the sound intensity
produced at the first bite.
Place the sample between the
molars and evaluate the force
necessary to compress the food
until the molars are joined.
Place the sample between the
molars and chew it three times, and
evaluate the intensity of the sound
produced.
Place the food between the molars,
chew it 3 times and evaluate the
amount of juice released.
Place the sample on the tongue and
press it against the palate. Evaluate
how the sample flows.
(absent/ extreme
low = 0)
ripe banana
ripe banana
ripe banana
ripe banana
raw carrot
green pepper
red apple var. 'Royal Gala'
raw carrot
watermelon
raw carrot
Table 3. Inversion number of each panellist and each sample, and L value of the complete panel for the attribute hardness.
ASSESSORS
order
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20 P21 P22 P23
Ripe banana 1* 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
X 28
28
Mushroom
3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
2
2
1
1
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
X 48
96
Peach
2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2
3
3
4
3
4
2
2
3
3
5
3
2
1
3
3
X 67 201
Apricot
4 4 3 4 5 5 5 5 4
5
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
4
3
5
4
5
5
4
X 97 388
Apple
5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 5
4
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
4
4
5
4
4
5
X 105 525
Raw carrot
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
X 138 828
Inversion
2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2
2
0
4
2
2
2
4
0
0
4
2
2
6
2
L 2066
number
Sample
67
PC 2 (17.1%)
5
Juiciness
the free water content 49 or moisture in the sample 1,
and it is often included in the sensory evaluation of
fruits, although the texture might not necessarily be
3
11A1
the main goal of the investigation 50-52.
Nectaross
Corona
Crispness
September Sun
The quantitative stage of the training process
Hardness Hesse
Andross
Andes
Nec
1
0
Crunchiness
began with the descriptor hardness and to obtain
Maria Dolce Malherbe
Melting
Dr Davis
Artic Snow
the association between the definition and the
Venus
physical sensation, the food scale was ordered as
-3
proposed by Szczesniak 3 and adapted to the
availability of local brands. Despite the ease with
-5
which the group correctly ordered the samples during
-5.0
-2.5
0
5.0
2.5
the discussion, this scale was not appropriate for the
PC 1 (76.8%)
aim of this research. This result is extremely important,
Figure 1. PCA biplot for the sensory attributes of texture of 12 varieties of peaches
as for the panels performance to be optimal in terms of
and nectarines.
discriminating ability, consistency, reproducibility and
precision, the products used on the scales during training must be
Table 4. Pearsons correlation coefficients among the sensory
similar to the food being studied 5. Therefore, based on panellist
attributes, based on the results of panel trained to
input and literature on fresh fruit, the scales used for the attributes
evaluate peaches and nectarines.
defined in this investigation were created.
Crispness
Hardness
Crunchiness Juiciness
For hardness, the L value with the L = 2066, number of
Hardness
0.88
products = 6 and judges = 23 was 10 (Table 3). Therefore, HA was
Crunchiness
0.91
0.97
accepted both for 5% and 1%. This means that the panel was
Juiciness
-0.27
-0.4
-0.42
being able to discriminate the intensities of hardness correctly.
Melting
-0.77
-0.91
-0.89
0.27
The scores of the inversion number of each panellist were less
than 7 (n + 1); therefore, all panellists determined the order correctly.
Hierarchical cluster analysis identified 3 groups with similar
This procedure was followed for the rest of the attributes, and for texture sensory characteristics (Fig. 2). The first group is composed
each, it was indicated that each panellist and the panel as a whole of the MF cultivars Artic Snow Nectaross, Andes Nec 1 and
ordered the given samples correctly at random. In total, the training September sun. It was observed that such cultivars are closer to
process was performed in 24 hours, divided into 16 sessions, and the descriptor melting (Fig. 1). A second group was formed by
a panel of trained judges was formed to evaluate texture in fresh the NMF cultivars Dr. Davis and Andross and the MF cultivars
peaches and nectarines. Generally, there is no literature that details Mara Dolce and Venus. Finally, the third group is composed
panel training methodology for DA or quantitative descriptive only by NMF cultivars Corona, 11A1, Hesse and Malherbe
analysis (QDA), which are intimately related 5. There are studies characterised by reaching higher scores for crispness, hardness
that detail training methodologies for mango 25, fibre 53 and bread 54. and crunchiness.
However, knowledge of the textural properties of foods is a goal of
Fruit quality is a complex trait and is not determined by any
primary importance for both the actors of the food industry as single attribute but rather by a combination of sensory
well as researchers in the area 13.
characteristics (e.g., appearance, texture, flavour and aroma),
nutritional value, and chemical, mechanical and functional
Sensory evaluation: PC1 and PC2 explained 93.9% of the total properties 2. This is how the sensory evaluation of fresh peaches
variation in the model with respect to sensory parameters (Fig. 1), and nectarines has become an important goal in research, using
indicating that cloud of data was effectively bi-dimensional.
trained or consumer panels 57. In general, the aim of sensory tests
Crispness, hardness and crunchiness were strongly has been to evaluate the effects of postharvest treatments 30, 58, to
correlated between them and with the PC1 (Table 4), whereas establish differences between states of maturity 20, 59 and to
melting was correlated negatively with PC1 and with hardness determine differences between cultivars 17, 19, 60-64 , with
(r = -0.91), crispness (r = -0.77) and crunchiness (r = -0.89)
Artic Snow
(Table 4).
Nectaross
These results are similar to those obtained by Valente et
Andes Nec 1
25
al. , and therefore, PC1 can be considered to be associated September Sun
with the viscoelastic (elastic and plastic) nature of peach
Dr Davis
flesh, whereas PC2 is associated with (the viscous nature)
Andross
juiciness. High degrees of correlations were also found Maria Dolce
Venus
between the attributes hardness, crispness and
Hesse
55
fracturability in apples and pears , between hardness
Malherbe
and fracturability when evaluating reference scales for
Corona
texture 56 and between firmness, crunchiness and melting
11A1
on mangos 25, which eliminates redundancy in the terms
0
1
2
3
4
used. Furthermore, the definition and evaluation methodology
Dissimilarity
for each of these descriptors are different, so the decision
Figure 2. Hierarchical clustering of peaches and nectarines according to their
was made to keep the three descriptors.
sensory texture characteristics perceived by the panel.
68
69
Stud. 40(5):554-570.
Bengtsson, H., Hall, C. and Tornberg, E. 2011. Effect of physicochemical
properties on the sensory perception of the texture of homogenized
fruit and vegetable fiber suspensions J. Texture Stud. 42(4):291-299.
54
Elia, M. 2011. A procedure for sensory evaluation of bread: Protocol
developed by a trained panel. J. Sens. Stud. 26(4):269-277.
55
Chauvin, M. A., Ross, C. F., Pitts, M., Kupferman, E. and Swanson, B.
2010. Relationships between instrumental and sensory determination
of apple and pear texture. J. Food Quality 33(2):181-198.
56
Loredo, A. B. G. and Guerrero, S. N. 2011. Correlation between
instrumental and sensory ratings by evaluation of some texture reference
scales. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 46(9):1977-1985.
57
Infante, R., Martinez-Gomez, P. and Predieri, S. 2008. Quality oriented
fruit breeding: Peach Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. Journal of Food,
Agriculture & Environment 6(2):342-356.
58
Ortiz, A., Echeverria, G., Graell, J. and Lara, I. 2009. Overall quality of
Rich Lady peach fruit after air- or CA storage. The importance of
volatile emission. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 42(1):1520-1529.
59
Infante, R., Meneses, C. and Predieri, S. 2008. Sensory quality
performance of two nectarine flesh typologies exposed to distant market
conditions. J. Food Quality 31(4):526-535.
60
Crisosto, C. H. and Crisosto, G. M. 2005. Relationship between ripe
soluble solids concentration (RSSC) and consumer acceptance of high
and low acid melting flesh peach and nectarine (Prunus persica (L.)
Batsch) cultivars. Postharvest Biol. Tech. 38(3):239-246.
61
Crisosto, C. H., Crisosto, G. M., Echeverria, G. and Puy, J. 2006.
Segregation of peach and nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch)
cultivars according to their organoleptic characteristics. Postharvest
Biol. Tech. 39(1):10-18.
62
Iglesias, I. and Echeverria, G. 2009. Differential effect of cultivar and
harvest date on nectarine colour, quality and consumer acceptance.
Sci. Hortic. 120(1):41-50.
63
Cano-Salazar, J., Lopez, M. L. and Echeverria, G. 2013. Relationships
between the instrumental and sensory characteristics of four peach
and nectarine cultivars stored under air and CA atmospheres.
Postharvest Biol. Tech. 75:58-67.
64
Delgado, C., Crisosto, G. M., Heymann, H. and Crisosto, C. H. 2013.
Determining the primary drivers of liking to predict consumers
acceptance of fresh nectarines and peaches. J. Food Sci. 78(4):S605S614.
65
Haciseferogullari, H., Gezer, I., Ozcan, M. M. and MuratAsma, B.
2007. Post-harvest chemical and physical-mechanical properties of
some apricot varieties cultivated in Turkey. J. Food Eng. 79(1):364373.
66
Missang, C. E., Maingonnat, J. F., Renard, C. and Audergon, J. M.
2011. Texture variation in apricot: Intra-fruit heterogeneity, impact of
thinning and relation with the texture after cooking. Food Res. Int.
44(1):46-53.
67
Ghiani, A., Onelli, E., Aina, R., Cocucci, M. and Citterio, S. 2011. A
comparative study of melting and non-melting flesh peach cultivars
reveals that during fruit ripening endo-polygalacturonase (endo-PG)
is mainly involved in pericarp textural changes, not in firmness
reduction. J. Exp. Bot. 62(11):4043-4054.
68
Murayama, H., Arikawa, M., Sasaki, Y., Dal Cin, V., Mitsuhashi, W.
and Toyomasu, T. 2009. Effect of ethylene treatment on expression of
polyuronide-modifying genes and solubilization of polyuronides during
ripening in two peach cultivars having different softening characteristics.
Postharvest Biol. Tech. 52(2):196-201.
53
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The process of oxidation is vital for energy metabolism but it is also coupled with the production of oxygen free radicals (OFRs). The excessive
production of OFRs results in oxidative stress and such conditions demand the supplementation of antioxidants. The bioactive components present
in common spices and condiments are of imperative significance as they scavenge OFRs along with acting as antimicrobial agents. The current study
aimed to explore the antimicrobial and antioxidant potential of dried cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), caraway (Carum carvi L.) and turmeric
(Curcuma longa L.) powders. The results elaborated the importance of aforementioned spices as they all contain significant amounts of cruder
protein, crude fats, fiber and carbohydrates. Cumin seeds contain the highest amounts of fats, while appreciable amounts of carbohydrates were
observed in turmeric (43.87 1.41). Vitamin C was present in turmeric and caraway seeds. The results regarding minerals indicated that the cumin
contains appreciable quantities of calcium, magnesium, sodium and iron. The results regarding antioxidant potential indicated that the maximum total
polyphenol was present in caraway seeds (1016.72 63.68 mg GAE/100 g) that can also be correlated with higher DPPH and -carotene inhibition
activities (57.71 0.77 and 47.65 0.74%, respectively). The caraway seeds were more effective antimicrobial agent as compared to cumin and
turmeric. Overall, the results indicated the potential of dried condiments as natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agent.
Key words: Natural antioxidants, antimicrobial agents, spices, cumin, caraway, turmeric.
Introduction
The process of oxidation is essential for the vitality of humans to
generate sufficient amount of energy from important food
components like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. However,
such processes are also associated with the production of free
radicals 1. These highly reactive radicals, especially oxygen free
radicals (OFRs), can disturb the human metabolisms through
destruction of membranous structures. The process of oxidation
can also result in quality deterioration of different food products.
Although, humans inherited immune defense systems but
antioxidants are required to be supplemented through diet to
control the excessive amounts of OFRs. The natural sources of
antioxidants include fruits, vegetables, spices, and herbs of some
medicinal value 2. In the recent past, the old concepts of food
pyramids and dietary guidelines were modified in the light of
modern research that explored the significant association of diet
and health. The dietitians and nutritionists researched the role of
various plants and their metabolites to control the menace of
oxidative stress and allied complications. The trends also
witnessed the increased share of such health foods in global food
chains owing to their higher acceptability by the consumers 3.
Nutraceutical and functional foods are generic terms used to
categorize foods with certain health claims. Most of these foods
possess multiple health benefits, especially against lifestyle related
and degenerative disorders 4. Natural compounds found in fruits,
cereals, vegetables and spices hold antioxidant activity. The
bioactive antioxidative compounds present in them are usually
71
The ash collected was further utilized for the analysis of macro
and micro minerals. Sodium, potassium, and calcium were
determined using flame photometry and rests of the minerals were
analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
Determination of total sugars and vitamin C: Total sugar is the
sum of reducing and non-reducing sugars and was determined
using the volumetric method (LaneEynon method) mentioned in
AOAC (1990). Vitamin - C content was estimated using 2,6dichlorophenolindophenol dye using the procedures outlined in
the standard method 12.
Determination of antioxidant potential: The antioxidant rich
extracts of selected spices were prepared by slurring the samples
with aqueous ethanol for a period of one hour. The facilities of
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, were used in this context. Briefly, the
samples were slurred with aqueous ethanol using mechanical
shaker and centrifuged for 15 min at 7000 rpm at 0C. The
supernatant was further filtered with Whatman filter paper No. 1.
The solvent from the supernatant was separated at 50C in a rotary
vacuum evaporator (EYELA, N-N series, Japan). The extracts were
72
Parameter
73
Turmeric
Turmeric
Cumin
Cumin
74
References
Kaur, R., Kaur, J., Mahajan, J., Kumar, R. and Arora, S. 2014. Oxidative
stress-implications, source and its prevention. Environ. Sci. Pollut.
Res. Int. 21:1599-1613.
2
Kedia, A., Prakash, B., Mishra, P. K. and Dubey, N. K. 2014. Antifungal
and antiaflatoxigenic properties of Cuminum cyminum (L.) seed
essential oil and its efficacy as a preservative in stored commodities.
Int. J. Food Microbiol. 168-169:1-7.
3
Hoefkens, C., Verbeke, W. and Van Camp, J. 2011. European consumers
perceived importance of qualifying and disqualifying nutrients in food
choices. Food Qual. Pref. 22:550559.
4
Butt, M. S. and Sultan, M. T. 2013. Selected functional foods for
potential in diseases treatment and their regulatory issues. Int. J.
Food Prop. 16:397415.
5
Sultan, M. T., Butt, M. S., Qayyum, M. M. N. and Suleria, H. A. R.
2014. Immunity: Plants as effective mediators. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci.
Nutr. 54:1298-1308.
6
El-Ghorab, A. H., Nauman, M., Anjum, F. M., Hussain, S. and Nadeem,
M. 2010. A comparative study on chemical composition and
antioxidant activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and cumin (Cuminum
cyminum). J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:8231-8237.
7
Samojlik, I., Laki, N., Mimica-Duki, N., Dakovi-Svajcer, K. and
Bozin, B. 2010. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of essential
oils of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L. ) and caraway (Carum
carvi L. ) (Apiaceae). J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:8848-8853.
1
75
76
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The aim was to study the effect of ionizing radiation on prevention of fungal growth and degradation of toxins in food materials. Ffungal strains
(Aspergillus niger, A. alliaceus, A . melleus, A. flavus and Fusarium solani) used in this study were isolated from coffee beans. Fungi differed in their
response to different doses of gamma radiation on a decline in the ability to produce biological active materials. Treatment with 3 kGy stopped
production of these materials. F. solani did not lose completely the ability to produce these materials even when using a dose of 10 kGy. Boiling
culture filtrates led to the blocking of active biological materials, or did reduce the inhibitory of bacterial growth. In all the fungi tested in liquid media
and even in the control one, ochratoxin A did not appear, and when exposed to 10 kGy, the fungal cells died and were not able to grow and produce
mycotoxins. On the other hand, the ability to production of aflatoxin by F. solani was increased after treatment with 1 and 3 kGy and decreased
thereafter. Irradiation of culture filtrates with gamma rays may have significantly reduced the inhibitory activity of the growth of bacteria B. subtilis.
The increase of inhibition was affected positively with the dose, and the effect was different with different fungal strains.
Key words: Aspergillus, ochratoxin, aflatoxin, gamma radiation, B. subtilis.
Introduction
Some fungal species belonging to genera Penicillium and
Aspergillus are toxin-producing organisms as food contaminants.
They are leading to health problems for human and animals and
economic loss. Some species of genus Aspergillus are natural
contaminants to medicinal plants and the effect of gamma
radiation on fungal toxin production was studied 1 . Van Dyck et
al. 2 proved that presence of water accelerates destruction of
aflatoxin when gamma radiation is used. Radiation in the presence
of water produces free radicals, which may destroy AFB1 in the
furan ring recycling in products of low biological activities. The
decrease of AFB1 activity in aqueous solution was 34, 44, 47 and
100% after exposure to -radiation doses of 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 kGy,
respectively. Aziz and Abd El-Aal 3 found that -radiation at 10
kGy can stop toxication of coffee seeds and some foodstuffs with
aflatoxin. Gamma-radiation lowered contamination of maize seeds
97.6% at 2 kGy and to 94% at 5 kGy. AFB1 decreased by 68.9 %
using -dose of 2 kGy, 46% at 5 kGy, and at 10 kGy, there was a
complete inhibition of AFB1and AFB2. Aziz et al. 4 studied the
effect of -radiation and maize fats on aflatoxin production by
A.flavus in contaminated maize and found a reversible relationship
between growth of the fungus and amount of -rays. At 3 kGy,
complete inhibition of aflatoxin B1 was recorded, even after storage
of maize until 45 day. Aflatoxin B1 production was activated at 0.1
and 1.5 kGy radiation dosage.
The fungal flora in fruits was sensitive to -radiation, complete
sterilization was obtained at 5 kGy, and there was a reduction of
AFB1 toxins from 380-500 to 20 mg/kg at 20 kGy 5. Complete
degradation of aflatoxin B was found after exposure to 20 kGy radiation 6.
77
B1
0.972
0.189
3.791
0.734
0.545
0.450
1.114
2.039
Total
1.635
0.189
8.802
0.868
0.607
0.453
2.092
1.542
Ochratoxin
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
Table 1. Effect of gamma rays on the production of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A by tested fungi.
Tested
fungi
A. niger
A. alliaceus
A. flavus
A. melleus
F. solani
Average
L.S.D #
Control
41.86
40.37
38.67
33.88
29.61
36.82
16.45
kGy1
33.33
-20.03
41.86
+3.69
25.45
-34.19
21.66
36.09
25.12
-15.16
29.48
8.11
Before boiling
kGy3 kGy5
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
20.43 18.99
-31
-35.87
4.09
3.80
1
1
kGy7
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
10.08
-65.96
2.02
1
kGy10
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
7.22
-75.62
1.44
1
Control
29.39
-%
35.78
-%
5.995
-%
3.52
-%
7.92
-%
16.52
2.48
kGy1
22.63
-23
32.5
-9.17
4.33
-27.78
0
-100
7.91
-0.13
13.47
2.21
After boiling
kGy3
kGy5
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
0
0
-100
-100
5.37
4.52
-32.20 -42.93
1.07
0.90
1
1
kGy7
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
-
kGy10
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
-
Table 2. Quantitative and qualitative of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in fungal filtrates before and after irradiation.
Tested
fungi
A. niger
A. alliaceus
A. flavus
A. melleus
Average
L.S.D #
B1
4.739
0.450
0.758
0.806
1.688
1.66
B2
ND
ND
0.094
0.140
0.059
1.67
Control
G1
G2
3.347
ND
ND
ND
0.251 0.126
0.209 0.100
0.952 0.057
1.19
1.71
Total
8.086
0.450
1.229
1.255
2.757
1.54
OTA
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
B1
1.279
0.616
0.569
1.161
0.906
4.95
B2
ND
ND
ND
0.109
0.027
1
1 kGy
G1
G2
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND 0.050
ND 0.005
0.014
1.13
Total
1.279
0.616
0.619
1.275
0.947
4.98
OTA
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
B1
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
B2
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
10 kGy
G1 G2
ND ND
ND ND
ND ND
ND ND
-
Total
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
OTA
ND
ND
ND
ND
-
79
Control
14.13
-%
49.01
-%
49.01
-%
19.29
-%
29.54
-%
34.90
-%
20.96
-%
34.83
7.51
kGy7
21.78
-47.05
24.63
-49.75
16.91
-65.50
0
-100
0.695
-97.65
0
-100
3.41
-83.73
9.63
2.31
kGy10
18.10
-55.99
23.18
-52.70
8.81
-82.02
0
-100
0
-100
0
-100
3.35
-84.02
7.63
2.12
81
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) is widely used as a flavouring agent for food and well known medicinally for its chemical composition. The aim of
this study was to investigate the antibiofilm activity of the essential oil from Rosmarinus officinalis against biofilm formation of Staphylococcus
aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis. Essential oil was
obtained from the aerial parts of the plant by using a Clevenger apparatus for 4 h. The antibacterial activity of the obtained essential oil from
Rosmarinus officinalis was determined using disc diffusion technique, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bacterial concentration
(MBC). Staphylococcus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were evaluated as the resistant microorganisms in the antibacterial assays. The antibiofilm effect
of MBC, MIC, MIC/2, MIC/4, MIC/8 and MIC/16 concentrations of Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil was assessed by the microplate biofilm
assay. The essential oil exhibited significant antibacterial activity against all tested bacteria. In contrast to the antibacterial activity, MBC and
subinhibitory concentrations of essential oil showed limited antibiofilm activity. MBC concentrations of essential oil attenuated the biofilm
formation at 60.76% and 74.7% for Staphylococcus aureus MU 47 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MU 187, respectively. Direct observation by
scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis further revealed an exact reduction for the bacterial biofilm formation in response to the effective
concentration. This study has demonstrated that the Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil may be considered as a potent agent for the prevention of
biofilm-related applications that are increasingly problematic in the food processing environments and medical industries.
Key words: Rosmarinus officinalis, antimicrobial, antibiofilm, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas.
Introduction
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) is a spice and medicinal herb
widely used around the world 1. The fresh and dried leaves are
frequently used in traditional Mediterranean cuisine as an additive.
They have a bitter, astringent taste, which complements a wide
variety of foods. A tisane can also be made from them. They are
extensively used in cooking, and a distinct mustard smell gives
off while they are burned, therefore, they often are used to flavor
foods while barbecuing 2. As medicinal plant rosemary belongs to
the pool of herbs, which probably more than others, lies at the
boundary between myth, superstition and traditional popular
usages, but at the same time, its efficacy is largely acknowledged,
being, in fact, listed in the official pharmacopoeia of several
countries 3. Historically, rosemary has been used as a medicinal
agent to treat renal colic and dysmenorrhea. It has also been used
to relieve symptoms caused by respiratory disorders and to
stimulate the growth of hair. Extracts of rosemary are used in
aromatherapy to treat anxiety-related conditions and to increase
alertness 4.
The latest research related with rosemary essential oil has mainly
focused on its antibacterial 1, 2, 5-18, antioxidant 18-27, antifungal 28, 29,
anticancer 30, 31 and antibiofilm properties 12-14, 32.
82
of test bacteria used in our study. The present study reports the
antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of R. officinalis essential oil
against multi-antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus spp. and
Pseudomonas spp. that cause clinical problems with high biofilm
formation.
Materials and Methods
Plant material: Leaves and flowers of R. officinalis were collected
from Mugla, Turkey, in May-July 2012 and a voucher specimen
has been deposited in the Herbarium of Mugla Sitki Kocman
Univesity. Samples were air-dried at room temperature for 2-4 days.
Extraction of essential oil: One hundred gram of dried plant was
submitted to hydro-distillation for 4 h using a Clevenger apparatus.
Oil was recovered directly, using a micro-pipette from above the
distillate without adding any solvent, and stored in dark vials at
4C.
Bacterial strains and culture conditions: The antimicrobial
activity of the essential oil was individually tested against a group
of bacteria including Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Bacillus cereus
RSKK 863, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa ATCC 29212 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC
27853. Five clinically relevant microorganisms (Staphylococcus aureus
MU 38, MU 40, MU 46, MU 47 and Staphylococcus epidermidis
MU 30) and three marine microorganisms (Pseudomonas
aeruginosa MU 187, MU 189 and Pseudomonas fluorescens MU
180) provided from Mugla Sitki Kocman University Culture
Collection (MUKK) were also studied.
The above-mentioned bacteria were cultured in nutrient broth
(NB) (Difco, USA) at 370.1C for 24-48 h except from P. aeruginosa
and P. fluorescens strains which were incubated at 300.1C for
18-24 h. Inocula were prepared by adjusting the turbidity of the
medium to match the 0.5 McFarland Standard Dilutions. The strains
were maintained in their appropriate agar slants at 4C throughout
the study and used as stock cultures.
Disc diffusion assay: The antibacterial activity was based on the
disc diffusion method 36 using a bacterial cell suspension whose
concentration was equilibrated to the 0.5 McFarland standard
dilutions. Of each bacterial suspension 0.1 ml was spread on a
Mueller-Hinton agar plate. Sterile 6 mm paper discs (Schleicher
and Schuell) were impregnated with 10 l of essential oil. The
discs were allowed to dry and were then placed on the inoculated
agar. The plates were incubated at appropriate temperature and
time for the microorganisms, as mentioned above. At the end of
the incubation periods, diameters of no-growth zones around the
disks were measured to the nearest 0.1 mm using vernier calipers.
The experiments were performed in triplicate.
Determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and
minimum bactericide concentration (MBC): The inhibitory and
bactericidal activities of the rosemary essential oils were
determined by the tube dilution method 37. The MIC was defined
as the lowest antibiotic concentration that yielded no visible
growth. Mueller-Hinton Broth was used as the test medium and
the density of bacteria was 5105 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml.
Cell suspensions (100 l) were inoculated into the wells of 96-well
microtitre plates (Nunc F96 MKroWell plates; NunclonTM ,
83
gently rinsed twice with 0.01 M PBS and then initially fixed by
2.5% glutaraldehyde at 4C for 2 h. The surfaces were washed
twice with 0.01 M PBS for 1 h. The coverslips were post-fixed with
0.1% osmium tetroxide for 1 h. The bacteria were dehydrated by
replacing the buffer with increasing concentrations of ethanol
(30%, 50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% and 100%) for 10 min for each.
After critical point drying and coating by gold sputter, samples
were examined with a scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM7600F; JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).
Statistical analysis: Differences between groups were statistically
analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). All experiments
were performed in triplicate.
Results and Discussion
The antimicrobial activity of R. officinalis essential oil was
evaluated in vitro against 13 microorganisms which are known to
cause human diseases. The measured inhibition zones and MIC/
MBC results of the rosemary essential oil against the test bacteria
are given in Table 1. Based on their MIC and MBC values obtained
from antimicrobial tests and the percentage inhibition of biofilm
formation against the test bacteria are given in Table 2. The
antibiofilm activity of different concentrations of R. officinalis
essential oil for Gram-positive and Gram-negative test bacteria is
shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.
Microorganism
B.s. ATCC 6633
B.c. RSKK 863
S.a. ATCC 25923
S e. MU 30
S.a. MU 38
S.a. MU 40
S.a. MU 46
S.a. MU 47
P.a. ATCC 27853
P.a. ATCC 29212
P.f. MU 180
P.a. MU 187
P.a. MU 189
Inhibition zone
15
16
14
12
17
13
12
12
11
10
MIC
5
5
0.312
0.625
5
2.5
0.312
0.625
20
1.25
1.25
20
1.25
% Inhibition
l//ml))
Essential oil concentration (
56
38.77
58.02
35.1
53.88
25.89
32.33
60.76
58.3
22.88
30.69
74.7
46.51
MIC/16
-
B.s.: B. subtilis; B.c.: B. cereus; S.a.: S. aureus; S.e.: S. epidermidis; P.a.: P. aeruginosa; P.f.: P. fluorescens;
-: No inhibition.
84
% Inhibition
Microorganism
Conclusions
R. officinalis is a spice and medicinal herb widely used around the
world 1. It is widely found in the lands of Aegean and
Mediterranean regions of Turkey 8. In this study, the antimicrobial
and antibiofilm activities of the R. officinalis essential oil was
evaluated. The results obtained are confirmed by SEM observation.
According to the results of antimicrobial activity, the R. officinalis
essential oil is more active against Gram-positive than Gramnegative bacteria, as evidenced by the lower MIC values for the
former. Data showed that R. officinalis essential oil is not only
able to kill Staphylococcus spp. and Pseudomonas spp. cells
efficiently but also inhibits biofilm formation, but the results also
indicate that good antimicrobial activity against planktonic microorganisms does not imply good antibiofilm activity. However, the
results of this study show that rosemary essential oil is capable of
affecting S. aureus biofilm formation significantly. Here it is
suggested that R. officinalis essential oil may be considered as a
potential substance in the development of novel antimicrobial
and antibiofilm agents that could play a solution oriented role in
the field of food and pharmaceutical industries.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to Prof. Dr. Nazime Mercan Dogan
and Prof. Dr. Omur Baysal for their constructive comments and
suggestions.
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6
86
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Effect of storage time and temperature on the quality characteristics of chicken eggs
Yeasmin Akter 1, 2*, Azhar Kasim 1*, Hishamuddin Omar 3 and Awis Qurni Sazili
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Department of Animal Science and Nutrition, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur 5200,
Bangladesh. 3 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*e-mail: yesakter@yahoo.com, azharkasim@putra.upm.edu.my
1
Abstract
The experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of storage time and temperature on external and internal qualities of eggs and lipid peroxidation
in the yolk during refrigeration and room storage. Total of eighty ISA Brown hens were used for this experiment. The diet used for laying hen was
prepared as iso-protein and iso-calorie. Eggs were collected daily and stored in refrigerator (4C) and room temperature (28-31C) for 7, 14, 21 and 28
days. At the designated day, the eggs were processed to evaluate their internal and external qualities. Both refrigeration and room storage increased egg
weight loss, percent yolk weight, yolk pH, albumen pH and lipid peroxidation and reduced Haugh units, percent albumen weight at 28 days of
storage. Yolk colour was unchanged during the whole storage period. However, eggs stored in refrigerator showed better quality up to 28 days and in
room temperature up to 14 days.
Key words: Chicken eggs, storage time, egg quality, lipid oxidation.
Introduction
Eggs are highly versatile and easily available foods for all
categories of people 1. Recently, people are very concerned about
the quality of eggs. So the scientists are giving more emphasis
to maintain the quality of eggs. The quality of eggs would be
deteriorated when the eggs are stored for long time that may be
unsuitable for human consumption. As a result, appropriate
technology for storage of eggs is essential to retain quality. The
main degradation factors for eggs are storage time 2, temperature,
humidity, air movement, and handling 3, 4. Interior quality
deterioration of eggs can be retarded significantly by maintaining
storage temperature, because quality deterioration occurs faster
at high temperatures than at refrigerated temperatures during
storage 5, 6.
The major difference between fresh and stored eggs is in
albumen pH and quality 7. During storage, the pH of the egg
albumen increases, which is related to the deterioration of albumen
quality or Haugh unit 3, 8, 9. The albumen of an AA egg is firm and
thick, the air cell is very small, and the albumen and yolk contain
no blood or meat spots. The increase of albumen pH mainly
depends on the buffering capacity of the albumen, not only this,
it also depends on the temperature, storage duration, gaseous
environment in the storage room and conductance of the
eggshell 7, 10-12. In fresh albumen, the buffering capacity is weakest
in pH 7.0 to 9.0 10. It is impossible to maintain albumen pH within
the range of 8.3 to 8.5 during prolonged storage of eggs without
modification of storage conditions. Another important change
that can be observed during storage is the flattening of the yolk
caused by the weakening of the vitelline membrane 13. After eggs
are laid, water moves from the albumen to the yolk due to
differences in osmotic pressure, and this may change the yolk
index and may cause the weakening of the vitelline membrane.
Fromm 14 reported that yolk with high water content showed high
yolk index, when the albumen pH was maintained at or below pH
8.0. So, the albumen pH is the most important factor that affects
the strength of the vitelline membrane and yolk index. Walsh et al. 7
concluded that one requirement for successful long-term storage
was the prevention of water loss from the egg. During storage,
water from egg is lost through evaporation, and the rate of
evaporation is influenced by the length of storage, temperature,
humidity and the surface and porosity of the shell 15. Lipid oxidation
is also an important deterioration that occurs during storage, and
it may produce toxic compounds. Oxidative products in eggs can
reduce its nutritive value 16. So, it is essential to prevent and
minimize the lipid oxidation in order to maintain egg quality and
fatty acid stability during storage,
Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to determine
the effects of storage time and temperature on some external
and internal characteristics for reducing the deterioration of egg
quality during refrigerated and room storage.
Materials and Methods
Experimental birds and diet: The experiment was conducted
at the poultry unit, Department of Animal Science, University
Putra Malaysia. A total of 80 ISA Brown layers, 44 weeks of age
were used for this study to evaluate egg quality characteristics.
The layer diets were isonitrogenous and isocaloric and formulated
according to NRC 17 recommendations for dietary need of laying
hens for various nutrients. Experimental diets were prepared weekly
to avoid oxidation.
Sampling and storing of eggs: Immediately after collection,
eggs were labeled according to date of production and hen
87
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4C
28-31C
14
21
28
Total egg weight loss (g) = Initial weight (g) - final weight (g)
100
Table 1. Effect of storage time and temperature on shape index, shell thickness and shell
weight of chicken eggs.
0
76.590.53
76.510.33
0.340.005
0.350.002
11.470.43
11.470.43
Specific gravity
4C
28-31C
14
21
28
28
75.930.43
75.710.45
0.340.003
0.340.002
11.430.27
11.410.27
90
4C
80
Haugh unit (HU)
Temperature
(C)
4
28-31
4
28-31
4
28-31
28-31C
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
7
14
21
Storage time (days)
28
Albumen pH
Parameter
9.4
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
4C
28-31C
14
21
28
89
64
4C
62
28-31C
60
58
56
54
52
14
21
28
Yolk pH
28
27
26
4C
28-31C
25
24
23
14
21
28
and Barbosa et al. 47. On the other hand, when the storage
temperature was higher, the rate of increase in yolk weight was
significantly (p<0.05) higher than in refrigeration (4C). These
results are supported by Davis and Stephenson 48, Morais et al.38
and Leandro et al. 49, who reported that the most important factors
that affect egg quality during storage are temperature and relative
humidity.
From Fig. 8, it is noticed that the duration and temperatures of
storage significantly (P<0.05) increased the value of yolk width.
The increase in yolk width observed in this study could be due to
decrease of the strength of vitelline membrane. When eggs are
stored under room temperature for long periods, the strength of
vitelline membrane breaks and makes the yolk to spread into the
albumin. These results are in agreement with Kirunda and McKee 50,
who reported that vitelline membrane strength (VMS) decreases
during storage and makes the yolk more susceptible to breaking,
as a result, water slowly enters into the yolk from the albumen, so
this creates a mottled appearance in yolk, and the yolk becomes
flattened. The yolk width values were higher in room temperature,
because at a very high temperature, the amount of water migration
from the albumen to the yolk is high, which helped to increase
yolk width 51.
40.5
40
39.5
39
38.5
38
4C
37.5
37
28-31C
14
21
28
6.3
6.2
4C
6.1
28-31C
6
0
14
21
28
30
29
36.5
36
6.4
5.9
31
5.4
4C
28-31C
5.35
5.3
5.25
5.2
5.15
7
21
14
Storage time (days)
28
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
4C
0.4
28-31C
0.2
0
14
21
28
Conclusions
This study has confirmed that the quality characteristics of eggs
were not adversely affected when eggs were stored in refrigerators,
but room temperatures negatively affect some egg quality
characteristics by increasing weight loss, yolk weight, yolk pH,
albumen pH, yolk lipid oxidation and by reducing HU and albumen
weight during storage for different time intervals. It has been
concluded that egg should be kept in refrigerators up to 28 days
and at room temperature up to 14 days.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for
providing financial support for the publication of this manuscript.
The authors are also grateful to Organization for Women in
Science for the Developing World (OWSD) for providing the
scholarship for PhD student.
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43
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The presence of bioactive compounds in foods presents the possibility to improve public health through the diet. However, the obtaining of active
compounds from food for posterior application depends on the processing and fractionating methodologies used. Several functional properties have
been attributed to compounds presented in different parts of the plant, including the leaves and fruit. Parallel, the discovery of new applications of
by-products improves regional economy and makes value on the regional products. The aim of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of
extracts from guava (Psidium guajava L.) and cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) leaves and quantify the total phenolic compound concentrations
of different extracts. Extracts were obtained by employing three different techniques: low-pressure solvent, Soxhlet, and ultrasound extraction
methods. The effect of extract concentration on the percentage of inhibition (antioxidant activity) was analysed. Higher total phenolic compound
concentrations were obtained through Soxhlet extraction for guava leaf extracts (44.02 mg GAE/g extract) and low pressure solvent for cashew leaf
extracts (29.21 mg GAE/g extract). The results indicated that all extracts had good antioxidant activity due to the presence of phenolic compounds and
other compounds present in the extracts, with greater than 70% inhibition for all guava leaf extracts at concentrations greater than 5 mg/ml. The
percentage inhibition was also dependent on extract concentration, which can be attributed to differing concentrations of phenolic compounds and the
possible presence of other compounds that enhance or decrease the antioxidant activity of the extracts.
Key words: Guava leaves, cashew leaves, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity.
Introduction
Antioxidants are now being included in functional diets due to
their potential beneficial characteristics for human physiology.
The ingestion of food products high in antioxidants is important
not only to combat malnutrition, but also to protect against
degenerative diseases caused by free radical-mediated oxidative
reactions. It may be possible to improve the nutritional value of
traditional food products and protect against damage caused by
free radicals by manufacturing new food products with
supplemental antioxidant compounds.
Northeast Brazil is a region rich in natural products. Some natural
products are locally consumed. However, the use of them in large
scale, commercial applications, such as food, cosmetic or medicinal
industries, is uncommon. These products could be used to
formulate new commercial products. In fact, the use of food as a
source of bioactive compounds has increased in recent years.
The bioactivity of the foods arises due to several classes of
compounds, including essential oils, flavonoids, carotenoids and
alkaloids. These compounds could be used industrially in different
formulations, thereby creating a demand for regional natural
products. In addition, novel compounds may be discovered,
potentially resulting in new products. Hence, tropical food species
are important in Northeast Brazil not only for the high nutritional
value as a food source, but as a potential contributor to the local
economy.
Special attention has been paid to natural products with
antioxidant activity as antioxidants play a role in the maintenance
of healthy organisms. Studies have revealed that antioxidant
93
(1)
Guava leaves
24 (52.0%), 28 (16.9%)
32 (4.1%), 48 (27.0%)
0.657
10.4 r 0.4
0.439 r 0.004
0.424 r 0.005
0.035
Cashew leaves
24 (70.4%), 28 (12.1%)
32 (2.8%), 48 (14.7%)
0.682
14 r 3
0.295 r 0.001
0.218 r 0.004
0.263
Extraction method
LPSE
Soxhlet
Ultrasound
100
90
80
Inhibition (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4
6
8
Concentration (mg/ml)
10
12
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4
6
8
Concentration (mg/ml)
10
12
95
96
97
WFL Publisher
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Dept. Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Universit degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy.
Laboratory of Food Quality Control and Hygiene, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University
of Athens, Iera Odos 75, GR-118 55 Athens, Greece.
e-mails: marina.cavaiuolo@unimi.it, antonio.ferrante@unimi.it, sdp@aua.gr, agni_xatz@aua.gr, pertzam@otenet.gr,ehd@aua.gr
1
Abstract
Innovative diagnostic methods were developed for the detection and quantification of Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in
minimally processed fresh cut fruits and vegetables. The aim of the present study was to validate the technical efficiency of these methods and
evaluate their efficacy and viability for routine analysis. To this purpose, ready-to-eat fresh fruits and vegetables were collected throughout the
production chain. A multidisciplinary approach, including a newly developed ELISA method compared to ISO procedures, was applied to detect the
pathogenic bacteria after harvesting, processing and shelf-life. Results obtained exhibited the technical efficiency of the developed methods showing
similar sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive values and negative likelihood ratios.
Key words: Leafy vegetables, melon, vegetables, ELISA, ISO.
Introduction
Ready to eat fresh-cut vegetables (RTEs) are convenient foods
that have increased the volume and value of commercialisation
among different European countries. Nevertheless, the economic
crisis in the recent years has slightly affected the fresh-cut fruits
and vegetables market. This trend can be explained considering
the higher quality of the products, which must be convenient and
safe 1. Most of the leafy vegetables used for the fresh-cut
preparation are grown in the soil and bacteria contamination can
easily occur. Moreover, their short growing cycles require an
higher supply of organic matter in order to keep the soil fertility.
The organic matter supply is usually performed by manure and as
such represents a possible source of contamination of human
pathogenic bacteria like Escherichia coli O157 L. and Listeria
monocytogenes L. 2.
Washing treatments are able to reduce the bacteria load and
allow to preserve the RTE products for long time 3. The official
standard procedures for the detection of bacterial pathogens
require 4-5 days. Unfortunately, the shelf life of leafy vegetable
products is limited to 5-7 days that include two days of processing
and five days of shelf life. Therefore, faster and reliable methods
are required to detect the presence of pathogens without losing
the period of commercialisation. In the framework of the EU project
QUAFETY - Comprehensive Approach to Enhance Quality and
Safety of Ready to Eat Fresh Products different detection methods
based on ELISA approach was developed and compared with the
standard official ISO procedures.
Materials and Methods
Samples: Rocket and mixed salads were provided by Agronomia
s.r.l., (San Paolo dArgon, BG, Italy) and EuroCatering S.A. (Greece),
98
L. monocytogenes
1
0.94
0.5
1
19.5
0
E. coli O157:H7
0.75
0.94
0.06
0.97
13.87
0.26
Conclusions
Results obtained exhibited the technical efficiency of the
developed methods. More accurately, all methods compared had
similar sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive values and
negative likelihood ratios. False positive results obtained by the
ELISA method resulted in the reduction of positive predictive
values. Regarding their efficacy and viability for routine analysis
it is mostly dependent upon available equipment and technical
expertise.
Acknowledgements
The research leading to these results has received funding from
the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/20072013) under grant agreement no. 289719 (Project QUAFETY). All
authors contributed equally to this publication.
References
Rico, D., Martn-Diana, A. B., Barat, J. M. and Barry-Ryan, C. 2007.
Extending and measuring the quality of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables:
A review. Trends Food Sci. Tech. 18(7):373-386.
2
Oliveira, M., Usall, J., Vinas, I., Anguera, M., Gatius, F. and Abadias,
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5
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 1996. Microbiology
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuff - Horizontal Method for the
Detection and Enumeration of Listeria monocytogenes. Part 1:
Detection Method. Geneva, Switzerland.
6
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2001. Microbiology
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs - Horizontal Method for the
Detection of Escherichia coli O157. Geneva, Switzerland.
1
TP
2
3
TN
37
35
FP
2
2
FN
0
1
TP: True positive. TN: True negative. FP: False positive. FN: False negative.
99
WFL Publisher
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Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The blackberry wine is recognised as a natural source of many bioactive molecules and essential elements that play an important role in health
promotion and disease prevention. The wine is traditionally popular medicine for anemia and iron deficiency. The aim of this work was to evaluate
quality physical and chemical characteristics and concentration of macro elements Ca, K, Mg, Na, essential elements Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, soil associated
elements Li, Rb, Sr and toxic elements Al, Co, Pb of selected 22 blackberry wines from different regions of Croatia. Basic quality characteristics of
all fruit wines were determined as follows: alcoholic strength (% vol), total sugars (g L-1), total extract (g L-1), ash (g L-1), pH, total acidity (g L-1, malic
acid) and volatile acidity (g L-1, acetic acid). The results indicate that blackberry wines represent high quality beverage. For determination of elements,
fast and precise method of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) was used. Following elements were detected in
investigated blackberry wines in different amounts: macro elements Ca, K, Mg, Na (mg L-1), essential elements Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn (mg L-1), soilassociated elements Li, Rb, Sr (g L-1) and toxic elements Al, Co and Pb (g L-1). It can be concluded that moderate consumption of blackberry wines
may contribute to daily dietary intake of essential elements and wines can be considered as health safe, because potentially toxic elements are kept
under allowable limits.
Key words: Blackberry, fruit wine, elements, ICP-OES.
Introduction
Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus L.) does not get enough credit when
it comes to its health benefits. Ancient civilisations prised
blackberries as a food and traditionally used them for medicinal
and health purposes as well. The ancient Greeks used blackberries
and their juice to treat gout and the Chinese used blackberries to
treat kidney and urinary problems 5. Blackberries were used in
Europe during the16th century as a medicinal plant to treat
infections of mouth and eyes 1. Blackberries are notable for their
health benefits based on high nutritional contents of dietary fiber,
vitamins, folic acid, the essential mineral manganese and other
bioactive compounds 2. Blackberry fruit contains high level of
anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds, mainly flavonols
and ellagitannins, which contribute to its high antioxidant potential
and other biological activities 3, 4. In sense of nutritional value,
daily consumption of blackberry wine in recommended quantities
(about 250 ml) can be a significant dietary source of essential
minerals and could improve health 5, 6. Influence of fermentation
process on aroma composition 7, phenolic, antioxidant capacity
and volatile compounds in blackberry wine 8 were studied. Not
only blackberries, but also their fruit wines rank highly for
antioxidant strength 9, particularly due to their high contents of
phenolic compounds, such as quercetin, gallic acid and
anthocyanins 10. Potent in vitro antioxidant and vasodilatory
effects of Croatian commercial blackberry wines that are roughly
comparable to those of red wines were confirmed 11. On the other
hand, several metals in wine and fruit wine, such as cadmium, lead
and arsenic, are toxic and harmful 26. There is not much available
data on mineral and heavy metal contents in blackberry wines.
Therefore, metal content in wine is regulated according to the
100
Plasma view
Axial
Radial
Axial
Axial
Axial
Radial
Axial
Radial
Axial
Radial
Axial
Axial
Axial
Axial
Table 2. Quality physico-chemical characteristics of fruit wines (n=10), dessert fruit wines (n =12) and all wines (n=22).
Physico-chemical parameter
Alcoholic strength (% vol)
Total sugars (g L-1)
Total extract (g L-1)
Ash (g L-1)
pH value
Total acidity (g L-1 malic acid)
Volatile acidity (g L-1 acetic acid)
Fruit wine
MeanSD
Min
12.60.9
10.5
97.834.9
44.3
134.944.2
75.8
3.40.6
2.5
3.370.22
3.18
11.71.8
10.0
0.80.3
0.5
Max
13.9
146.2
174.9
4.7
3.62
13.6
1.4
All wines
MeanSD
Min
13.41.2
10.5
87.139.3
19.1
122.241.2
44.3
3.20.6
1.6
3.400.18
3.11
11.41.51
8.0
0.80.3
0.3
Max
15.6
146.2
174.9
4.7
3.99
16.0
1.5
101
Table 3. Concentrations of macro elements Ca, K, Mg and Na in blackberry fruit wines (n=10),
dessert fruit wines (n=12) and all wines (n=22).
Element
(mg L-1)
Ca
K
Mg
Na
Fruit wine
MeanSD
Min
13419
115
1333238
955
16424
122
9.82.3
6.1
Max
171
1760
207
13.3
Max
555
1585
238
13.5
All wines
MeanSD
Min
14695
115
1250261
615
15635
77
9.235.3
3.0
Max
555
1760
238
13.5
Table 4. Concentrations of essential elements Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn in blackberry fruit wines (n=10), dessert
fruit wines (n=12) and all wines (n=22).
Element
(mg L-1)
Cu
Fe
Mn
Zn
Fruit wine
MeanSD
Min
0.6551.127
0.076
1.8391.412
0.731
5.7483.069
1.12
0.9440.425
0.304
Max
3.83
5.49
10.56
1.96
Max
0.53
2.22
11.3
1.74
All wines
MeanSD
Min
0.4360.774
0.051
1.4131.104
0.093
4.9923.299
0.472
0.8820.393
0.304
Max
3.83
5.49
11.3
1.96
Table 5. Concentrations of Li, Rb and Sr in blackberry fruit wines (n=10), dessert fruit wines (n=12) and all
wines (n=22).
Element
(g L-1)
Li
Rb
Sr
Fruit wine
MeanSD
Min
2618
2
414173
90
385114
240
Max
40
716
576
MeanSD
2116
532340
439266
All wines
Min
1
90
165
Max
40
1470
1445
Table 6. Concentrations of toxic elements Al, Co and Pb in blackberry fruit wines (n=10), dessert fruit wines
(n=12) and all wines (n=22).
Element
(g L-1)
Al
Co
Pb
102
MeanSD
290138
139
5020
Fruit wine
Min
136
4
30
Max
490
30
100
Max
1110
40
154
MeanSD
294229
1411
5634
All wines
Min
37
2
17
Max
1110
40
54
Conclusions
The selected quality physical and chemical characteristics indicate
that blackberry wines were in accordance with the Croatian fruit
wine legislation. Therefore, they represent high quality beverage.
The concentration of most of the investigated elements is different
among blackberry wines. Results of Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn, the most
important essential elements, lead to the conclusion that blackberry
wines can be considered as good source of these elements. The
concentrations of toxic elements, such as Co and Pb, did not
exceed the limits given by the Croatian regulations, which leads
to the conclusion that organic and mineral fertilizers, inorganic
pesticides and other means of blackberry growing and winemaking
practice are safe. All these parameters suggest that Croatian
blackberry wine is safer than the wines mentioned above. One
explanation might be the absence of environment pollutants, such
as heavy industry and automobiles exhaust gases around orchard
where blackberry was grown. It can be concluded that moderate
consumption of blackberry wines may contribute to daily dietary
intake of essential elements and blackberry wines can be
considered as health safe, because potentially toxic elements are
under allowable limits.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to the producers for the support
of this study.
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Industry. Faculty of Food Technology Editions, Osijek, pp. 45-45.
22
Cichelli, A. 2013. ICP-MS analysis for the characterization of the origins
of wines. Agro. Food Industries 24(1):30-34.
23
Garca-Rodrguez, G., Hernndez-Moreno, D., Soler, F. and PrezLpez, L. 2011. Characterization of Ribera del Guadiana and
Mntrida Spanish red wines by chemometric techniques based on
their mineral contents. J. Food Nutr. Res. 50(1):41-49.
24
Exley, C. and Birchall, D. 1992. The cellular toxicity of aluminium. J.
Theor. Biol. 159(1):83-98.
25
Amidi Klari, D., Klari, I., Veli, D. and Vedrina-Dragojevi, I. 2010.
Determination of trace elements content in blackberry wines by graphite
furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. In Zorc, B. (ed.). Knjiga
saetaka 4. hrvatski kongres farmacije s meunarodnim sudjelovanjem,
Zagreb. Hrvatsko farmaceutsko drutvo, 199 p.
26
Naughton, D. P. and Petroczi, A. 2008. Heavy metal ions in wines:
Meta-analysis of target hazard quotients reveals health risks. Chemistry
Central Journal 2:22.
11
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Physicochemical properties of honey samples from Ondo state, Nigeria, and their
bioactivity against spoilage and pathogenic organisms
Funmilola Oluyemi Omoya 1, Oluwatosin Ademola Ijabadeniyi
1
2, 3
Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. Department of Biotechnology and Food
Technology, Durban University of Technology, South Africa. *e-mail: tosynolu@yahoo.com
2, 3
Abstract
Honey can be defined as the natural sweet substance produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera) from the nectar of blossoms or from the secretion of
living parts of plant or plant sucking insects living on parts of plants. The medicinal property of honey has been an area of interest to researchers in
recent times. This study focused on assessing the physicochemical components of honey samples and their bioactivity on some food spoilage
organisms. One hundred samples of honey were collected from different locations in Ondo state, Nigeria. Their physicochemical components which
include conductivity, ash content, moisture content, pH, mineral contents and colour were determined. There was variation in the physicochemical
components of some of the honey samples with reference to international standards. The assessment of the honey samples as an antibacterial agent
revealed it inhibitory potency on both bacteria and fungi isolated from food sample. The inhibitory effect was compared with that of standard
antibiotic. The honey samples were seen to display a higher inhibitory effect on the tested organisms than the employed antibiotic.
Key words: Bioactivity, honey, physicochemical, food spoilage organisms, antibiotics.
Introduction
Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers 18.
The variety produced by honey bees (the genus Apis) is the most
commonly referred to and is the type of honey collected by
beekeepers and consumed by humans 12. Honey produced by
other bees and insects has distinctly different properties. Honey
bees form nectar into honey by a process of regurgitation, and
store it as a primary food source in wax honeycombs inside the
beehive. Beekeeping practices encourage overproduction of
honey so the excess can be taken from the colony. Honey gets its
sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and
has approximately the same relative sweetness as that of
granulated sugar 18. It has attractive chemical properties for baking,
and a distinctive flavor that makes some people to prefer it over
sugar and other sweeteners. Most microorganisms do not grow
in honey because of its low water activity of 0.6 13. However,
honey sometimes contains dormant endospores of the bacterium
Clostridium botulinum, which can be dangerous to infants, as
the endospores can transform into toxin-producing bacteria in
the infants immature intestinal tract, leading to illness and even
death 22.
Honey has a long history of human consumption, and is used
in various foods and beverages as a sweetener and flavoring 12. It
also has a role in religion and symbolism. Flavors of honey vary
based on the nectar source, and various types and grades of
honey are available. It is also used in various medicinal traditions
to treat ailments. The study of pollen and spores in raw honey can
help to determine floral sources of honey. Furthermore, because
bees carry an electrostatic charge, and can attract other particles,
the same technique of its pollen and spores study can be used in
area environmental studies of radioactive particles, dust or
particulate pollution 16. The term traditional medicine (indigenous
104
105
106
15.21.03
0.55.01
0.1801
0.28.02
0.11.02
0.13.02
0.05.01
0.60.0.2
0.10.0.1
0.70.0.1
0.30.0.1
Ash
(%)
38.50.02
3.60.0.1
21.00.0.2
4.00.0.1
17.60.0.1
19.20.0.1
45.00.0.2
12.50.0.1
51.50.0.2
23.00.0.2
Electrical
conductivity
(mhos)
1.50.01
2.00.01
1.60.02
2.90.02
2.60.01
2.10.01
1.00.03
1.40.02
1.80.01
1.90.03
Ca2+
0.68.01
0.19.01
1.32.02
0.70.02
1.60.01
0.20.01
1.36.02
0.65.01
1.11.03
0.50.01
K+
22.451
21.241
20.012
22.981
22.012
32.422
50.431
18.611
44.901
50.002
Mineral content(g/g)
20.28
9.68
20.30
20.28
17.69
40.22
42.515
75.26
30.91
30.31
Na+
NR
102
mm
NR
102
mm
NR
NR
NR
C
112
mm
122
mm
152
mm
B
132
mm
102
mm
162
mm
A
142
mm
132
mm
182
mm
21
mm
162
mm
NR
NR
NR
NR
102
mm
NR
H
132
mm
122
mm
152
mm
NR
I
152
mm
162
mm
212
mm
102
mm
182
mm
NR
102
mm
NR
J
92
mm
112
mm
182
mm
NR
102
mm
NR
AM
102
mm
102
mm
112
mm
NR
182
mm
NR
CPX
132
mm
102
mm
172
mm
NR
112
mm
NR
51
mm
NR
202
mm
NR
71
mm
NR
NR
NR
GRI
NR
PEF
122
mm
122
mm
202
mm
35.121
32.341
30.323
31.331
32.422
32.422
33.453
30.234
35.542
34.231
32.422
Glucose
Key: NR= No zone of inhibition A=Akure, B= Owo, C= Akungba, D= Ile-oluji, E= Ondo town, F=Ikare- Akoko, G=Ilara, H=Igbara Oke, I=Itaogbolu, J=Iju, AM=Ampiclox, CPX=Ciprofloxacin, S=Streptomycin,
PEF=Pefloxacin, GRI= Griseofulvin.
Tested
organisms
Bacillus
Cereus
Bacillus
subtilis
Escherichia
Coli
Aspergillus
fumigatus
Salmonella
typhi
Varicosporium
elodea
Light
Amber
Light
Amber
Amber
Amber
Amber
Amber
Amber
Dark
Amber
Dark
Amber
Light
Amber
Color
Antibiotics
S
102
mm
122
mm
132
mm
1.40.02
4.30.01
3.40.01
1.80.02
2.35.03
1.90.02
3.40.01
1.25.01
3.75.01
2.00.02
Vitamin C
(mg/10ml)
Table 3. Antibacterial activity of honey samples and antibiotic sensitivity test on food spoilage organisms.
Reference values from Tchoumboue et al. 24, Vinda-Martos et al .2,Anon., 3; Crane 6,7.
3.12.20
Iju
13.28.03
3.89.11
14.14.02
13.61.01
4.00.21
2.90.07
17.98.01
3.21.12
Itaogbolu
16.00.02
16.75.01
16.21.01
3.27.05
4.40.01
Ile-oluji
Ondo
town
IkareAkoko
Ilara
Igbara
Oke
4.40.02
Akungba
17.00.01
13.40.02
4.35.15
3.28.02
Moisture
(%)
pH
Owo
Akure
Honey
samples
32.422
33.661
30.121
28.422
27.524
29.123
31.003
31.225
30.112
29.421
33.122
Fructose
Color=light to
amber
Vitamin C = ___
Na+ = 0.6- 40
P=2.0-60.0
K =1.0-47.5
Ca2+ =4.0-30.0
Electrical
conductivity= __
Ash=0.020-1.030
Moisture(%)=13.426.6
pH=3.4-6.1
Glucose=
22.0-40.7
Fructose= __
Reference values
107
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Shigatoxin-producing Escherichia coli in raw cow milk from small farm producers
and phylogenetic subtype determination
Ivo Sirakov, Ralitsa Popova, Hristo Daskalov *, Iskra Slavcheva, Eva Gyurova and Boyko Mitov
National Diagnostic and Research Veterinary Institute, Blvd. Pencho Slaveykov 15, 1606 Sofia, Bulgaria.
*e-mail: hdaskal@hotmail.com
Received 30 April 2014, accepted 10 September 2014.
Abstract
Cases of unauthorised direct sale of raw cow milk from small farms do exist in Bulgaria. In 2012, we tested 80 samples of raw cows milk from small
farms in south-western Bulgaria for the presence of shigatoxin-producing Escherichia coli strains. Twenty-three of these samples were taken from
cows with subclinical mastitis. The tests included isolation on selective solid medium, biochemical detection and conventional PCR for detection of
the shigatoxin genes (stx1, stx2), the intimin gene (eae) and the enterohemolysin gene (hlyA). The stx1 gene was detected in three Escherichia coli
isolates from three cows milk samples from animals with subclinical mastitis. An Escherichia coli strain with the intimin eae gene was isolated from
a sample of normal cows milk from a small farm. Two of the isolates with the stx1 gene were also found to harbour the enterohemolysin hlyA gene.
The presence of virulence factors in the four Escherichia coli isolates was additionally validated using Real-time PCR. The amplified virulence genes
were sequenced and a phylogenetic analysis based on amino acid sequences was performed. The cytotoxic effects of the E. coli isolates were studied
on Vero cells. The potential role of shigatoxin-producing E.coli strains for provoking food-borne illness is discussed.
Key words: Escherichia coli, raw cow milk, mastitis milk, PCR, virulence factors.
Introduction
Raw milk produced in very small farms which do not meet the EU
quality and safety requirements could be a risk factor for consumer
health. Raw cows milk from such farms is on the market in violation
of the regulations for the sale of raw milk. There is also a hazardous
practice of mixing milk from healthy animals and subclinical mastitis
milk. Escherichia coli is a microbial agent which is often found in
raw milk, especially in cases of poor hygiene during milking and
primary processing. E. coli causes mastitis or concomitant
infections in lactating cows. According to Schoonderwoer 1, E.
coli is naturally found in the gastrointestinal tract in animals, but
some strains, such as shiga-toxin-producing E. coli, are associated
with diarrhea in humans and animals. Other authors 2, 3 emphasise
that verotoxin-producing E. coli (VTEC) can cause serious illness
in humans, beginning with mild diarrhea and leading to hemorrhagic
colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome. Mainil 4 point out that a
key factor for E.coli infections in humans are ruminants excreting
E.coli in their feces. VTEC may be transmitted through
consumption of undercooked meat, unpasteurised milk products,
vegetables and water contaminated with the feces of carrier animals.
Cases of person-to-person transmission are also known 3, 5, 6. Animals
intended for food are considered to be the main source of VTEC/
EPEC (enteropathogenic E.coli) strains. In humans, life-threatening
infections associated with consumption of milk and milk products
contaminated with VTEC/EPEC have been reported 7. The main
etiological agent in infections with enterohemorrhagic E.coli is
generally thought to be Escherichia coli O157:H7. It is still unclear,
which other factors in addition to verotoxin production are
involved in the transformation of shigatoxin-producing-E.coli
(VTEC) into enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). Each VTEC isolate
should be considered potential EHEC and the detection methods
108
95C/1 min, 62C/1.30 min, 72C/1.30 min and 72C/7 min. The
amplification for HlyA was according to Schmidt et al. 9. The
electrophoresis of the amplified products was run in 2% Agarose
(Genshun Biotech, Guangzhou, China), 1Tris-EDTA buffer,
pH 8.1, 120 V, 40 mA for 30 min. A 100 bp molecular weight
marker (Genshun Biotech, Guangzhou, China) was used. Ethidium
bromide 1 g/ml (Sigma-Aldrich, EU) was used for staining.
Real time PCR: The sequences of the primers and probes used in
the real-time PCR assay are according to Perelle et al. 14 and Nielsen
and Andersen 15.
A 5 nuclease PCR assay was used with probes labeled with
FAM as a reporter dye at the 5-end and TAMRA as a quencher
dye at the 3-end. The Maxima Probe/RoxqPCR Master Mix (2)
(Fermentas, Lithuania) was used, following the manufacturers
instructions. The reaction mixture was with a final volume of 20 l.
For amplification of the stx1 and the stx2 gene the following
reagents were used: 4 mM MgCl2, 1 M of each primer, 200 nM
probe and 2 l of template DNA, according to Perelle et al. 14. For
amplification of the eae gene, the final concentration of the probe
was 200 nM and that of each primer was 600 nM, according to
Nielsen and Andersen 15. The pUC19 plasmid (New England
BioLabs, MA, USA) was employed as an internal amplification
control with the primers and the probe described by Fricker et al. 16
and IAC concentration of about 100 copies per PCR reaction.
Amplification was performed in a Step One Plus apparatus
(Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA), according to Perelle
et al. 14 for the stx genes and Nielsen and Andersen 15 for the eae
gene.
Cell culture assay: Stocks of Vero cell line purchased from Robert
Koch Institute were used after trypsinisation and growth as a
monolayer at 37C in rotation. The procedure by Konowalchuk et
al. 17 was used with some modifications. MEM-Eagle in Earles
BSS (GIBCO) was used as a medium for Vero cells with addition of
0.2 M L-glutamine, 0.075% NaHCO3 for pH 7.4 and fetal calf serum,
10% for growth medium and 2% for supporting medium (GIBCO)
and Gentamycine 50 mg/mL. A quantity of 0.05 mL of bacterial
filtrate from a 24 h bacterial culture was added to the cells for toxin
activity assay. Cultures were incubated at 37C. Morphological
effects of the cultures were screened on 18, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h.
16S rRNA gene amplification, sequencing and data processing:
As additional identification we used 16S rRNA gene sequencing
as described before 18. Nucleotide sequence alignment was
performed with the Muscle algorithm 19. The sequencing data of
the 16S rRNA gene were analysed for close homology using the
Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) available at the
National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, Bethesda,
MD) (http // :www .nbi .nlm. nih. Gov /BLAST) 20, 21.
Only nonsynonymous substitutions could lead to changes in
the amino-acid structure of proteins. Because of that, for the
purpose of amino-acid analysis of the PCR products, we used the
nucleotide sequences with a length of 180 bp (between 746-925
bp determined by reference sequence AF461169.1) and 357 bp
(between 40-396 396 bp determined by reference sequence
AJ877229.1), respectively, as previously described 22, corresponding
to the stx1 and eae genes, the number for the eae gene nucleotide
sequence in GenBank being KC196849. The predicted amino-acid
109
Table 1. NCBI reference numbers for amino-acid sequences of E. coli stx1 and eae proteins included in this study.
NCBI protein ID
stx1 protein source
subtype
NCBI protein ID
stx1 protein source
subtype
NCBI protein ID
eae protein source
CAC85628.1
E.coli ovine
stx1 c
AFM85307.1
E.coli feces
stx1 a
CAI46996.1
human
CAC85553.1
E.coli human
stx1 c
AAO19475.1
E.coli bovine
stx1 d
ABF69117.1
no data
CAA85370.1
E.coli Australia
stx1 c
BAD08527.1
E.coli bovine
stx1 d
AAC32028.2
rabbit
ABE02587.1
E.coli Hungary
stx1 c
AAY43857.1
E.coli shellfish
stx1 d
AAB97764.1
bovine
AAM70037.1
E.coli human
stx1 a
AAY43852.1
E.coli shellfish
stx1 d
BAL47133.1
Hirundo rustica
AAA26538.1
S.dysenteriae
stx1 a
BAD08529.1
E.coli bovine
stx1 d
AAK48432.1
goat kids
AAA98347.1
S.dysenteriae
stx1 a
C210-03
BAL47187.1
human
110
Figure 3. Phylogenetic tree of the eae gene sequence from the milk
isolate (Protein ID in NCBI AGC29881.1) in comparison with Escherichia
coli reference strains.
The tree was calculated from 119 amino acid aligned positions in the final data set, using the
MUSCULE algorithm. One thousand bootstrap replications were used to build a
phylogenetic tree.
Figure 4. Phylogenetic tree of the vtx1 gene sequences from the milk
isolates in comparison with Escherichia coli reference strains and
Shigella dysenteriae.
The tree was calculated from 60 amino acid aligned positions in the final data set, using the
MUSCULE algorithm. One thousand bootstrap replications were used to build a
phylogenetic tree.
111
group with stx1c. The other branch included three groups with
isolates possessing stx1d (our isolates were placed in a separate
group). This is due to the fact that 8 mutations were determined
(compared to the reference strain). The difference in the topology
of our isolate and the reference strain C210-03 regarding the eae
gene on the basis of the amino acid sequences was determined by
20 nonsynonymous mutations out of 47 mutations in the
nucleotide chain of the examined part. Moreover, a change in the
primary amino acid sequence is a prerequisite for a change in the
secondary and tertiary structure of the protein molecule (the toxin).
This, in turn, incurs a phenotypic change, which in our particular
case affects probably the toxicity of the isolates. Our suggestion
could be supported by the phylogenetic analysis of Scheutz et al. 42,
who demonstrated how specific sequences of stx2 variants could
affect the biological activity of the toxin. The authors determine
Shiga toxin 1 and their nomenclature as stx1a, stx1c and stx1d.
They establish higher percentage similarities between stx1a and
stx1c in contrast with stx1d. This could be confirmed with the
phylogenetic analysis which proved stx1d to be the most distant
and different outbranch of the tree, compared to other two variants.
The nonsynonymous substitutions are important for the structure
and function of the amino-acid chain, as they change the primary
structure of proteins. That is why we performed amino acid
phylogenetic analysis. The result corresponds to Scheutz et al. 42
data; however, there were some differences as compared with the
nucleotide analysis: particularly, two branches were formed with
no additional groups. Stx1a and stx1c were part of one of the
branches and stx1d formed a separate branch. These data show
that the nucleotides in the region of the stx gene could be
appropriate for subtyping of isolates after sequencing and
phylogenetic analysis, while amino acid analysis could clearly
differentiate only stx1d. According to these data, we can conclude
that our isolates belong to stx1d.
Conclusions
Our study showed occurrence of the stx1 gene in Escherichia
coli isolates in milk from cows with subclinical mastitis (3 out of
20 samples). The obtained results indicate that some Escherichia
coli may harbour the intimin-coding eae gene. The existing
unauthorised sales of raw cows milk (this is how the samples
analysed by us were collected) raise the question as to the safety
of the consumed milk and dairy products. Escherichia coli is a
well-known causative agent of mastitis in ruminants. Our study
showed that stx1-positive E. coli strains are also isolated and
could apparently be involved in mastitis development. The results
obtained by us also throw more light on the genetic diversity of
the four isolates and on their phenotypic changes, especially those
associated with the toxicity of the isolates.
The amino-acid phylogenetic analysis separated the studied
strains into two branches on the basis of nonsynonymous
substitution in codon 169 of stx1. This clearly shows that this
mutation is a key factor that determines the stx1d subtype and
differentiates this subtype from stx a and stx1c, but does not
differentiate the latter two subtypes from each other.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank EU RL VTEC, Rome, Italy and WHO in
Copenhagen for providing reference strain and competent support.
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13
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1
113
114
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Abstract
Glutinous rice is frequently enjoyed at snack and meal time in Southeast Asia. Khaowong Kalasin is a cultivar of glutinous rice in Thailand, and its
name is a geographical indicator of Kalasin province in Northeast Thailand. Its quality can be described as outstandingly soft and sticky. This study
addresses the soaking and cooking methods that can be used for Khaowong Kalasin glutinous milled rice to achieve a uniform texture. Textural and
sensory evaluations were compared between Khaowong Kalasin and RD6 cultivars in a container stored overnight. More specifically, the effects of
drying and temperature conditions on rehydration, texture, and external visualization for instant Khaowong Kalasin rice were investigated. Soaking
times were tested from 30 to 90 min. Three cooking methods were used: firewood with bamboo basket and earthenware steamer, LPG with bamboo
basket, and aluminium pot steamer and a modern programmable rice cooker. Temperatures from 40 to 60C with hot air drying and freeze drying were
evaluated. To reduce variations of hardness and stickiness, glutinous milled rice was soaked for 60 min and cooked in a programmable rice cooker
instead of using two traditional methods: firewood with bamboo basket and earthenware and LPG with bamboo basket and aluminium pot.
Khaowong Kalasin cooked rice could be stored in a container for a longer period of time than the RD6 cultivar. A 9-point hedonic test showed
differences between both varieties in softness and colour, but adhesiveness, odour and overall acceptance were very similar. An evaluation of the
effects of drying and temperature conditions on the rehydration and texture of Khaowong Kalasin showed hardness of the rehydrated rice after hot
air drying at 40C was closer, and the stickiness higher, than the control (fresh cooked rice). Rehydrated rice after hot air drying between 50 and 60C
and freeze drying (-80C) was too soft. The instant rice after drying at 40C needed the longest rehydration time but had no significant change in
rehydration maximum weight gain. On external microscope visualization, testers specifically preferred hot air drying below 60C because the higher
temperature led to more fractures inside the kernel and they were hidden by the opaque surface after freeze drying.
Key words: Glutinous rice, soaking, drying, instant glutinous rice, rehydration, sensory evaluations.
Introduction
Glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa) is a cultivar widely
found in Southeast Asia. The Khaowong District of Kalasin
Province in Northeast Thailand is home to one of the most popular
glutinous rice cultivars called Khaowong Kalasin. It originally
derived from RD6, which is cultivated in many parts of the upper
and middle provinces of North-eastern Thailand 1. It has very low
amylose content resulting in a sticky and dense quality when
cooked 2. Glutinous rice after husking is generally opaque and
white. In traditional glutinous rice cooking, the rice is soaked for
approximately 1 hour in water and then steamed using a straining
cloth, bamboo basket and earthenware steamer. During steaming,
the opaque and white kernels gradually become transparent and
clear. In conventional steaming by firewood, the rice becomes
soft and fragrant but needs more time to cook, and it is more
difficult to control the cooking temperature. Thai people still use
traditional steaming techniques rather than modern techniques 3.
Recently, farmers, growing RD6 in Khaowong, has found that
after cooking their rice was softer and more fragrant than the
original cultivar. Even stored in a woven bamboo container for
several hours until it cooled down, its texture remained stable. To
date, no scientific studies have confirmed the better properties of
the Khaowong Kalasin cultivar.
115
pore size and texture, whereas pressure had little or no effect. For
Thai glutinous rice starch, pressure and temperature on the
gelatinization rate followed the Arrhenius and Eyring equations 12.
The effects of spray drying 13 and microwave heating 14 on
properties of glutinous rice starch have been determined. Spray
dried glutinous rice starch was almost amorphous and formed a
hydrophilic matrix barrier while microwave heating had a high
effect on starch granules re-aggregation. In addition, changes of
head rice yield and textural and digestive properties of glutinous
rice during hot air fluidized-bed drying have been investigated 15,
16
. Higher temperature drying led to higher head rice yield, and
cooked glutinous rice had reduced hardness and higher stickiness
and more easily digested starch.
Cooking, drying and pre-treatment methods play important roles
in achieving the desired quality for preparing instant rice. It was
found that instant rice, after rehydration in a rice cooker, was
harder and less sticky than freshly cooked rice while rehydrated
rice that had passed a freezing pre-treatment was insignificantly
different 17. Several models were developed to predict drying and
rehydration of instant rice kinetics using combined microwave
and hot air drying 18. It was recommended that a combination of
300 W microwave power and 80C hot air temperature was optimal
in terms of drying time, rehydration time and colour. Moreover,
the V-type pattern amylase-lipid complexes were developed by
instant jasmine rice processing 19.
In this study, we focused on cooking methods and instant
processing of glutinous rice cv. Khaowong Kalasin to determine
optimum conditions for cooking, storage and drying preparation.
The cooked rice, i.e., moisture, texture (hardness and stickiness),
and sensory qualities were evaluated. In addition, texture and
visualization of rehydrated rice was assessed.
Materials and Methods
Premium grade glutinous milled rice cv. Khaowong Kalasin was
collected from Khaowong rice mill at Kalasin Province,
Northeastern Thailand. This rice variety has a special characteristic
and is registered as a Geographical Indication (GI) by the Thai
Department of Intellectual Property (DIP). Supreme RD6 glutinous
milled rice was purchased from a common market. Both varieties
of rice were to be stored for approximately six months.
Experiments:
Rice soaking and cooking: Firstly, the effects of soaking time
and cooking method on the textural properties of cooked glutinous
milled rice (Khaowong Kalasin) were studied. Milled rice (500 g)
was soaked in water at Thai ambient conditions (30C and 50-60%
RH) with soaking times of 30, 60 and 90 min. The three cooking
methods used were firewood earthenware steamer, LPG aluminium
pot steamer and programmable cooker. In the firewood
earthenware steamer and the LPG aluminium pot steamer, rice was
soaked in a straining cloth and then steamed above boiling water
in a bamboo basket until kernels appeared clear. In the
programmable cooker, rice was soaked and cooked with 1:1 rice
and water ratio. Cooked rice samples from all cooking methods
were mixed well and stored in woven bamboo containers until
they cooled down before texture measurement.
Storage tests in a woven bamboo container: Samples of 500 g
glutinous rice cultivars, Khaowong Kalasin and RD6, were soaked
116
(1)
Definition
Force required to press
the sample with molars
Adhesiveness
Colour
Overall acceptance
Clarity
-
Aroma
Assessment
Place the samples between
the molars and evaluated
force to bite
Sniffing samples
Moulding samples by hand
Visualizing inside a cup of
sample
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Scale
Dislike extremely
Dislike very much
Dislike moderately
Dislike slightly
Neither like nor dislike
Like slightly
Like moderately
Like very much
Like extremely
Charcoal earthenware
LPG earthenware
Soaking
times
(min)
30
60
90
30
60
90
30
60
90
Hardness
(kg force)
Stickiness
(kg force)
2.9 + 0.1a
2.4 + 0.1b
1.3 + 0.0c
5.4 + 0.7b
1.7 + 0.5c
6.7 + 0.6 a
3.7 + 0.1a
3.5 + 0.0b
3.4 + 0.0c
-0.20 + 0.20b
-0.40 + 0.04c
-0.02 + 0.01a
-0.30 + 0.2a
-0.40 + 0.4b
-0.50+ 0.3c
-0.04 + 0.02b
-0.40 + 0.01c
-0.03 + 0.01a
Means with the different letters in the same column are significantly difference (p0.05) by Duncans
multiple range tests.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
Soaking time (min)
180
210
240
Means with the different letter in the same column are significantly difference (p0.05) by Duncans
multiple range tests.
117
Khaowong Kalasin
RD6
Colour
Softness
Aroma
Adhesiveness
7.81.3g
7.51.3fg
6.71.2ef
6.11.4cde
5.41.4bc
7.81.0e
7.11.0de
5.71.4c
4.51.6b
3.21.8a
7.01.5f
6.91.2f
6.31.4def
5.61.3ed
4.71.5ab
6.91.8cd
7.31.3cd
6.41.8bc
5.61.6b
4.31.8a
Overall
acceptance
7.61.4d
7.41.1d
6.31.5c
5.71.3bc
4.31.9a
Colour
Softness
Aroma
Adhesiveness
6.41.5de
6.31.5de
5.81.5bcd
5.11.5ab
4.41.6a
7.01.5de
6.41.9cd
5.51.7c
4.62.0b
3.21.8a
6.81.3ef
6.61.4ef
6.01.6cde
5.51.3bc
4.61.8a
7.41.6d
7.11.5cd
6.61.5bcd
5.71.8b
4.31.9a
Overall
acceptance
7.61.0d
7.21.0d
6.41.4c
5.41.5b
3.91.9a
Means with the different letter in the same column are significantly difference (p0.05) by Duncans multiple range tests.
KW = -0.62x + 8.56
R2 = 0.985
10
4
2
6
Storage duration (h)
12
KW = -1.18x + 9.2
R2 = 0.990
Softness
6
Storage duration (h)
12
24
Aroma
10
KW
RD6
KW
RD6
8
6
4
2
0
6
Storage duration (h)
12
24
KW
RD6
KW
RD6
8
6
4
2
0
6
Storage duration (h)
12
24
KW
RD6
KW
RD6
8
6
4
2
0
0
6
Storage duration (h)
12
24
24
4
2
Overall acceptance
Colour
RD6
KW
RD6
KW
RD6
10
KW = -0.59x + 7.87
R2 = 0.940
KW
RD6
KW
10
Adhesiveness
200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
Table 5. Weight gain after rehydration and textural properties of instant glutinous rice in
different drying temperatures and methods.
Glutinous rice
Khaowong Kalasin
Dried by HA at 40oC (14 h)
Rehydrated (7 min)
Dried by HA at 50oC (7 h)
Rehydrated (7 min)
Dried by HA at 60oC (6 h)
Rehydrated (6 min)
Dried by FD at -80oC
Rehydrated (6 min)
Cooked (control)
Moisture content
(% d.b.)
11.8 0.9e
134.4 1.2c
10.7 0.3e
141.7 0.8b
10.1 0.8e
149.3 1.4a
2.7 1.1f
150.8 0.8a
121.0 3.4d
Maximum WGR
(decimal)
NA
1.1 0.1ns
NA
1.2 0.2 ns
NA
1.2 0.4 ns
NA
1.1 0.3 ns
NA
Note: HA denotes hot air drying and FD freeze drying process. Values are mean and standard deviation. Different superscripts (a, b, c, d, e and
f) in the same column imply that the values are significant different (p0.05) by Duncans multiple range tests.
119
200 m
Conclusions
Traditional glutinous rice (cv. Khaowong Kalasin) cooking
techniques resulted in a large variation of hardness and stickiness.
The variation of these textural properties could be reduced by
using a programmable rice cooker and soaking for at least 60 min.
If it is necessary to leave the cooked rice overnight in a woven
bamboo container, the textural properties of Khaowong Kalasin
and RD6 cultivars significantly change at 12 and 6 h, respectively.
A paired test between both cultivars based on a 9-point hedonic
test showed that softness and colour had distinct differences
whereas adhesiveness, odour and overall acceptance were not
significantly different. The cooked rice was processed by drying
to produce instant glutinous rice. The best conditions for
rehydration, using the microwave at the highest power (850 W)
and water and rice ratio of 2:1, was hot air drying at 40C. The
rehydrated rice had a low fracture density and hardness similar to
the control - fresh cooked rice. The rehydrated rice at other
conditions was too soft and less sticky. However, this best
condition had a longer rehydration time than the fastest conditions
of approximately 1 min.
200 m
200 m
200 m
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Thai Research Fund and Higher
Education Commission for financial support.
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Ahromrit, A., Ledward, D. A. and Niranjan, K. 2006. High pressure
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Leelayuthsoontorn, P. and Thipayarat, A. 2006. Textural and
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Ahromrit, A., Ledward, D. A. and Niranjan, K. 2006. Kinetics of high
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Laovachirasuwan, P., Peerapattana, J., Srijesdaruk, V., Chitropas, P.
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200 m
200 m
200 m
200 m
120
121
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
In this study we evaluated the viticultural performance of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah wine cultivars on dry-hot climate conditions in the
Southeast Region of Turkey. Vine yield components (bud survival (%), cluster number/vine (n), cluster number/shoot ratio (n), cluster weight (g),
yield/vine (kg) and berry weight (g), fruit composition as Brix (soluble solids %), and pH and titratable acidity (TA g/l) were measured during two
growing seasons between the years 2009 and 2010. The maximum mean bud survival rate (0.96%) was measured in the Cabernet Sauvignon grape
cultivar in 2009, and the minimum rate (0.77%) was measured in the Syrah grape cultivar in 2010. The highest yield in 2009 was found in the Cabernet
Sauvignon grape cultivars trained with Guyot system, with 7.63 kg. Mean Brix ranged between 24-27%, and mean pH between 3.64 and 3.86,
whereas TA was between 12.9 and 14.5 g/l. Based on the results, it can be concluded that Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, and Merlot are appropriate for
the Southeastern Anatolian conditions in Turkey.
Key words: Vitis vinifera, grapevine, yield components, fruit composition, training system.
Introduction
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the oldest and most important
perennial crops in the world. Turkey is an important centre of
origin of the cultivated grapevine. The cultivation of grapes in
Anatolia began approximately 7000 - 8000 years ago 1, 16. Anatolia
has long been linked with the origin of viticulture and wine making,
especially in its eastern and southeastern regions, which are
commonly referred to as the epicenter of grapes 2. Canopy
management is widely accepted as an important tool for highquality wine production, however, little information is available
on its effectiveness under warm, dry climatic conditions 12. Jackson
and Lombard 10 argue that each cultivar and training system in a
region should be investigated to obtain the optimum yield that
will produce quality wine. Temperature is one of the primary
microclimatic factors in the driving rates of growth 3, 14, 17. Light
and temperature are the most important climatic factors for
inflorescence induction and differentiation. Environmental
regulations of fruitfulness are the most important climatic factors
for inflorescence induction and differentiation. High temperatures
have been found to promote fruitfulness in developing grapevine
buds 16. It is known that the terroir (the combination of soil, sub
soil, and climatic conditions) has a direct effect on the quantity
and quality of the grapes and on the wines produced 6, 9, 15.
In this study, we aimed to evaluate the viticultural performance
of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah wine cultivars under
dry-hot climate conditions in the Southeastern Region of Turkey.
Vine yield components (bud survival, cluster number/vine, cluster
number/shoot ratio, cluster weight, yield/vine and berry weight),
and fruit composition (Brix, pH, titratable acidity) were measured
during two growing seasons between 2009 and 2010.
122
Budbreak
Bloom
Veraison
Harvest
10 April
08 April
26 May
29 May
01 July
03 July
08 August
07 August
30 March
03 April
20 May
22 May
28 June
05 June
01 August
06 August
02 April
05 April
20 May
23 May
02 July
04 July
05 August
07 August
50
40
Mean temperature
30
20
10
0
-10
10
11
12
-20
-30
123
3.53 2.263
3.61 2.666
2.54 1.377
2.35 0.703
4.87 2.228
Means within columns followed by different letters differ significantly at p < 0.05 by Duncans new multible range test.
92.22 22.117
3.87 2.134
3.21 2.358
5.47 2.575 b
1.75 0.827 b
131.66 9.047
98.62 11.217
86.72 7.166
2.48 0.842 ab
2.22 0.544 ab
63.05 3.797
6.33 2.095 ab
3.42 1.177 ab
2.44 0.959 b
2.65 1.750 b
96.74 23.445
87.70 19.885
138.02 8.137 b
125.19 4.065 b
105.23 12.645 b
92.01 2.921 b
90.45 3.305 ab
82.99 8.162 ab
63.24 3.842 ab
62.86 3.948 ab
180.90 18.908 c
190.99 3.672 c
185.94 14.230
161.60 27.152 b
179.31 22.820 b
170.45 26.046
149.50 10.179 b
129.81 22.842 b
139.65 19.957
2.57 0.719
2.40 0.686
2.49 0.705
2.39 0.604 a
1.58 0.743 a
1.99 0.779
2.75 0.391 a
2.88 0.672 a
2.82 0.539
1.94 0.359 a
1.97 0.206 a
1.95 0.286
3.19 1.118 a
2.93 0.448 a
3.06 0.840
24.12 13.265
21.03 16.187
22.58 14.817
13.50 4.882 c
13.80 9.090 c
13.65 7.103..
15.20 4.517 b
12.40 2.459 b
13.80 3.820..
42.90 14.813 b
26.40 8.822 b
34.65 14.576 ..
0.94 0.110 a
0.85 0.232 a
0.90 0.183
0.86 0.111 a
0.92 0.161 a
0.89 0.137..
0.91 0.058 a
0.91 0.108 a
0.91 0.084 .
21.50 9.132 c
10.40 4.648 c
15.95 9.064..
0.91 0.116
0.84 0.188
0.87 0.160
0.85 0.114 a
0.70 0.204 a
0.77 0.178
Mean
2010
Syrah
Merlot
2009
2010
2009
Cultivars
Cabernet Sauvignon
Years
2009
2010
Bud survival (%)
Cordon
0.98 0.032 a
0.90 0.132 a
Guyot
0.93 0.078 a
0.70 0.270 a
Mean
0.96 0.064 ..
0.80 0.196..
Cluster numer/vine
Cordon
33.20 5.391 a
18.40 6.022 a
Guyot
51.60 8.996 a
11.60 3.627 a
Mean
42.40 11.883
15.00 5.965..
Cluster number/shoot ratio
Cordon
2.39 0.282 a
2.76 0.625 a
Guyot
2.46 0.208 a
2.57 0.497 a
Mean
2.42 0.244
2.67 0.559
Cluster weight (g)
Cordon
117.25 14.672 a 139.37 21.008 a
Guyot
148.15 16.903 a 140.33 32.410 a
Mean
132.70 22.101
139.85 26.587
Berry weight (100) (g)
91.20 4.365 a
92.29 3.421 a
Cordon
77.60 7.018 a
85.44 3.880 a
Guyot
Mean
84.41 9.000
88.87 5.003
Yield / vine (kg)
3.88 0.767 a
2.60 0 .921 a
Cordon
7.63 1.542 a
1.60 0.509 a
Guyot
Mean
5.75 2.256
2.10 0.888
Table 2. Main effect of training system on yield components of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah grapevines in Diyarbakr, Turkey, 2009 to 2010.
124
Table 3. Main effect of training system on fruit composition of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah grapevines in
Diyarbakr, Turkey, 2009 to 2010.
Years
Brix
Cordon
Guyot
Mean
pH
Cordon
Guyot
Mean
TA (g/l)
Cordon
Guyot
Mean
Cabernet Sauvignon
2009
2010
Merlot
Syrah
2009
2010
2009
2010
Mean
25.19 0.997 b
26.51 1.218 b
25.85 1.278
23.95 1.703 b
24.31 1.552 b
24.13 1.596
26.37 1.247 a
25.08 1.379 a
25.72 1.441
26.80 1.250 a
27.21 1.020 a
27.01 1.131
25.75 0.916 b
25.07 1.057 b
25.41 1.025
24.08 0.978 b
24.81 1.533 b
24.45 1.307
25.36 1.585
25.50 1.620
25.43 1.597
3.53 0.156 c
3.77 0.111 c
3.65 0.182
3.56 0.161 c
3.59 0.325 c
3.58 0. 250
3.97 0.169 a
3.73 0.087 a
3.85 0.182
3.85 0.306 a
3.86 0.137 a
3.85 0.232
3.71 0.451 b
3.57 0.131 b
3.64 0.331
3.82 0.096 b
3.90 0.115 b
3.86 0.112
3.74 0.290
3.74 0.206
3.74 0.250
13.57 0.501 a
13.02 0.622 a
13.29 0.618
14.59 0.956 a
14.47 1.191 a
14.53 1.0538
13.00 0.895 c
13.58 0.426 c
13.29 0.744
12.79 0.501 c
12.98 0.721 c
12.88 0.613
13.44 1.103 b
13.81 0.720 b
13.62 0.926
14.03 0.663 b
13.53 1.160 b
13.78 0.955
13.57 0.983
13.56 0.961
13.57 0.968
Means within columns followed by different letters differ significantly at p < 0.05 by Duncans new multible range test.
125
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Lebon, E., Pellegrino, A., Louarn, G. and Lecoeur, J. 2006. Branch
development controls leaf area dynamics in grapevine (Vitis vinifera)
growing in drying soil. Annals of Botany 98:175-185.
15
Penkov, M. 2005. Choosing the most suitable lands for establishing
new vineyards and fruit orchards in Bulgaria. University Press, UASG,
Sofia.
16
Snchez, L. A. and Dokoozlian, N. K. 2005. Bud microclimate and
fruitfulness in Vitis vinifera L. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 56(4):319-328.
17
Seleznyova, A. N. and Greer, D. H. 2001. Effects of temperature and
leaf position on leaf area expansion of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa)
shoots: Development of a modelling framework. Annals of Botany
88:605-615.
18
This, P., Lacombe, T. and Thomas, M. R. 2006. Historical origins and
genetic diversity of wine grapes. Trends in Genetics 22:511-519.
19
Vanden Heuvel, J. E., Proctor, J. T. A., Sullivan, J. A. and Fisher, K. H.
2004. Influence of training/trellis system and rootstock selection on
productivity and fruit composition of Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc
grapevines in Ontario, Canada. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 55(3):253-263.
20
Walker, R. R., Blackmore, D. H., Clingeleffer, P. R. and Correll, R. L.
2002. Rootstock effects on salt tolerance of irrigated field grown
grapevines (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Sultana). 1. Yield and interrelationships.
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 8:3-14.
21
Watt, A. M., Dunn, G. M., May, P. B., Crawford, S. A. and Barlow, E.
W. R. 2008. Development of inflorescence primordia in Vitis vinifera
L. cv. Chardonnay from hot and cool climates. Australian Journal of
Grape and Wine Research 14:46-53.
1
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Dry matter accumulation trend on corn (TWC 647) as affected by plant density and
planting pattern
Ali Reza Saberi 1* and Siti Aishah Hassan
1
Agricultural & Natural Resources Research Center of Golestan, Gorgan, 4915677555, Iran. 2 Department of Crop Science,
University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. *e-mail: alireza_sa70@yahoo.com
Abstract
To examine the effect of plant density and sowing pattern on some characteristics of corn (hybrid T. W. C. 647), a field experiment was conducted
at Agricultural Research Station of Iranshahr. This experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design arranged in a factorial with four
replications. This experiment had four levels of plant densities (D1 = 70,000, D2 = 80,000, D3 = 90,000 and D4 = 100,000) with three levels of
planting arrangements (p1 = single row, p2 = double row 15 cm space apart and p2 = double row 20 cm space apart). The results showed increasing
accumulation trend of leaf dry matter on different levels of planting arrangement till receiving 1560 degree day and fixation and after that decreasing.
With increasing density and using double row planting arrangement till before grain milking stage, the most leaf dry weight produced and after that
decreased. With increasing plant density amount of leaf dry matter will increase, as high plant density (100,000 plant ha-1) has the highest leaf dry
matter. The results showed till douching stage (1658 degree day) logarithmical increasing of assimilate accumulation reach to its highest amount and
after a time fixes and later that because of the leaves become old and transferring assimilates from source to sink, amount of leaf dry matter decrease.
Stem dry weight changes started from 607 growth degree day and continued till milking-doughty stage (1357 - 1560 GDD), and decreased later
because of assimilate repeated transferring during seed becoming old. Trend of changes in stem dry weight such as leaf is sigmoid. It means with
passing time stem dry weight have increased and decreased safter reaching to maximum weight. With plant entering to reproductive stage and after
getting 1123 GDD emergence of flowering started which ended to ear production. Study of ear dry matter accumulation trend at different levels of
planting arrangement showed there was significant difference between double row planting pattern and single row, but there is no significant difference
on two levels of planting arrangement. It means at minimum and medium plant density, especially on one double-row pattern, the plants can grow
better and produce a good ear. The changes on husk dry weight from 1123 GDD started and after getting 1357 GDD reached to its maximum very fast
and later there was gradually reduction at the growth season because of grain formation and filling. With increasing plant density amount of husk in
the unit area increased. Husk has chlorophyll and due to closing to grain plays effective role to filling, at single row planting pattern it is able to transfer
its assimilates to ear store sinks more than in other planting patterns. During growth season after pollination and grain formation grain dry weight
increased. Its trends at initial stage after getting 1123 - 1357 GDD is very fast and at the end because of losing assimilate and filling sinks and loading
becomes slow. The highest grain yield (1400 g m-2) was got from 90,000 plants h-1 density and double row with 15 cm space apart treatment at 1797
GDD.
Key words: Sowing density, planting arrangement, hybrid T. W. C. 647, grain yield.
Introduction
With the increase in world population, demand for food
consequently will grow. It is expected that human population will
increase to over 8 billion by the year 2020 and this will worsen the
current scenario of food security. Improved crop productivity over
the past 50 years has resulted in increasing world food supplies
up to 20% per person and reducing proportion of food-insecure
people living in developing countries from 57% to 27% of total
population 5. It is predicted that at least 10 million people will be
hungry and malnourished in the world by the end of this century 5.
Thus, to reduce the food insecurity, crop production will have to
be doubled, and produced in more environmentally sustainable
ways 2. This can be achieved by expanding the area of crop
production, increasing per hectare yield and improving crop
quality. Furthermore, during the second half of the past century,
rise in per hectare crop productivity was due to improved or high
yield potential 1.
The relationship between growth of corn under different
127
250
L - DM (g/m2)
200
A1
150
A2
100
A3
50
607
highest amount and after a time fixes and later that because of the
leaves become old and transferring assimilates from source to
sink, amount of leaf dry matter decreased (Fig. 3).
Accumulation rate of stem dry matter: Stem dry weight changes
started from 607 growth degree day, continued till milking-doughty
stage (1357 - 1560 GDD), and later decreased because of assimilate
repeated transferring during seed becoming old (Fig. 4). Trend of
changes in stem dry weight such as leaf is sigmoid. It means with
passing time stem dry weight have increased and after reaching
to maximum weight, decreases.
350
L - DM (g/m2)
300
250
D1
200
D2
150
D3
100
D4
50
0
607
plant density amount of husk in the unit area increased. Husk has
chlorophyll and due to closing to grain plays effective role to
filling, at single row planting pattern is able to transfer its
assimilates to ear store sinks more than in other planting patterns
(Figs. 6 and 7).
200
H - DM (g/m2)
400
150
A3
607
700
600
500
D1
400
D2
160
300
D3
140
200
D4
120
100
0
607 880 1123 1357 1560 1657 1797 1908
GDD
H - DM (g/m2)
ST - DM (g/m2)
A2
50
GDD
100
1000
500
D2
60
D3
40
D4
0
607 880 1123 1357 1560 1657 1797 1908
GDD
A2
1600
A3
1400
0
607
D1
80
20
GR - DM (g/m2)
E - DM (g/m2)
A1
100
1200
1000
A1
800
A2
600
A3
400
200
0
607 880 1123 1357 1560 1657 1797 1908
GDD
129
Conclusions
It might be concluded that by using double row planting pattern
the interplant competition could be decreased and higher yield
might be produced.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Agricultural & Natural
Resources Research Center of Blochestan and the Seed & Plant
Improvement Institute of Iran for the financial support of this
research.
References
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Borlaug, N. E. and Dowswell, C. R. 2005. Feeding a world of ten billion
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Brown, R. H., Beaty, E. R., Ethedge, W. J. and Hages, D. D. 1970.
Influence of row width and plant population on yield of two varieties
of corn (Zea mays L). Agron. J. 62:767-77
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Duncan, W. G. 1984. A theory to explain the relationship between corn
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5
FAO 2007. Fertilizer use by crop in Uzbekistan. FAO, Rome. http://
www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y4711E/Y4711E00.HTM. Last accessed
12.02.2007.
6
Lutz, J. A., Comper, H. M. and Jones, C. D. 1971. Row spacing and
plant population effects on corn yield. Agron. J. 63:12-14.
7
Proter, P. M. and Hicks, D. K. 1997. Corn response to row width and
plant population in the northern corn-belt. J. Priod. Agric. 10:293.
8
Qureshi, A. S., Qadir, M., Heydari, N., Turral, H. and Javadi, A. 2007.
A review of management strategies for salt-prone land and water
resources in Iran. International Water Management Institute, Colombo,
Sri Lanka, IWMI Working Paper 125, 30 p.
9
Saberi, A. R., Mazaheri, D. and Heidari Sharif Abad, H. 2006. Effect of
density and planting pattern on yield and some agronomic
characteristics of maize (hybrid T. W. 647). Agricultural and Natural
Resources Science 1:67-76 (In Persian, Abstract in English).
10
SAS Institute 2004. SAS/STAT Users Guide. Release 9.0. 4th edn.
Statistical Analysis Institute, Inc., Cary, NC.
11
Sprague, G. D. and Dudley, J. W. (eds). 1988. Corn and Corn
Improvement. Agronomy No. 18. 3rd edn. American Society of
Agronomy, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA, 986 p.
1
130
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Abstract
The objective of the study was to determine the effects of water stress on productivity, leaf greenness index and gas exchange parameters of selected
pasture grasses. A pot experiment was performed in a greenhouse of the Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, State Research Institute in
Puawy, at two soil moisture levels: 70% (optimum moisture content) and 40% (water stress) of field water capacity to study the responses of four
pasture grasses: Lolium multiflorum (Lam.), Festuca pratensis (L.), Festulolium braunii ((K. Richt.) A. Camus) and Dactylis glomerata (L.) to water
stress. The study showed that water stress caused a significant reduction of yield of all tested grasses. The greatest decrease in the yield of dry matter
was observed in L. multiflorum, while the lowest one was found in D. glomerata. Among the studied species of grasses, a higher resistance to stress
was recorded for the D. glomerata and F. braunii (drought susceptibility index (DSI) < 1.0). The water content in the soil modified the relative level
of chlorophyll in the leaves of tested grasses. Under the conditions of soil drought, greenness index in all species of grasses was higher on average by
19% compared to control objects. The lowest value of greenness index was found in the F. pratensis. Under water stress conditions, all studied species
were characterized by lower net photosynthesis (PN) and transpiration (E) rate as compared to control. The mean values of water-use efficiency
(WUE) were statistically higher under stress conditions in D. glomerata and F. pratensis than in L. multiflorum and F. braunii.
Key words: Grasses, drought stress, dry matter yield, net photosynthesis, transpiration rate, drought susceptibility index, leaf greenness index, wateruse efficiency.
Introduction
Crop performance and yield are the results of genotypic expression
as modulated by continuous interactions with the environment.
Water is one of most widely limiting environmental factors for
crop production on a global basis. Drought is strongly affecting
the growth processes and productivity of plants 1-4. The reaction
of forage grasses to drought is first of all strong inhibition of
growth and developmental perturbations, which leads to reduction
of yield. Grass species differ in tolerance for moisture conditions
of habitat and in adaptability to changeable conditions 5.
Chlorophyll is the most common photosynthetic pigment. It
can be also considered an indicator of the annual yield of grasses
and grass regrowth, since there exists a positive correlation
between its content in the leaf blades and dry matter yield 6-8.
Chlorophyll concentration is a reliable indicator of plant vigor
and resistance to environmental stressors. The chlorophyll
contents of leaves depend on species, variety, climatic and soil
conditions, nutrient availability and development stage of plant 9.
Plant growth and yield are the outcome of numerous processes,
photosynthesis being the key one. A rapid decrease in water supply
makes plants to close their stomata. This enables rapid reduction
of water losses during transpiration, but this process is
accompanied by increased diffusion resistance for CO2, leading
to photosynthesis inhibition. This allows the plant to survive
drought, but leads to yield decrease 4, 10, 11.
Droughts in Poland are hardly predictable. It is difficult to
forecast the term of their occurrence, duration, territorial range
and intensity 12. Therefore, searches for greater utilization of forage
131
III
26.3 a
11.9 d
32.2 b
20.7 e
33.0 b
22.6 e
41.8 c
25.2 e
Total
yield
111.8 a
72.0 c
121.7 a
74.8 c
121.6 a
77.3 c
152.0 b
89.5 d
19.1 a
26.4 b
27.8 b
33.5 c
91.9 a
98.2 ab
99.5 b
120.7 c
33.4 a
20.1 b
126.8 a
78.4 b
0.422
0.41
0.404
0.399
0.388
0.377
0.366
0.355
0.344
0.33
0.322
D. glomerata
YR = 1 (Yry Ypy-1)
where Yry is the reduced yield due to water deficiency, while Ypy is
the potential yield under optimal soil moisture.
The results presented in the paper are means of particular cuts.
They were analysed statically using STATISTICA 6.0 software.
The significance of differences was verified by the Tukey test at
a significance level p < 0.05
Results
Soil moisture is an important factor shaping the size of crop yield.
Under optimal moisture conditions, the highest yield was obtained
from L. multiflorum, while the lowest one from D. glomerata. F.
pratensis and F. braunii yielded at a similar level (Table 1). All the
compared species responded to lower soil moisture with a
significant yield decrease. The smallest decrease in the total yield
(35%) was observed at D. glomerata, while it was greatest at L.
multiflorum (41%). Hybrid F. braunii reacted to drought with a
lower decrease in the total yield than both parent species, L.
multiflorum and F. pratensis (Fig. 1). Considering individual cuts,
D. glomerata and L. multiflorum yielded best in the first cut,
F. braunii
F. pratensis
L. multiflorum
Grasses species
where Dn and Kn are the dry matter of the stressed and non-stressed
object, while Dx and Kx are the mean dry matter averaged over all
objects under stress and non-stress conditions, respectively. Thus,
a low DSI-value (< 1.0) is indicative for a relative tolerance, while
a high DSI-value (> 1.0) for its stress sensitivity.
Yield Reduction (YR) was calculated by abdzkis method 12
using the following equation:
132
Regrowth
Soil
moisture
I
II
70%
49.8 a* 35.6 a
40%
33.2 df 28.9 d
70%
40.1 b 48.0 b
40%
24.5 e 30.4 d
70%
42.5 b 46.1 b
40%
28.3 ef 27.3 d
70%
56.9 c
53.2 c
40%
34.9 f
30.9 d
Mean for species
32.3 a
41.5 a
32.3 b
39.2 b
35.4 b
36.7 b
45.9 c
42.1 c
Mean for soil moisture
47.35 a 45.8 a
30.22 b 29.4 b
* Values marked with the same letter did not differ statistically.
YR
sowing, after the first and second cuttings. Nitrogen was applied
in the form of NH4NO3 solution. Phosphorus, potassium and
magnesium were applied pre-sowing, in the forms of solutions:
KH2PO4, K2SO4 and MgSO4, respectively, at the following rates
[g pot-1]: P 1.0, K 1.5 and Mg 0.5.
Over the vegetation season, the leaf greenness index was
measured with an optical chlorophyll meter SPAD-502Plus (Konica
Minolta, Japan). This device measures the difference between
light absorption by leaf at wavelengths of 650 and 940 nm, and the
quotient of these values represents indexed leaf greenness, i.e.
indexed relative chlorophyll content. The obtained results are
shown in SPAD units (Soil and Plant Analysis Development) in
the range from 0 to 800. The measurements were taken for the first
time 8 weeks after sowing (2 weeks after water stress). Four
measurements were performed for each regrowth and readings
were taken at one-week intervals. The rate of photosynthesis and
transpiration was measured two times over the growing season
(first and third regrowth) with a LI6400XT portable gas analyser
(LI-COR Environmental, USA). The measurements were performed
at a constant concentration of CO2 390 ppm, photosyntetic active
radiation (PAR) of 1200 mol m-2 s-1 and temperature between 23
and 27C. The chlorophyll concentration and the rate of
photosynthesis and transpiration were measured on the youngest,
fully developed leaves selected randomly of each pot. The plants
were defoliated three times over the growing season.
Drought Susceptibility Index (DSI) was computed by Fisher
and Maurer 13 method using the following equation:
1.022
1.001
0.988
0.966
0.944
0.922
D. glomerata
F. braunii
F. pratensis
L. multiflorum
Grasses species
Regrowth
Soil
moisture
I
II
III
70%
460 a* 574 ad 596 ac
40%
556 b 591 abd 598 ac
526 a
529 ab
70%
469 a
40%
622 b
638 bc
632 c
70%
452 a
503 a
515 b
40%
548 b
652 c
613 c
70%
415 a
515 a
508 b
40%
546 b
604 cd
626 c
Mean for species
583 a
597 a
508 a
545 ab
582 a
581 a
500 a
578 a
564 a
481 b
560 a
567 a
Mean for soil moisture
449 a
530 a
537 a
568 b
621 b
617 b
Mean
Species
543 a
582 ce
508 a
631 d
490 b
605 de
479 b
592 e
D. glomerata
F. pratensis
F. braunii
L. multiflorum
563 a
569 a
547 ab
536 b
D. glomerata
F. pratensis
F. braunii
L. multiflorum
505 a
602 b
70%
40%
* Values marked with the same letter did not differ statistically.
Regrowth
Soil
moisture
I
III
70%
11.20 c* 7.40 e
40%
7.03 a
4.17 c
70%
13.80 e 10.27 g
40%
7.87 b
2.53 a
8.87 f
70%
12.53 d
40%
7.03 a
3.37 b
70%
14.08 f
9.37 f
40%
7.93 b
6.80 d
Mean for species
5.78 a
9.12 a
10.83 c
6.40 b
9.78 b
6.12 ab
11.00 d
8.08 c
Mean for soil moisture
12.90 b
8.46 b
7.47 a
4.89 a
Mean
9.33 c
5.57 a
12.03 e
5.23 a
10.70 d
5.17 a
11.73 e
7.40 b
7.45 a
8.63 c
7.93 b
9.57 d
10.95 b
5.84 a
* Values marked with the same letter did not differ statistically.
40
30
20
DM yield (g pot-1)
DM yield (g pot-1)
y = 84.526 - 0.0936 x
R 2 = 0.59
50
y = 85.474 - 0.0914 x
R 2 = 0.52
50
40
30
20
10
10
400
450
500
550 600
SPAD
650
400
700
500
550
600
650
700
F. braunii
40
30
20
DM yield (g pot-1)
60
y = 105.464 - 0.1213 x
2
R = 0.66
50
450
SPAD
L. multiflorum
60
DM yield (g pot-1)
F.p pratensis
60
60
y = 84.526 - 0.0936 x
R 2 = 0.59
50
40
30
20
10
10
400
450
500
550 600
SPAD
650
700
400
450
500
550 600
SPAD
650
700
Figure 3. Relationship between leaf greenness index (SPAD) and dry matter yield of grasses
species.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
Discussion
The results showed that the grass grown
under water deficit conditions yielded on
average by about 38% lower compared to
those grown under optimal moisture
conditions. According to Olszewska 14, the dry
matter yield of L. perenne and D. glomerata
was on average by 35% lower compared to
control treatments. A significant decrease in
yield, caused by water deficit in forage
grasses was also reported 15, 16. A typical
response of plants to water stress is to reduce
the yield, because there are limitations to the
intensity of photosynthesis and plant growth
processes 10, 11. According to Starck 17 and
Rawson et al. 18, crop yield is also affected
by other factors, such as the efficiency of
transport and distribution of assimilates in
plants. Ardiani et al. 19 reported, that changes
in soil moisture during the season have a
greater impact on the productivity of forage
grasses than the photosynthetic efficiency
of individual species.
133
Regrowth
Soil
moisture
I
III
70%
2.49 c* 1.77 bc
40%
0.88 a
1.12 a
2.36 d
70%
4.26 f
40%
1.23 b 1.57 abc
4.02 e
70%
3.15 d
40%
1.28 b
1.32 a
70%
3.63 e
2.03 cd
40%
1.41 b
1.85 bc
Mean for species
1.44 a
1.68 a
2.43 c
1.96 b
2.22 b
2.67 c
2.52 c
1.94 b
Mean for soil moisture
3.38 b
2.84 b
1.34 a
1.19 a
Mean
2.13 d
1.00 a
3.00 e
1.40 bc
3.59 f
1.30 b
2.83 e
1.63 c
1.56 a
2.20 b
2.44 c
2.23 b
2.88 b
1.33 a
* Values marked with the same letter did not differ statistically.
Mean
4.36 bc
5.85 d
4.08 b
4.02 b
3.10 a
4.11 b
4.25 bc
4.65 c
5.10 d
4.05 b
3.60 a
4.45 c
3.95 a
4.66 b
* Values marked with the same letter did not differ statistically.
Conclusions
Water stress caused a significant reduction of yield of D.
glomerata, F. pratensis, L. multiflorum and F. braunii. The
greatest decrease in the yield of dry matter was observed in
L. multiflorum, while the lowest one was found in D. glomerata.
Among the studied grass species, a higher tolerance to stress
was recorded for D. glomerata and F. braunii (DSI index < 1.0). F.
pratensis and L. multiflorum were more sensitive to drought index
(DSI) > 1.0.
The water content in the soil modified the relative level of
chlorophyll in the leaves of tested grasses. Under the conditions
of soil drought, leaf greenness index in all species of grasses was
higher compared to control object. The lowest values of
chlorophyll index were found in F. pratensis.
A decrease in moisture from 70% to 40% of field water capacity
reduced the activity of photosynthesis, on average 46% and the
rate of transpiration 54%. The mean values of water-use efficiency
(WUE) were statistically higher under stress conditions in D.
glomerata and F. braunii.
Acknowledgements
The studies have been supported by Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development of Poland within the multi-annual program of
Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, State Research
Institute, task 3.4. Analysis and evaluation possibilities of
shaping the quality of plant materials taking into account the
different directions of use and regional conditions and task 3.1
The support activities in the field of fertilizer in Poland.
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Lu, C. M. and Zhang, J. H. 1998. Effects of water stress on
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abdzki, L. 2006. Agricultural droughts. An outline of problems and
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Jordi, W., Pot, C. S., Stoopen, G. M. and Schapendonk, A. H. 1994.
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1
135
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Effect of sulphur fertilization on fatty acid composition of faba bean (Vicia faba L.),
white lupin (Lupinus albus L.) and pea (Pisum sativum L.) grains
Eugenio Cazzato 1*, Vito Laudadio 2, Edmondo Ceci 3 and Vincenzo Tufarelli
1
Department of Agro-Environmental and Territorial Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70125 Bari, Italy. 2 Department of
DETO, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70010 Valenzano, Italy. 3 Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo
Moro, 70010 Valenzano, Italy. *e-mail: eugenio.cazzato@uniba.it
Abstract
Winter legume grains are suited as a significant source of vegetable protein for both human and livestock species, due to high protein content and the
high level of unsaturated fatty acids. This research reported the effect of S fertilization on the quality of three different pulses (faba bean, lupin and
pea) in terms of lipid content and fatty acid profile. For each species, randomized complete block design with three replicates was used, and three S
doses (0, 30 and 60 kg ha-1, respectively) were applied. The S fertilization was split in two times: 50% before sowing and 50% in the early of March
as K2SO4. Our findings indicated that the S fertilization in faba bean, lupin and pea grains led to a significant improvement of the fatty acid profile.
Furthermore, the S fertilization enhanced the legume grains oil composition through the increase of unsaturated fatty acids, and in particular the
remarkable decrease of the erucic acid in lupin grains.
Key words: Faba bean, lupin, pea, sulphur fertilization, fatty acids.
Introduction
Grain legumes are important crops in Mediterranean area and in
other countries of the world. Legume seeds exhibit high levels of
protein, essential amino acids, and important dietary minerals.
They are used in a popular breakfast food, and also used as a
vegetable green, fresh or canned. Also, they are important crops
for soil improvement and used as break crop in cereal rotation to
keep the soil fertile and productive 1, 2. Sulphur (S) is one of the
elements known to be essential for the legume-rhizobium system
with specific physiological and biochemical roles 3. The S demand
of legume crops is higher than that of cereal crops. Studies on
different legumes have shown that the concentration of the Scontaining amino acids was markedly declined with decreasing S
supply 4. Sulphur fertilization was also found to increase N
accumulation and yield of legumes on S-deficient soils. Among
the winter legume grains, the seed of lupin contains 9 - 14% oil,
whose composition includes in particular oleic acid, linoleic acid
and -linolenic acid 5. The increasing selection of varieties has
recently widened the possibility of increase the use of the legume
grains in human or livestock nutrition as a replacement for either
animal/vegetable proteins 6-8. However, to date studies on the
effects of S fertilization on grain legumes fatty acid contents are
limited. Therefore, the present field trial was conducted in Southern
Italy under Mediterranean conditions to evaluate the effect of S
fertilization on the fatty acid composition of faba bean, lupin and
pea grains.
Materials and Methods
A field trial was carried out in Southern Italy at Gaudiano di Lavello
Potenza (4106' N; 1551' E; 145 m above sea level) on a sandyclay soil, characterised as sub-alkaline, low in total N (0.77
136
Treatment
S30
Lupin
0.19a 0.13b
6.59c 7.57a
0.33
0.37
3.98a 3.77ab
55.01b 58.04a
19.96b 21.89a
0.23a 0.14b
1.73
1.42
4.34b 4.85a
7.64a 2.22c
10.76b 11.47a
67.32a 65.48c
21.92c 23.05b
8.13b 8.72a
Faba bean
0.02
0.02
6.61a 0.50b
0.10
0.27
11.93b 13.26a
0.01
0.04
0.52a 0.19b
3.01
2.83
22.31c 23.24b
44.85c 49.82b
0.46a 0.11b
4.94
5.03
1.94
1.75
1.10
1.16
1.01a 0.80b
1.21
0.99
24.41a 18.86b
24.26 25.03
51.35b 56.12a
1.83
1.82
Pea
11.50a 11.38a
5.27
5.16
0.10b 0.26b
15.76b 17.20b
53.16a 51.90b
14.21a 14.10a
16.77 16.54
15.86c 17.46b
67.37a 66.00b
1.11
1.07
S0
S60
0.11c
7.30b
0.36
3.06b
58.46a
21.90a
0.12b
1.30
4.93a
2.46b
10.47c
66.21b
23.32a
8.75a
0.14
7.15
0.35
3.47
57.17
21.25
0.16
1.48
4.71
4.11
10.90
66.34
22.76
8.63
0.03
0.32
0.05
0.17
0.95
0.41
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.18
0.22
1.10
0.43
0.05
0.045
0.035
0.076
0.037
0.027
0.019
0.034
0.055
0.022
0.005
0.018
0.025
0.009
0.047
0.01
0.49b
0.26
13.30a
0.09
0.17b
2.80
23.87a
50.07a
0.01c
4.96
1.65
0.87
0.84b
0.60
18.47b
25.61
55.91a
1.84
0.02
2.53
0.21
12.83
0.05
0.29
2.88
23.14
48.25
0.19
4.98
1.78
1.04
0.88
0.93
20.58
24.97
54.46
1.83
0.01
0.11
0.05
0.21
0.02
0.04
0.09
0.38
0.45
0.04
0.12
0.08
0.05
0.13
0.15
0.28
0.37
0.49
0.09
0.255
0.014
0.101
0.042
0.095
0.052
0.069
0.045
0.014
0.011
0.052
0.069
0.051
0.039
0.058
0.021
0.117
0.012
0.115
10.25b
5.42
4.37a
22.76a
44.77b
12.43b
15.67
27.13a
57.20c
1.11
11.04
5.28
1.58
18.57
49.94
13.58
16.33
20.15
63.52
1.09
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.29
0.41
0.22
0.15
0.16
0.50
0.04
0.047
0.185
0.009
0.011
0.007
0.013
0.053
0.005
0.006
0.196
137
albus L. cv. Multitalia) as the main protein source for broilers: Influence
on growth performance, carcass traits and meat fatty acid composition.
J. Sci. Food Agric. 91:2081-2087.
7
Laudadio, V. and Tufarelli, V. 2012. Effect of treated field pea (Pisum
sativum L. cv Spirale) as substitute for soybean extracted meal in a
wheat middlings-based diet on egg production and quality of early
laying brown hens. Arch. Geflgelkd. 76:1-5.
8
Laudadio, V. and Tufarelli, V. 2010. Treated faba bean (Vicia faba var.
Minor) as substitute for soybean meal in diet of early phase laying
hens: Egg-laying performance and egg quality. Poult. Sci. 89:22992303.
9
Folch, J., Lees, M. and Sloane-Stanley, G. H. A. 1957. A simple methods
for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues. J.
Biol. Chem. 226:497-507.
10
Abramovic, H. and Abram, V. 2005. Physico-chemical properties,
composition and oxidative stability of Camelina sativa oil. Food
Technol. Biotech. 43:63-70.
11
Zubr, J. 2003. Dietary fatty acids and amino acids of Camelina sativa
seed. J. Food Quality 26:451-462.
12
Hossain, M. S. and Mortuza, M. G. 2006. Chemical composition of
Kalimatar, a locally grown strain of faba bean (Vicia faba L.). Pak.
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13
Mccurdy, S. M., Drake, S. R., Swanson. B. G., Leung, H. K. and
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14
Coxon, D. T. and Wright, D. J. 1985. Analysis of pea lipid content by
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15
Murcia, M. A. and Rincn, F. 1991. Fatty acid composition of pea
(Pisum sativum L., var. Citrina) during seed growth. Grasas Aceites
42:444-449.
Conclusions
Under Mediterranean environment and sub-alkaline soil, the S
fertilization in winter legume grains led to an improvement of the
fatty acid profile. Furthermore, the S fertilization enhanced the
legume grains oil composition through the increase of unsaturated
fatty acids, and in particular the remarkable decrease of the erucic
acid in lupin grains.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the laboratory technicians involved
in the chemical analysis.
References
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2012. Quality, yield and nitrogen fixation of faba bean seeds as affected
by sulphur fertilization. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B-Soil Plant Sci.
62:732-738.
2
Cazzato, E., Laudadio, V., Stellacci, A. M., Ceci, E. and Tufarelli, V.
2012. Influence of sulphur application on protein quality, fatty acid
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1
138
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Yield and quality of Cenchrus ciliaris (L.) affected by nitrogen and phosphorus
fertilization
Ihsan Abu-Alrub *, Ahmed Aran, Omar Hamad and Abdelaziz Awaga
Research and Development, Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, P. O. Box 52150, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
*e-mail: ihsan.joma@adfca.ae
Received 20 February 2014, accepted 20 April 2014.
Abstract
Forage and nitrogen content responses of common buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris L.) to nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilization were evaluated
for two successive years in the UAE. Treatments consisted of five rates of N (0, 250, 500, 750 and 1000 kg ha-1 yr-1) and four rates of P (0, 200, 400
and 600 kg ha-1 yr-1), applied via weekly fertigation. All N fertilizer treatments resulted in significant increase in forage dry yield, relative to control.
However, no yield increase was observed from N treatments greater than 250 kg N ha-1. There were neither significant yield responses to P
fertilization treatments over the two years of the study, nor significant N-P treatment interactions for yield. Forage N concentration progressively
increased with increasing levels of N fertilizer, reaching maximum levels under the 1000 kg ha-1 N treatment. A seasonal pattern of forage N
concentration occurred, being higher in winter and lower in summer.
Key words: Cenchrus, nitrogen, phosphorus, fertilizer rate, UAE, forage yield, N concentration.
Introduction
Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass) is a perennial grass native to dry
areas of the African continent, West Asia, and India, and has
been widely introduced to arid and semi-arid regions worldwide 1.
Indigenous to the UAE, it occurs in areas having average annual
rainfall as low as 100 mm 2. However, natural species distribution
is in decline, largely due to selective overgrazing.
Currently, there is huge demand for forage production in the
UAE to support 3.7 million head of livestock, with inadequate
available forage supplies to maintain the livestock population 3. It
has been reported that Cenchrus ciliaris is a valued forage grass
for dry areas, due to its high biomass production and tolerance to
low moisture conditions 4, 5. Therefore, Cenchrus ciliaris is among
species having the greatest potential for forage production in
the UAE.
Soil of the UAE is predominately sandy textured, with very low
organic matter content, resulting in deficiencies in essential plant
nutrients. A number of studies have found forage yields to be
increased by fertilization on sandy lands 6. Nitrogen (N) fertilization
typically increases grass dry matter 7, 8, forage nitrogen
concentration 9, and seed yield 10. Generally, phosphorus (P)
fertilization alone does not sustainable increase forage yields 9, 11,
but combined application of P with N often does 12.
Nutritional quality of unfertilized buffelgrass in rangeland varies
seasonally 13. Improvements in forage quality with fertilization
have been shown in many studies 14-17. Significant increase in
forage N content, digestibility, and mean daily live mass gain per
sheep was found as nitrogen fertilization rates increased 18.
Fertilization has also been shown to increase soil water extraction
by forages, and improve water use efficiency 19, 20.
Limited data are available concerning production of irrigated
buffelgrass forage as affected by the fertilizer applications under
UAE conditions. The objective of this research was to evaluate
139
Results
Forage yield: The effect of fertilizer treatments on forage yield is
presented in Table 1. For both years, all N treatments significantly
increased yields, relative to control. Maximum yields were achieved
with the 250 kg N ha-1 yr-1 treatment, with no further increase in
yield resulting from higher N rates. Yield of treatments N 250 kg
ha-1 yr-1 were 55 and 57% higher than control for the first and
second years, respectively. During the first year, N treatment of
1000 kg ha-1 yr-1 resulted in yield decrease, relative to 500 and 250
kg ha-1 yr-1; however, in second year there was no significant
difference among N application rates. Neither phosphorus
treatments, nor N P treatment interactions were significant in
either year for forage yield or plant height. Average forage yield
per harvest for 2011 was higher than for 2012 (data not shown), as
seasonal harvest progressed average yield per harvest declined.
The reduction in yield per harvest in 2012 for N treatment 0, 250,
500, 750 and 1000 kg ha-1 yr-1 was 22.4, 19.1, 15.4, 4.5 and 1.5,
respectively.
Table 1. Total dry matter yield and average
plant height as affected by N and P
treatment level.
Treatments
-1
Plant height
at harvest (cm)
2011
2012
Dry matter
yield (t ha-1)
2011 2012
64.2
92.4
92.5
96.2
88.7
56.9
87.1
89.7
89.9
88.6
16.3
36.5
34.7
32.3
30.3
17.7
41.3
41.1
43.2
41.8
84.4
87.4
86.9
88.5
80.614
83.747
81.905
83.675
28.5
30.1
31.1
30.6
35.6
38.9
37.8
36.0
3.5
ns
ns
3.3
ns
ns
2.4
ns
ns
3.4
ns
ns
N concentration (%)
0 N (kg/ha)
500 N (kg/ha)
750 N (kg/ha)
1000 N (kg/ha)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
May
a
b
1.52
1.5
1.48
1.46
1.44
1.42
1.4
0
-1
200
400
P fertilizer level (kg ha-1 yr-1)
600
200 P (kg/ha)
400 P (kg/ha)
600 P (kg/ha)
P concentration (%)
N (kg ha yr )
0
250
500
750
1000
P (kg ha -1 yr-1)
0
200
400
600
LSD (P<0.05)
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Interaction
250 N (kg/ha)
2.5
N concentration (%)
140
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
May
Discussion
The response pattern of forage yield to N and P fertilization was
similar in both growing seasons. Though N fertilization increased
yield in both seasons, maximum yield occurred at 250 kg ha-1 yr-1,
with no further yield increase with higher N application rates,
suggesting that forage production had peaked. Quadratic forage
yield response to increasing N fertilization rate has been reported
in several studies 8, 22.
Nitrogen fertilization consistently had a marked influence on
the N concentration of forage in both years. Increased N
concentration in forage associated with increasing N fertilization
has been previously reported 8, 17. However, Rai 9 reported a 17.5%
increase in N concentration of buffelgrass with a single application
of 60 kg ha-1 year-1.
A summer depression in N concentration occurred is consistent
with findings of Johnson et al. 16, who reported a 15% depression
in forage N concentration in July, the hottest month of the
climatological area of the study. Though forage yields peaked in
summer in this study, forage quality declined. This trend may be
related to higher environmental temperature, which encourages
lignifications, rapid physiological development and metabolic
activity, resulting in decline in forage quality 23, 24.
The lack of response of yield to P fertilization was likely due to
the moderate level of P pre-existing in the soil, as indicated by soil
analysis. That N, and not P, was limiting to forage yield is consistent
with several previous studies 8, 25. Ocumpaugh et al. 22 reported
insignificant N-P interactions for forage yield over three years.
However, other research has shown that combined application of
N and P may significantly enhance forage yield 12. Though P
fertilization did not affect yield in this study, it did improve forage
quality by increasing N content. Thus, to maintain maximum yield
responses to N, as well as improved forage quality, P application
may be necessary in the long term under our conditions.
Our results suggest no effect of N application on forage P
content of buffelgrass. Conversely, Wiedenfeld et al. 8 reported
that P content of buffelgrass decreased significantly with
increasing N fertilization, but not observed for Pretoria 90. In
general, plant responsiveness to nutrients is related to genetic
potential for growth 26.
Conclusions
Nitrogen fertilisation had significant effects on the yield and
quality of buffelgrass grown under irrigated condition. The study
shows that buffelgrass can perform well at annual applications of
250 kg ha-1 N. Though P fertilization had no effect on yield, it did
improve forage quality by increasing forage N concentration.
Further studies, on the role of P as related to plant growth
specifically in the area where soil P levels are low, are needed
before concrete fertilizer recommendations can be made.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority
for funding and supporting this research. The authors are grateful
to Dr. Kenneth B. Marcum, United Arab Emirates University, for
reviewing and valuable suggestions.
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141
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Economy and Agribusiness Faculty, Agricultural University of Tirana,Tirana, Albania. A. Moisiu University of Durres,
Durres, Albania. *e-mail: maksmec@yahoo.com
Abstract
Any major new capital investment, such as the purchase of land, machinery, buildings or animals, can have a large effect on cash flows, particulary
if additonal capital is borrowed to finance the purchase. Borrowed capital requires principal and interest payments. The questions to answer before
making the new investment is: Will the investment generate enough additional cash income to meet its additional cash requirements? In other words,
is the investment financially feasible, as opposed to economically profitable? Farms with high production efficiency are more successful due to three
factors. High levels of production result in: (1) low cost per unit of output, (2) with an increase in the effective size of the farm business, and (3) with
an increased effectiveness of labor and machinery. The high level of production provides a simple and effective method of increasing farm size. Farms
with high agricultural productivity and high levels of productivity per head resulting in a large volume of business compared with farms with the same
size but with lower production levels. This additional business volume is the result of working more effectively, without increasing the surface of the
land or the size of the activities. The main methods of raising the level of productivity of livestock production are: i) selection and improvement of
breed; ii) choice of a balanced food ration in relation to the level of production, iii) sheltering conditions and health care, iv) appropriate and timely
nutrition and; v) a good combination between use of pasture and concentrated food.
Key words: Cash flow, cow farms, milk quality, net farm income.
Introduction
The Republic of Albania is currently in the process of preparing
for the EU Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance on Rural
Development (IPARD). The IPARD Programme should be based
on analyses of the current situation in the rural areas and on indepth analysis of the sectors concerned in the country.
The objective of this dairy sector analysis is to give a
quantitative and qualitative description of the Albanian dairy
sector, addressing both production and processing.
The methods to carry-out of the study had been desk studies,
meetings and collection of detailed information of 104 dairy farms
with cows. A questionnaire has been designed and data collected
during several focus group meetings.
The results of the analyses is prioritising key areas for potential
intervention to contribute upgrading to EU standards, strengthening
the overall competitiveness and performance of Albanian milk
sector as well as fostering the sustainable development of the
sector in the EU accession context.
The current structure of dairy sector of Albania is characterised
by large number of small milk producers. About 226 thousand
dairy cow farms with total 360 thousand cows and 82 thousand
farms with small ruminants (SR) with some 1.9 million milking sheep
and goats are producing in total about 1 million ton of milk.
About 86% of milk production is coming from cow milk. The
average number with 1.58 milking cows per farm or 23 milking
ewes or does per SR farm is very low in comparison with EU-27
average. The land privatization initiated in 1991 created a structure
of primary production that is characterized by extremely small plot
and herd sizes. Private farm business re-started in 1991 quasi
from zero.
143
Item
Concentrate
Hay
Silage
Quantity/head (kg)
5
5
25
Table 3. Yearly cash flow budget for a milking cow farm (5 cows).
Item
I. Income
Milk
Calves sold
Total income
II. Expenses
Concentrate
Straw
Silage
Veterinary services
Electric power
Stable maintenance
Expendable equipment
Total expenses
Net farm Income
1 Euro = 135 ALL
Unit
Quantity
Price
Amount
ALL
Euro
litre
Head
25,000
4
40
25,000
1,000,000
100,000
1,100,000
7,407
741
8,148
kg
kg
kg
9,125
9,125
45,625
25
8
5
228,125
73,000
228,125
25,000
12,000
10,000
15,000
591,250
508,750
1,690
541
1,690
185
89
74
111
4,380
3,769
Table 4. Cash flow analysis for a milking cow farm (size 5 cows).
Item
Cash inflow (in Euro)
Net farm Income (milk
& Calf)
Cash outflow (in Euro)
Two full time minimal
wages
Principal payments
Interest payments
Total outflow (in Euro)
Net cash flow (in Euro)
1 Euro = 135ALL
Year
3
4,848.8
4,848.8
4,848.8
4,848.8
4,848.8
3,352
3,352
3,352
3,352
3,352
1,667
600
5,619
-770.2
1,667
400
5,419
-570.2
1,666
200
5,218
-369.2
3,352
1,496.8
3,352
1,496.8
Yield
5 milk cows
Investment cost
10,000 Euro, of which
50% is a grant and
50% is obtained
through a loan
Total production
cost
682,500 ALL
Primary target
Quantity
Loan duration
Scenarios ranging
between 3 years
(shortest) and 5
years (longest)
Table 8. Cash flow analysis for a milking cow farm (size 5 cows).
Item
Concentrate
Hay
Silage
Quantity/head (kg)
5
5
25
Total
2,555
1,825
9,125
I. Income
Milk
Calf
Total income
II. Expenses
Concentrate
Straw
Silage
Veterinary services
Electric power
Stable maintenance
Expendable equipment
Total expenses
Net farm Income
1 Euro=135 ALL
Unit
Quantity
Price
Amount
ALL
Euro
litre
Head
30,500
4
40
25,000
1,220,000
100,000
1,320,000
9,037
741
9,778
kg
kg
kg
12,775
9,125
45,625
25
8
5
319,375
73,000
228,125
25,000
12,000
10,000
15,000
682,500
637,500
2,366
541
1,690
185
89
74
111
5,056
4,722
Year
3
5319.9
5319.9
5319.9
5319.9
5319.9
3352
1667
600
5619
-299.1
3352
1667
400
5419
-99.1
3352
1666
200
5218
101.9
3352
3352
3352
1967.9
3352
1967.9
Table 7. Yearly cash flow budget for a milking cow farm (5 cows).
Item
Item
Investment cost
10,000 Euro, of which
50% is a grant and 50%
is obtained through a
loan
Yield
From 5,000 to 6,100
lt/head
4 calves per year
available for sale
305 days lactation
Farm gate sales prices
Quantity
Primary target
Loan duration
Scenarios ranging
between 3 years
(shortest) and 10 years
(longest)
145
Item
Concentrate
Hay
Silage
Quantity/head (kg)
5
5
25
Total
2,555
1,825
9,125
Unit
litre
Head
kg
kg
kg
ha
Quantity
Price
ALL
30,500
4
12,775
9,125
45,625
3
1,220,000
100,000
1,320,000
25
8
5
20,000
319,375
73,000
228,125
60,000
25,000
12,000
10,000
15,000
742,500
577,500
9,037
741
9,778
0
2,366
541
1,690
444
185
89
74
111
5,500
4,278
Investment cost
10,000 Euro, of which
50% is a grant and 50%
is obtained through a loan
Table 12. Cash flow analysis for a milking cow farm (size 5 cows).
Item
Cash inflow (in Euro)
Net farm Income (milk
&Calf)
Cash outflow (in Euro)
Two full time minimal
wages
Principal payments
Interest payments
Total outflow (in Euro)
Net cash flow (in Euro)
1 Euro = 135 ALL
Year
3
4878.7
4878.7
4878.7
4878.7
4878.7
3352
3352
3352
3352
3352
1667
600
5619
-740.3
1667
400
5419
-540.3
1666
200
5218
-339.3
3352
1526.7
3352
1526.7
146
Size
Initial: 5 milk cows
Final: 10 milk cows
Amount
ALL
Euro
40
25,000
Quantity
Primary target
Loan duration
Scenarios ranging
between 3 years
(shortest) and 10
years (longest)
Item
Concentrate
Hay
Silage
Quantity/head
(kg)
5
5
25
Total
2,555
1,825
9,125
Price/kg
ALL
25
8
5
Table 15. Expected evolution of parameters used to calculate the yearly cash flow.
Item
I. Stock
Cows at the beginning of the year
Cows at the end of the year
Of which: Milking cows in full productivity
Cows not yet in full production
Cows not yet in production
Calves born
Calves retained for expansion/replacement
II. Outputs
Calves sold
Milk produced (litres)
III. Inputs
Concentrate (kg)
Straw (kg)
Silage (kg)
Veterinary services (cost ALL)
Electric power (cost ALL)
Stable maintenance
Others
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7-10
5
7
5
0
2
5
3
7
9
5
0
4
5
3
9
10
5
0
5
5
2
10
10
5
2
3
7
1
10
10
7
2
1
8
2
10
10
9
1
0
9
2
10
10
10
0
0
9
2
2
30,500
2
30,500
2
30,500
3
39,650
5
51,850
6
59,475
7
61,000
12,775
9,125
45,625
25,000
12,000
10,000
15,000
17,885
12,775
63,875
35,000
12,000
11,000
16,500
22,995
16,425
82,125
63,000
12,000
12,100
18,150
25,550
18,250
91,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
25,550
18,250
91,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
25,550
18,250
91,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
25,550
18,250
91,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7-10
50,000
1,220,000
1,270,000
50,000
1,220,000
1,270,000
75,000
1,220,000
1,295,000
125,000
1,586,000
1,711,000
150,000
2,074,000
2,224,000
175,000
2,379,000
2,554,000
175,000
2,440,000
2,615,000
319,375
73,000
228,125
25,000
12,000
10,000
15,000
682,500
587,500
4,352
447,125
102,200
319,375
35,000
12,000
11,000
16,500
943,200
326,800
2,421
574,875
131,400
410,625
63,000
12,000
12,100
18,150
1,247,900
47,100
349
638,750
146,000
456,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
1,402,000
309,000
2,289
638,750
146,000
456,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
1,403,000
821,000
6,081
638,750
146,000
456,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
1,403,000
1,151,000
8,526
638,750
146,000
456,250
126,000
12,000
13,310
19,965
1,403,000
1,212,000
8,978
Table 17. Net yearly and accrued cash flow (three year loan repayment period,
10% interest).
Item
Gross cash flow
Loan repayment
2 minimum wages
Net cash flow
Year 1
4,352
1,936
3,200
- 784
Year 2
2,421
1,936
3,200
-2,715
Year 6
8,526
Year 7-10
8,978
3,200
5,326
3,200
5,778
Table 18. Cash flow analysis for a milking cow farm (size growing from 5 to10 cows).
Duration of the loan in years
Gross cash flow in the period
10 % annual percent rate loan
Loan repayment
Accrued two people minimal wages
Net cash flow
15 % annual percent rate loan
Loan repayment
Accrued two people minimal wages
Net cash flow
3
7,121
4
9,410
5
15,492
6
24,018
7
32,996
8
41,973
9
50,951
10
59,929
5,808
9,600
-8,287
6,087
12,800
-9,477
6,374
16,000
-6,882
6,669
19,200
-1,852
6,972
22,400
3,623
7,284
25,600
9,090
7,602
28,800
14,549
7,929
32,000
20,000
6,240
6,679
9,600 12,800
-8,718 -10,069
7,137
16,000
-7,645
7,612
19,200
-2,794
8,105
22,400
2,491
8,614
25,600
7,760
9,139
28,800
13,012
9,680
32,000
18,249
147
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Improved water use efficiency in rice under limited water environment through
microbial inoculation
Mohamad Husni Omar 1*, Zulkarami Berahim 1, Norazrin Ariffin 1, Mohd Razi Ismail 1, 2, Halimi Mohd Saud 1, 3,
Nurul Amalina 1, S. H. Habib 2 and H. Kausar 1
Laboratory of Food Crops, Institute of Tropical Agriculture, 2 Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Agriculture Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*e-mail: mohdhusni@upm.edu.my
1
Abstract
An experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for enhancing yield and yield contributing
characters of MR219 rice variety in limited water environment. A total of 20 bacteria were isolated from different dry rhizosphere soil samples. Nine
isolates (A1, A4, A5, B4, C2, C3, D1, D2a and D3) were found to fix nitrogen by changing the colour of malate media into pale blue. Six isolates (A4,
B2b, B4, C2, D2a and D4) developed halo zones on phosphate growth medium showing their ability to solubilize phosphate on such media. The
significantly highest IAA was produced by the isolate D2a. Based on the results of in vitro screening test, two best performed isolates were further
evaluated on rice variety MR219 under drought condition. The results of the glass house study revealed that, both the selected isolates B4 and D2a
were effective in enhancing plant physiological and yield contributing characteristics over control treatment indicating their potential to be used as
PGPR in rice variety MR219 under drought condition.
Key words: Oryza sativa, PGPR, water stress, nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, IAA.
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the staple foods for more than half
of the worlds population. It accounts about 23% of the worlds
caloric intake. The demand for rice production is increasing with
the ever increasing world population 1, 2. About two-thirds of the
total rice production comes from irrigated paddy land 3. Therefore,
the present and future food security depends largely on irrigated
rice production system. Rice is a profligate water user and semi
aquatic in nature. Roughly it takes about 3,000 - 5,000 litres of
water to produce 1 kg of rice, which is 2 to 3 times more than to
produce 1 kg of any other cereal crops like wheat or maize 4. The
conventional system of rice cultivation is flooded condition, which
provides water and nutrient supply in anaerobic conditions and
uses large amounts of water. However, about half of the rice
growing area in the world does not have enough water to maintain
flooded conditions, and yield is therefore reduced, to some extent,
by drought. Drought at critical stage may result in considerable
yield reduction and crop failure 2. In rain fed ecosystems, drought
is a major limitation for rice production where timing and duration
of drought is related to phenological process and rice yields 5. A
challenge for sustainable rice cultivation is to decrease the usage
of water while increasing or maintaining the yield. However, rice
plants have relatively little adaptations to limited water and are
extremely sensitive to drought 6, 7. In near future, many countries
will face water problems for shortage, poor quality or flood that
will increase regional tension. By 2030, without more efficient
management of water resources, the present problem will hinder
food production in many countries 8.
Many breeding and genetic engineering strategies have been
proposed to develop drought resistant variety but the approaches
149
Flooded condition
Watering at 5 days interval
Watering at 5 days interval + Isolate B4
Watering at 5 days interval + Isolate D2a
Watering at 10 days interval
Watering at 10 days interval + Isolate B4
Watering at 10 days interval + Isolate D2a
151
Chlorophyll content
(Time, unit)
44 a
37 b
43 a
44 a
34 b
35 b
36 b
Photosynthesis
(Time, unit)
15 a
13 b
14 b
16 a
12 b
13 b
13 b
Values having the same letter(s) in a column do not differ significantly at the
5% level of probability.
Number of
panicles
16 a
15 ab
16 a
17 a
14 b
15 ab
14 b
Panicle
length
(cm)
26 a
25 a
26 a
27 a
24 a
25 a
26 a
Number of
spikelets
174 c
185 bc
196 bc
229 a
209 b
209 b
204 b
Filled
spikelets
(%)
70.3 a
60 .0 b
70.1 a
70.9 a
50.8 bc
50.0 c
52.8 c
Values having the same letter(s) in a column do not differ significantly at the 5% level
of probability.
Discussion
Plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPM) are known to
influence plant growth by various direct mechanisms through
production of plant hormones, improved mineralisation, increased
iron uptake and promoted plant growth and indirect mechanisms
through the production of siderophores, antibiosis, lysis of
pathogen cell walls and elicit induced systemic resistance (ISR) in
various crops including cereals 21.
The tropical soils of Malaysia harbour diverse groups of plant
growth promoting bacteria. In this study, out of 20 isolates, nine
were found to turn N-free semisolid malate medium into pale blue
152
Breeding upland rice for drought resistance. J. Sci. Food Agric. 88:927
939.
3
Maclean, J., Dawe, D., Hardy, B. and Hettel, G. 2002. Rice Almanac. 3rd
edn. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxon.
4
Sujono, J., Matsuo, N., Hiramatsu, K. and T. Mochizuki. 2011.
Improving the water productivity of paddy rice (Oryza sativa L.)
cultivation through water saving irrigation treatments. Agricultural
Sciences 2(4):511-517.
5
Jongdee, B., Fukai, S. and Cooper, M. 2002. Leaf water potential and
osmotic adjustment as physiological traits to improve drought tolerance
in rice. Field Crops Res. 76:153-163.
6
Kamoshita, A., Babu, R. C., Boopathi, N. M. and Fukai, S. 2008.
Phenotypic and genotypic analysis of drought-resistance traits for
development of rice cultivars adapted to rainfed environments. Field
Crops Res. 109:1-23.
7
Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber,
J. S., Johnston, M., Mueller, N. D., OConnell, C., Ray, D. K., West,
P. C., Balzer, C., Bennett, E. M., Carpenter, S. R., Hill, J., Monfreda,
C., Polasky, S., Rockstrom, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., Tilman, D.
and Zaks, D. P. M. 2011. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature
478:337.
8
Timmusk, S. and Wagner, E. G. 1999. The plant-growth-promoting
rhizobacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa induces changes in
Arabidopsis thaliana gene expression: A possible connection between
biotic and abiotic stress responses. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. 12:
951-959.
9
Yangs, J. W., Kloepper, J. W. and Ryu, C. M. 2008. Rhizosphere bacteria
help plants tolerate abiotic stress. Trends in Plant Science 14(1):1-4.
10
Viveros, O. M., Jorquera, M. A., Crowley, D. E., Gajardo, G. and
Mora, M. L. 2010. Mechanisms and practical considerations involved
in plant growth promotion by rhizobacteria. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.
10(3):293-319.
11
Glick, B. R., Todorovic, B., Czarny, J., Cheng, Z., Duan, J. and
McConkey, B. 2007. Promotion of plant growth by bacterial ACCdeaminase. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 26:227-242.
12
Arshad, M., Shaharoona, B. and Mahmood, T. 2008. Inoculation with
Pseudomonas spp. containing ACC-deaminase partially eliminates
the effects of drought stress on growth, yield, and ripening of pea
(Pisum sativum L.). Pedosphere 18:611-620.
13
Zahir, Z. A., Ghani, U., Naveed, M., Nadeem, S. M. and Arshad, M.
2009. Comparative effectiveness of Pseudomonas and Serratia sp.
containing ACC-deaminase for improving growth and yield of wheat
under salt-stressed conditions. Archives of Microbiology 191:415424.
14
Dimkpa, C., Weinand, T. and Asch, F. 2009. Plant-rhizobacteria
interaction alleviate abiotic stress conditions. Plant, Cell and
Environment 32:1682-1694.
15
Mayak, S., Tirosh, T. and Glick, B. R. 2004. Plant growth-promoting
bacteria that confer resistance to water stress in tomatoes and peppers.
Plant Science 166(2):525-530.
16
Herman, M. A. B., Nault, B. A. and Smart, C. D. 2008. Effects of plant
growth-promoting rhizobacteria on bell pepper production and green
peach aphid infestations in New York. Crop Prot. 27:996-1002.
17
Jha, B., Thakur, M. C., Gontia, I., Albrecht, V., Stoffels, M., Schmid,
M. and Hartmann, A. 2009. Isolation, partial identification and
application of diazotrophic rhizobacteria from tradional Indian rice
cultivars. European Journal of Soil Biology 45:62-72.
18
Nautiyal, C. S. 1999. An efficient microbiological growth medium for
screening phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. FEMS Microbiology
Letters 170:265-270.
19
Kausar, H., Sariah, M., Saud, H. M., Alam, M. Z. and Ismail, M. R.
2010. Development of compatible lignocellulolytic fungal consortium
for rapid composting of rice straw. International Biodeterioration &
Biodegradation 64(7):594-600.
20
Kausar, H., Sariah, M., Mohd Saud, H., Zahangir Alam, M. and Razi
Ismail, M. 2011. Isolation and screening of potential actinobacteria for
153
154
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Numerical investigation into optimal agricultural water management for typical soils
using HYDRUS-1D model
Po Li, Feiqing Wu and Kefeng Zhang *
Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, Ningbo 315100, China. *e-mail: kfzhang@hotmail.com
Received 10 May 2014, accepted 9 September 2014.
Abstract
Quantitative research of water circulation and utilization in the soil-plant system is the basis for rational use of agricultural water. In this study, a
systematic investigation into the optimal irrigation rate and time by numerical simulations for various soils was carried out using HYDRUS-1D
model. Three typical and contrasting European soils (coarse, medium and fine) were used in the simulations. Surface runoff during irrigation was
simulated, and so was water content distribution in the soil profile immediately after irrigation as well as 24 hours after irrigation were simulated.
Results reveal that the coarse soil could subject to a great irrigation rate. Even for the irrigation rate of 25 mm/h no significant surface runoff occurred
after 5 h irrigation. However, for both the medium and fine soils, the maximum irrigation rates without significant runoff were greatly reduced. The
maximum rate was about 5.0 and 3.0 mm/h for the medium soil and fine soil, respectively. The soil wetting depth 24 h after the maximum irrigation
rate for 5 h reached to 60 cm in the coarse soil, compared with about 20 and 16 cm in the medium and fine soil, respectively. This indicates that
irrigation could wet the root zone of deep-rooted crops in the coarse soil, while it could only wet the root zone for shallow-rooted crops in the medium
and fine soils. Furthermore, it was simulated that the soil wetting depth 24 h after irrigation was considerably greater than that immediately after
irrigation, suggesting that consideration should be taken in estimating soil wetting depth caused by soil water re-distribution. The results from this
study are helpful for irrigation planning for crops grown in different soils with different rooting depths.
Key words: Optimal irrigation, HYDRUS-1D model, irrigation simulation, soil water content distribution, soil wetting depth.
Introduction
Nowadays, 40% of the worlds food is produced by irrigated
agriculture, which consumes 70% of fresh water worldwide 1.
However, 60% of irrigated water is wasted 2. With the increase of
global population, the area of irrigated land is expected to increase
by another 15% by 2050 2. The threat of overuse of water to the
environment becomes increasingly acute, and therefore urgent
actions are required to save use of water in agriculture. One cause
of overuse of agricultural water is due to the unwisely-designed
irrigation plans. Inappropriate irrigation rate and time could result
in waste of water via surface runoff and water loss via percolation
to the deep soil.
Optimising irrigation rate and time is critically important to save
water use in agriculture. However, it is a difficult task, partly due
to uncertainty in soil texture and the associated soil hydraulic
properties. As a result the irrigation practice is commonly nonscientific, leading to low water use efficiency. Recently, studies
have been reported on use of soil sensors to control irrigation 3-9.
Many of such irrigation systems used soil water sensors at a
depth of approximately 250 mm to indicate soil water status in the
root zone, while some devised multi-sensor systems and used
sensors in the subsoil as a detector to locate the wetting front in
the soil. Although the systems as such ensured the minimum soil
wetting depth, , they were unable to locate the final wetting depth
caused by soil water redistribution.
With the advances in plant and soil sciences and in computing
power, numerous numerical models have been put forward, such
as HYDRUS-1D 10 and HYDRUS-2D/3D 11 for studying soil water
155
w
wh
K T cos D S w
wz
wz
(1)
K()
h
+1
z
s- r
h<0
(3)
h0
(4)
where
Se =
r
s r
Definition
Clay <18% and sand > 65%
18% < clay < 35%, 15% < sand or clay < 18% and
15% < sand < 65%
35% < clay < 60%
Medium
Fine
Soil surface
surface
Soil
Topsoil
0-30 cm
Subsoil
30-100 cm
(cm3 cm-3)
(cm-1)
n
(-)
Ks
(cm d-1)
l
(-)
0.403
0.439
0.520
0.025
0.010
0.010
0.0383
0.0314
0.0367
1.3774
1.1804
1.1012
60.0
12.1
24.8
1.2500
-2.3421
-1.9772
0.366
0.392
0.481
0.025
0.010
0.010
0.0430
0.0249
0.0198
1.5206
1.1689
1.0861
70.0
10.8
8.5
1.2500
-0.7437
-3.7124
Ts
Topsoil
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Subsoil
Coarse
Medium
Fine
m = 1 - 1/ n
(5)
Tr
in which r and s (cm3 cm-3) are the residual water content and
the saturated water content, , m and n are the shape parameters,
Ks is the saturated hydraulic conductivity, Se is the relative
saturation. The pore-connectivity parameter l in the hydraulic
conductivity function was estimated to be about 0.5 as an average
for many soils 21.
156
Name
Coarse
(1 + h )m
(2)
(h) =
(6)
0.059
0.151
0.279
0.114
0.220
0.342
Subsoil
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Tpwp
Tcrit
0.110
0.274
0.407
0.037
0.150
0.298
0.074
0.212
0.353
(a)
(a)
10
5
0
22
11
20
33
Time(h)
Time (h)
2.5 mm/h
2.5mm/h
7.5 mm/h
7.5mm/h
15
44
5
5
5 mm/h
5.0mm/h
(b)(b)
10
5
0
11
22
33
Time (h)
Time(h)
44
55
20
2.0mm/h
2 mm/h
55.0mm/h
mm/h
15
4.0mm/h
4 mm/h
(c)
(c)
10
5
0
1
3
Time (h)
0
0
(a)
mmhh-1-1
(a)10
10mm
-20
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
-60
-80
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
-60
-80
-3
(c)
mmhh-1-1
(c)20
20mm
-20
-20
-40
-60
(b)
mmhh-1-1
(b)15
15mm
-40
-20
-40
-80
20 mm/h
20mm/h
30 mm/h
30mm/h
Depth (cm)
0.169
0.289
0.404
Tfc
15 mm/h
15mm/h
25 mm/h
25mm/h
15
Depth (cm)
Tcrit
Runoff (mm)
Tpwp
Runoff (mm)
Tfc
Depth (cm)
Topsoil
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Depth (cm)
Table 3. Values of fc, pwp and crit for the soils used in the
simulations.
Runoff (mm)
20
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
-40
-60
-80
11h
h
22hh
33h
h
44h
h
55h
h
The reason for the entire wet zone with fairly constant soil
water content is due to the fact that the coarse soil has a great
capacity of drainage. Water penetration in the soil is mainly
induced by gravity and to a much lesser extent by the difference
in soil water potential.
157
0.25
0.3
0.35
20
-20
Depth (cm)
-10
-10
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
40
-40
50
-50
-20
-20
Depth(cm)
Depth (cm)
(a)
(a)
00
10
-10
30
-30
20
0.4
0.2
-30
-30
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
-40
-40
-50
-50
00
0
-30
0
-40
-50
0
(a) 2.0 mm h
-1
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
-20
-20
-30
-30
-40
-40
-50
-50
(b) 4.0 mm h
-1
11hh
22hh
33hh
44hh
55hh
3
Time (h)
15mm/h
mm/h
15
25mm/h
25
mm/h
20
(b)
(b)
15
10
2.5 mm/h
mm/h
2.5
5.0 mm/h
mm/h
5.0
5
0
3
Time (h)
(c)
(c)
15
10
5
0
2 mm/h
2.0
cm/h
4 mm/h
4.0
cm/h
3
Time (h)
10mm/h
10
mm/h
mm/h
20
20mm/h
20
Wetting depth (cm)
0
-20
-10
-10
Depth
(cm)
Depth(cm)
Depth (cm)
0
-10
10
15
irrigation rate of 2.5 and 5.0 mm h-1 was about 8 cm and 10 cm for
the irrigation time of 1 h, and increased to 15 cm and 20 cm for the
5 h irrigation in the medium soil, respectively. Correspondingly the
figures were about 5 and 7 cm, and 12 and 16 cm for the irrigation
rate of 2.0 and 4.0 mm h-1 in the fine soil. However, under a greater
irrigation rate in the coarse soil, the increase in the wetting depth
with the irrigation time appears to be more linear, for example,
under the irrigation rate of 20 mm h-1, the wetting depth was about
19 cm for the irrigation time of 1 h, and increased to 56 cm for the
irrigation time of 5 h.
Movement of the wetting front: The locations of the wetting
front immediately after irrigation and 24 h after irrigation were
simulated, and some examples for different soils are shown in Fig. 7.
In all the cases, considerable expansion of the wetted area with
varying degrees was simulated due to soil water re-distribution.
The expansion depth depends on the soil type, irrigation rate and
time. It can be found that the increase in the expansion depth in
the coarse soil can be much greater than that in the other soils.
When the coarse soil was irrigated with the rate of 20 mm h-1 for 5
h, the soil wetting front could move 37 cm deeper 24 h after
irrigation, while for both the medium and fine soils under the
maximum irrigation rate, the wetting front could move downwards
about 10 and 9 cm only, respectively. There was no big difference
in terms of the wetting depth between the medium and fine soil.
Also, for a given soil and the irrigation rate, the movement of the
wetting front was positively related to irrigation time. For example,
the increase in the wetting depth in the coarse soil irrigated with
the rate of 20 mm h-1 for 1 h was about 19 cm, and the value increased
to 37 and 56 cm for the irrigation time of 3 and 5 h, respectively.
Depth (cm)
-20
-40
-20
-20
a
-60
-80
Depth (cm)
-10
-20
-30
-80
-80
-10
-10
h
time 1h
1h
--- irri.
irri.time
after irri.
24
24hh after
irri.
--- irri.
irri.time
time 5h
5h
h after
after irri.
24
24h
irri.
-80
-80
00
-10
-10
f
-20
-20
irri. time3h
3h
--- irri.time
24 hafter
after irri.
irri.
24h
-30
-30
00
-10
-10
-60
-60
--- irri.
irri.time
time 3h
3h
24
24hh after
irri.
after irri.
-20
--- irri.time
irri. time1h
1h
24 hafter
after irri.
irri.
24h
-40
-40
d
-20
-30
Depth (cm)
-40
-40
00
00
-20
-20
-60
-60
--- irri.
irri.time
time1h
1h
24
24h
irri.
h after
after irri.
-10
0
0
-20
-20
-30
-30
irri. time5h
5h
--- irri.time
24 hafter
after irri.
irri.
24h
-30
-30
-10
-10
i
time3h
3h
--- irri.
irri.time
after irri.
24
24hh after
irri.
-20
-20
-30
-30
time5h
5h
--- irri.
irri.time
24 h after
after irri.
24h
irri.
Figure 7. Water content in the profile immediately and 24 hours after irrigation for the
irrigation rate of 20 mm h-1 for coarse soil (a-c), 5.0 mm h-1 for medium soil (d-f) and
4.0 mm h-1 for fine soil (h-j).
Conclusions
The coarse soil could infiltrate a great amount of
water with the irrigation rate up to 25 mm h-1. The
maximum irrigation rate for the medium and fine soils,
however, is greatly reduced. The maximum irrigation
rate is 5.0 mm h-1 and the maximum irrigation amount
is about 25 mm in a single irrigation event for the
medium soil, while the 4.0 mm h-1 and 20 mm are for
the fine soil, respectively.
The maximum wetting depth 24 h after irrigation
could reach to 60 cm, enough to wet the entire root
zone for a wide range of crop species in the coarse
soil. On the other hand, the maximum wetting depth
could only reach to 20 and 16 cm for the medium and
fine soils, capable of wetting the entire root zone for
the crops with shallow and shallow-median roots
only.
The re-distribution of soil water content in the
profile after irrigation is important in predicting the
wetting depth and should therefore be taken into
consideration in devising irrigation planning.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the financial support
from the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant No. 51379187) for carrying out the work.
References
159
160
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Effects of allelopathic crop water extracts and their combinations on weeds and
yield of rainfed wheat
Shahbaz Hussain 1, Fayyaz-ul Hassan 1, Muhammad Rasheed 1, Safdar Ali 2 and Mukhtar Ahmed 1*
1
Department of Agronomy, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi 46300, Pakistan. 2 Department of Soil Science and
Soil Water Conservation, PMAS-AAU, Rawalpindi 46300, Pakistan. *e-mail: ahmadmukhtar@uaar.edu.pk
Abstract
Efficacy of allelopathic crop water extracts to control weeds can be enhanced by integrating them with other phytotoxins. The effects of allelopathic
crop water extracts and their combinations along with lower rates of Atlantis 3.6 WG were studied to control weeds in rainfed wheat through field
experimentation during 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. Treatments included weedy check, hand weeding, Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 14.4 g a.i. ha-1, sorghum
water extract, sunflower water extract, sorghum + sunflower water extract and combinations of sorghum + sunflower water extracts with 25, 50 and
75% rates of Atlantis 3.6 WG arranged in randomized complete block design. Results revealed that combination of allelopathic extracts with lower
rates of herbicide decreased weed density, fresh and dry weights by 42-70%, 38-62% and 37-63%, respectively. Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 14.4 g a.i. ha-1
reduced these parameters by 59-66%, 52-53% and 52-56%. The maximum numbers of fertile tillers, number of grains spike-1 and grain yield were
recorded from hand weeding. Statistically, similar yields were obtained from allelopathic water extracts combined with 50-75% rates of herbicide and
full dose of herbicide. Relatively lower wheat grain yields were recorded during second year compared with first due to moisture stress. The maximum
net benefits were achieved from sorghum and sunflower water extracts mixed with 75% dose of Atlantis 3.6 WG followed by mixture of allelopathic
extracts with 50% herbicide and recommended rates of Atlantis 3.6 WG (14.4 g a.i. ha-1). Marginal analysis exhibited dominance of all treatments
except combination of extracts with lower doses of herbicides. The study concluded that sorghum and sunflower water extracts can be used in
combination with 50-75% rates of Atlantis 3.6 WG to control weeds economically in wheat crop under rainfed conditions.
Key words: Allelopathic, weeds, herbicide, wheat, marginal analysis.
Introduction
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important cereal crop and staple
food of Pakistan. Crop is grown all over the country including
irrigated and rainfed areas. Share of rainfed wheat in total domestic
wheat production is about one third (1/3). Average yield of wheat
crop in Pakistan is 2714 kg /ha, which is very low as compared to
other advanced wheat producing countries of the world 1. There
are many factors contributing towards low yields in rainfed system
like, i.e. lack of moisture, availability of certified seed, sowing too
early or late, imbalanced nutrition, irrigation and plant protection,
etc. Weeds infestation is one of the major cause of low yields of
this crop. Weeds decrease the yield of wheat by 20-50% 9. Manual,
mechanical, cultural and chemical methods of weed control are
commonly being used by farmers. Chemical method has gained
popularity during past few years due to its effectiveness, quick
response and decreasing farm labour. Although herbicides provide
satisfactory weed control, yet their use poses environmental and
health hazards 25 along with affecting the quality of the produce 21.
It also causes herbicide resistance in weed species 22. There is
need to decrease herbicide usage and harness other means to
cope with the risks involved with herbicides. Allelopathy is a
natural and safe approach, which offers a great potential to manage
weeds 8. It deals with the direct influence of allelochemicals
produced by one living plant on the growth and development of
161
162
Results
Total weeds density (No. m-2) at 75 DAS: The weed flora of the
experimental site comprised of Convolvulus arvensis L. (field bind
weed), Fumaria indica L. (fumitory), Chenopodium album L.
(lambsquarters), Vicia sativa L. (common vetch) and Avena fatua
L. (wild oat). Field bind weed was the major one to infest the field.
All weed control treatments suppressed total weed density
recorded at 75 days after sowing (DAS). Relatively more weeds
per unit area were recorded during 2009-2010 compared with 20102011. The highest weed infestation was observed from weedy
check. Sorghum and sunflower water extracts depressed it by 2327% while their combination improved weeds inhibition.
Combination of allelopathic water extracts with lower rates of
Atlantis 3.6 WG (7.2 and 10.8 g a.i. ha-1) gave statistically similar
reduction of total weed density as was achieved by application of
Atlantis @ 14.4 g a.i. ha-1. However, the maximum control of weeds
was observed in hand weeding treatment, which decreased total
weed density from 78 to 84% during both years.
Total weed fresh weight (g m-2) at 75 DAS: Weed control
treatments reduced total weed fresh weight by 21-86% as compared
to control during both years at 75 DAS (Table 1). The maximum
reduction in total weed fresh weight was calculated from hand
weeding (83-86%) followed by allelopathic water extracts
combined with Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 10.8 g a.i. ha-1 (62%). Sorghum
and sunflower water extracts alone and their mutual combinations
reduced total weed fresh weight by 21-32% and were statistically
at par with each other. Full dose of Atlantis 3.6 WG (14.4 g a.i. ha-1)
reduced total weed fresh weight by 52%, which was statistically at
par with sorghum and sunflower water extracts combined with 5075% rate of Atlantis during both years. Results revealed that hand
weeding was the most effective method for reducing total weed
fresh weight, but it was a labour intensive and time consuming
approach.
Total weed dry weight (g m-2) at 75 DAS: All treatments reduced
total weed dry weight significantly as compared to control (T1) at
75 DAS (Table 1). Allelopathic extracts controlled total weed dry
weight by 21-32% at statistically equal level among each other.
Combination of extracts with lower rates of herbicide decreased
total weed dry weight by 37-63% as compared to control. The
data revealed that combinations of allelopathic extracts with half
to three fourth dose of herbicide were equally effective to reduce
total weed dry weight as compared with full dose of herbicides.
The maximum reduction of weed biomass was again recorded from
hand weeding (85-87%) during both years.
Number of fertile tillers m-2: Most of the treatments increased
the number of fertile tillers m-2 significantly compared with control.
It varied from 158 to 201 during both years (Tables 2 and 3). More
tillers were observed during 2010-2011 compared with 2009-2010.
The lowest numbers of tillers were recorded from control treatment
during both seasons. The maximum numbers of fertile tillers (187.1
and 201 tillers m-2) were obtained from hand weeding. Those were
statistically at par with T3, T8 and T9 during both years. Crop
water extracts produced statistically similar number of fertile tillers;
however, their combination with each other and with herbicides
improved it according to increasing concentrations of Atlantis.
Herbicide (Atlantis 3.6 WG) was applied at recommended dose,
Table 2. Effect of weed control treatments on yield and yield components of wheat during 2009-2010.
Treatments
T1 Control (weedy check)
T2 Hand weeding
T3 Atlantis 3.6 WG@ 14.4 g a.i. ha-1 spray at 40 DAS
T4 Conc. sorghum water extract @ 20 L ha-1 at 40 and 60 DAS
T5 Conc. sunflower water extract @ 20 L ha-1 at 40 and 60 DAS
T6 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 at
40 and 60 DAS
T7 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 3.6 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
T8 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
atlantis 3.6 WG @ 7.2 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
T9 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
atlantis 3.6 WG @ 10.8 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
LSD at 5%
36.13 d
38.63 a
38.35 a
36.70 cd
36.83 cd
1000 grain
weight (g)
32.90 b
33.40 ab
33.47 ab
32.97 ab
32.78 b
Grain yield
(Kg ha-1)
1751.1 e
2305.9 a
2201.8 ab
1945.6 cd
1874.1 de
172.4 bcd
36.92 cd
33.08 ab
2018.2 cd
178.1 abc
37.10 bc
33.28 ab
2094.1 bc
184.0 ab
37.28 bc
33.63 ab
2233.9 ab
186.1 a
37.88 ab
34.03 a
2353.2 a
12.97
0.94
1.07
182.40
No. of fertile
tillers m-2
158.3 e
187.1 a
181.8 ab
167.3 cde
163.3 de
Grains spike-1
Table 3. Effect of weed control treatments on yield and yield components of wheat during 2010-211.
Treatments
T1 Control (weedy check)
T2 Hand weeding
T3 Atlantis 3.6 WG@ 14.4 g a.i. ha-1 spray at 40 DAS
T4 Conc. sorghum water extract @ 20 L ha-1 at 40 and 60 DAS
T5 Conc. sunflower water extract @ 20 L ha-1 at 40 and 60 DAS
T6 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 at
40 and 60 DAS
T7 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 3.6 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
T8 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
atlantis 3.6 WG @ 7.2 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
T9 Conc. sorghum + sunflower water extract each @ 10 L ha-1 +
atlantis 3.6 WG @ 10.8 g a.i. ha-1 at 40 DAS
LSD at 5%
27.17 c
31.83 a
30.85 ab
29.27 abc
28.55 bc
1000 grain
weight (g)
32.50
33.50
33.20
32.70
32.70
Grain yield
(Kg ha-1)
1508.1 e
2087.7 a
1982.3 a
1690.2 cd
1635.5 de
178.5 bcd
29.35 abc
32.85
1759.5 cd
180.0 bcd
30.27 ab
32.78
1802.4 bc
193.8 abc
30.6 ab
33.00
1933.3 ab
198.4 ab
31.2 ab
33.25
2052.5 a
20.10
2.76
NS
162.22
No. of fertile
tillers m-2
171.4 d
200.8 a
195.7 ab
175.1 cd
173.4 d
Grains spike-1
163
its one half and three fourth rates mixed with allelopathic extracts
were equally effective in increasing number of fertile tillers of
wheat during both years.
Number of grains spike-1: Most of the treatments increased the
number of grains per spike significantly as compared to control. It
ranged from 27.17 to 38.63 (Tables 2 and 3) during the study.
Relatively, the lower number of grains was counted during the
second year. The maximum (31.83 to 38.63) number of grains spike-1
was recorded from hand weeding and it was at par with Atlantis @
14.4 g a.i. ha-1 and crop extracts mixed with Atlantis @ 10.8 g a.i.
ha-1 during both seasons. Although crop water extracts increased
the number of grains per spike, they were statistically similar with
control treatment. Control treatment produced the least number
of grains spike-1 during both seasons.
Thousand (1000) grains weight (g): Thousand grains weight
varied from 32.5 to 34.03 g (Tables 2 and 3) in all treatments during
both years. Sorghum and sunflower water extract along with
Atlantis @ 10.8 g a.i. ha-1 produced the heaviest grains (34.03 g)
during 2009-2010, which was at par with all other treatments. A
non significant effect of different weed control treatments was
found during the second year.
Grain yield (kg ha -1): All treatments except T5 produced
significantly higher grain yields as compared with control during
both years. It varied from 1508 to 2353 kg ha-1 (Tables 2 and 3) in
all weed control treatments. Sole water extracts of sorghum and
sunflower increased wheat grain yields (7-12%), but their mutual
combination produced 17% higher yields than T1. Statistically,
similar grain yields were recorded from T2, T3, T8 and T9 during
T1
1751.06
175.106
1575.95
47278.6
T2
2305.88
230.588
2075.29
62258.8
T3
2201.75
220.18
1981.58
59447.3
T4
1945.62
194.562
1751.06
52532.0
T5
1874.06
187.406
1686.65
50599.5
T6
2018.25
201.825
1816.43
54492.8
T7
2094.13
209.413
1884.72
56541.5
T8
2233.94
223.394
2010.55
60316.4
T9
2353.19
235.319
2117.87
63536.1
7500
Cost of herbicide
2462.5
615.62
1231.25
1846.88
1100
900
1000
500
500
500
47278.6
7500
54758.8
50
300
2812.5
56634.8
100
600
1800
50732.0
100
600
1600
48999.5
100
600
1700
52792.8
50
300
1465.62
55075.9
50
300
2081.25
58235.1
50
300
2696.88
60839.3
Sprayer rent
Spray labour
Cost that vary
Net benefit
Remarks
Kg ha-1
Kg ha-1
To bring at farmer level
Rs.30 Kg-1
30 man day ha-1,
Rs.250 per man day
Rs. 985/5.76 g a.i.
Rs. 27.5 & 22.5 L-1
SWE & SunWE
Rs.50/spray
Rs.300/man/day/ha
Rupees ha-1
Rupees ha-1
T1
1508.05
150.81
T2
2087.70
208.77
T3
1982.30
198.23
T4
1690.20
169.02
T5
1635.50
163.55
T6
1759.50
175.95
T7
1802.45
180.24
T8
1933.30
193.33
T9
2052.5
205.25
Remarks
Kg ha-1
Kg ha-1
Adjusted yield
1357.25
1878.93
1784.07
1521.18
1471.95
1583.55
1622.21
1739.97
1847.25
Gross income
40717.4
56367.9
53522.1
45635.4
44158.5
47506.5
48666.2
52199.1
55417.5
Hand weeding
7500
Cost of herbicide
2462.5
615.62
1231.25
1846.88
1100
900
1000
500
500
500
40717.4
7500
48867.9
50
300
2812.5
50709.6
100
600
1800
43835.4
100
600
1600
42558.5
100
600
1700
45806.5
50
300
1465.62
47200.5
50
300
2081.25
50117.8
50
300
2696.88
52720.6
Rs.30 Kg-1
30 man day ha-1,
Rs.250 per man day
Rs. 985/5.76 g a.i.
Rs. 27.5 & 22.5 L-1
SWE & SunWE
Rs.50/spray
Rs.300/man/day/ha
Rupees ha-1
Rupees ha-1
Sprayer rent
Spray labour
Cost that vary
Net benefit
164
Net benefit
(Rs.)
47278.62
55075.89
48999.50
52792.75
50732.00
58235.13
60839.26
56634.75
54758.76
Marginal cost
(Rs.)
1465.63
7797.26
615.62
615.63
3159.11
2604.13
Net benefit
(Rs.)
40717.35
47200.53
42558.5
45806.5
43835.4
50117.85
52720.63
50709.6
48867.9
Marginal cost
(Rs.)
1465.63
6483.18
615.63
615.63
2917.33
2602.78
T1 Control (weedy Check), T2 Hand Weeding, T3 Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 14.4 g a.i. /ha spray at 40 DAS, T4 Concentrated sorghum water extract @ 20 L/ha
spray at 40 and 60 DAS, T5 Concentrated sunflower water extract @ 20L/ha spray at 40 and 60 DAS, T6 Concentrated sorghum + sunflower water extract
at 10 L/ha each spray at 40 and 60 DAS, T7 Concentrated sorghum + sunflower water extract at 10 L/ha each + Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 3.6 g a.i. /ha spray at
40 DAS, T8 Concentrated sorghum + sunflower water extract at 10 L/ha each + Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 7.2 g a.i. /ha spray at 40 DAS, T9 Concentrated sorghum
+ sunflower water extract at 10 L/ha each + Atlantis 3.6 WG @ 10.8 g a.i. /ha spray at 40 DAS.
Marginal rate of return (MRR %): (Marginal net benefits/Marginal costs)*100.
165
y = -66.53x + 2266
R2 = 0.924
167
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Genotypic variability for nutrient, antioxidant, yield and yield contributing traits in
vegetable amaranth
Umakanta Sarker 1*, Md. Tofazzal Islam 2, Md. Golam Rabbani 3 and Shinya Oba 4
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 2 Department of Biotechnology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural
University, Gazipur - 1706, Bangladesh. 3 Department of Horticulture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
4
Laboratory of Field Science, Faculty of Applied Biological Science, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan.
.
*e-mail: umakanta_sarker@yahoo.com
1
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate genotypic variability in 30 vegetable amaranth genotypes for nutrient composition, antioxidant content, and 12 yield
contributing traits. The trials were in the field of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University in Bangladesh for consecutive two
years (2012 and 2013) implementing Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. High mean value, high range of variability
and high genotypic variance were observed for all the traits except content of Ca, protein and betacarotenoid. Close differences between genotypic
and phenotypic variances and genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variations were observed for all the traits. Considering all genetic parameters,
selection based on contents of potassium, manganese, and ascorbic acid, plant height, leaves/plant, diameter of stem base, fiber content, leaf area and
foliage yield/plot seemed to be effective for the improvement of vegetable amaranth. Foliage yield had significant positive correlation with plant
height, leaves per plant, diameter of stem base, fiber content and leaf area. Nutrient content and antioxidant traits exhibited interesting results, i.e., had
insignificant genotypic correlations with foliage yield and most of the studied traits indicating that selection with these traits might be possible
without compromising any yield loss. Therefore, concomitant selection for high nutrient, antioxidant and high foliage yield would be effective for
improvement of the vegetable amaranth. Based on mean, range, genetic parameters, correlation coefficient and path coefficient values, direct selection
through three traits, i.e., fiber content, leaf area and diameter of stem base would significantly improve the foliage yield of vegetable amaranth. On the
other hand, concomitant selection based on high nutrient and antioxidant content and high foliage yield would be effective selection method for
improvement of vegetable amaranth.
Key words: Antioxidant, nutrient, foliage yield, genotypic variance, heritability, genetic advance, genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation,
correlation, path coefficient.
Introduction
Amaranth was important food crop in the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan
civilizations. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S in 1975
elected amaranths as the worlds most promising crops with
promising economic value 1-3. The main vegetable type of
amaranth, Amaranthus tricolor L., seems to have originated in
South or Southeast Asia 4 and then spread through the tropics
and the temperate zone 5. Leafy vegetables are a valuable part of
the diet owing to their nutritive values which plays an important
role in the human diet 6, 7. Unlike other leafy vegetables, vegetable
amaranth is cultivated during hot summer months when no other
green vegetables are available in the market 8. Among 60 species,
vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) is now very popular
as vegetable in many Asian and African countries. It contains
high amount of protein, dietary fiber, dietary minerals and
antioxidant compounds like ascorbic acid and betacarotenoid 9-13.
It has been rated equal or superior in taste to spinach and is
considerably higher in protein (14 - 30% on dry weight basis),
minerals (Fe, Mn and Zn) and antioxidants like betacarotenoids
(90 - 200 mg/kg) and ascorbic acid (about 28 mg/100 g) compared
to any other leafy vegetables 9, 14-21. Some metalloenzymes like
catalase (Fe) and superoxide dismutase (Mn and Zn) required Fe,
Mn and Zn minerals for their antioxidant activity. Antioxidant
neutralizes or removes free oxygen radicals in the body and helps
to protect many diseases including cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
168
169
Table 1. Genetic parameters in 30 vegetable amaranth genotypes for nutrients, antioxidants, yield and its
contributing traits.
Character
Ca (g/100 g)
K (g/100 g)
Protein (mg/100g)
Mn (mg/kg)
Beta carotenoid (mg/g)
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g)
Plant height (cm)
Leaves/plant
Stem base diameter (cm)
Fibre (%)
Leaf area (cm2 )
Foliage yield/plot (kg)
Mean
1.70
3.98
1.25
112.25
0.85
115.001
21.77
9.75
6.41
8.17
26.12
4.57
Range
0.76-2.15
1.60-6.65
1.06-1.51
63.75-156.75
0.60-1.15
65.50-178.55
9.50-40.72
4.92-22.25
2.6-12.54
6.64-9.76
16.24-42.77
3.75-5.95
Vp
0.18
2.50
0.17
715.00
0.22
999.50
53.90
16.15
5.61
0.73
61.49
5.79
Vg
0.16
2.35
0.13
712.50
0.19
995.75
53.55
16.12
5.56
0.65
61.16
5.65
PCV
24.96
39.73
32.98
23.82
55.18
27.49
33.72
41.22
36.95
10.46
30.02
52.65
GCV
23.53
38.52
28.84
23.78
51.28
27.44
33.61
41.18
36.79
9.87
29.94
52.01
h2b (%)
88.89
94.00
76.47
99.65
86.36
99.62
99.35
99.81
99.11
89.04
99.46
97.58
GA (5%)
0.87
3.26
0.85
55.08
0.97
65.13
15.12
8.28
4.88
1.76
16.15
4.96
%GAPM
51.41
81.84
67.95
49.07
113.67
56.63
69.47
84.91
76.12
21.54
61.84
108.47
Vp = Phenotypic variance, Vg = Genotypic variance, PCV = Phenotypic coefficient of variation, GCV = Genotypic coefficient of variation, h2b = heritability in broad sense, GA = Genetic
advance, GAPM = Genetic advance in percent of mean, Ca = Calcium, K= potassium, Mn = manganese.
170
171
-0.016
-0.015
0.008
0.007
0.009
0.008
0.162
0.160
-0.096
-0.095
0.007
0.006
-0.112
-0.110
0.151
0.150
-0.296
-0.295
-0.272
-0.270
0.071
0.070
0.325
0.322
0.157
0.155
0.150
0.150
0.374
0.372
0.440*
0.440*
0.475**
0.474**
0.341
0.340
0.312
0.310
Foliage
yield/plot
(kg)
-0.194
-0.192
0.232
0.230
0.087
0.085
0.317
0.315
0.172
0.170
0.235
0.236
0.442*
0.440*
0.405*
0.404*
0.494**
0.494**
0.518**
0.518**
0.522**
0.521**
Leaf area
(cm2)
Fibre
(%)
Stem base
diameter
(cm)
-0.530**
-0.528**
0.162
0.160
0.111
0.110
-0.190
-0.188
0.019
0.017
0.045
0.044
0.462*
0.460*
0.207
0.206
-0.132
-0.130
0.114
0.112
0.161
0.160
0.126
0.125
0.052
0.050
-0.322
-0.320
0.172
0.170
-0.271
-0.270
-0.396*
-0.395*
0.395*
0.393*
-0.397*
-0.395
-0.402*
-0.401*
0.309
0.308
0.080
0.078
-0.121
-0.120
0.312
0.312
-0.016
-0.014
0.550**
0.548**
Leaves/ plant
Plant height
(cm)
Ascorbic acid
(mg/100g)
Beta
carotenoid
(mg/g)
0.024
0.022
0.120
0.119
-0.215
-0.213
0.080
0.078
Mn
(mg
/kg)
0.177
0.175
-0.070
-0.069
-0.160
-0.158
Protein
(mg
/100g)
-0.454*
-0.452*
0.241
0.240
Fibre (%)
Leaves/ plant
Mn (mg/kg)
Protein (mg/100g)
K (g/100 g)
Ca (g/100 g)
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
rg
rp
K
(g
/100g)
-0.015
-0.012
Character
Table 2. Genotypic and phenotypic correlation co-efficient (rg and rp) in 30 vegetable amaranth genotypes for nutrient, antioxidant, yield and its contributing traits.
172
Table 3. Partitioning of genotypic correlation into direct (bold phase) and indirect effect in 30 vegetable amaranth genotypes for
nutrient, antioxidant, yield and its contributing traits.
Character
Ca (g/100 g)
K (g/100 g)
Protein (mg/100g)
Mn (mg/kg)
Beta carotenoid (mg/g)
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g)
Plant height (cm)
Leaves/plant
Stem base diameter (cm)
Fibre (%)
Leaf area (cm2)
Ca
-0.368
0.006
0.168
-0.066
-0.010
0.049
0.120
0.147
0.196
0.004
-0.100
-0.004
0.230
0.055
-0.017
0.029
0.027
0.041
0.071
-0.037
0.001
0.017
Protein
-0.004
0.002
0.010
-0.002
-0.002
0.002
-0.003
0.001
0.001
0.000
-0.121
Mn
Beta
carotenoid
Ascorbic
acid
Plant
height
0.040
-0.016
-0.037
0.225
0.018
0.028
-0.090
-0.028
-0.04
0.037
0.036
0.009
0.043
-0.075
0.028
0.347
0.019
0.138
0.109
0.006
-0.034
-0.051
-0.023
0.020
0.028
0.022
0.009
0.172
-0.068
-0.003
0.007
0.000
0.065
0.093
-0.051
0.079
0.114
-0.113
0.114
0.285
-0.157
-0.133
0.029
0.011
Leaves
/plant
Stem
base
diameter
-0.040
0.031
0.008
-0.013
0.031
-0.002
0.055
0.200
0.021
0.016
0.008
-0.011
0.003
0.002
-0.004
0.000
0.001
0.009
0.004
0.420
-0.006
0.001
Fibre
Leaf
area
-0.007
0.002
0.002
0.100
-0.061
0.001
-0.063
0.097
-0.184
0.616
0.192
0.125
-0.035
-0.152
-0.074
-0.071
-0.175
0.018
-0.035
-0.006
-0.145
0.464
Foliage
yield/
plot
(kg)
-0.190
0.236
0.089
0.315
0.178
0.234
0.442*
0.405*
0.494**
0.518**
0.522**
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174
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Biologist, PhD Student Postgraduate Plant Physiology, Federal University of Lavras - UFLA P. O. Box 3037, 37200-000
Lavras, MG, Brazil. 2 Agronomist, Professor Department of Botany, University Federal de Pelotas - UFPel, P. O. Box 354, 96010900 - Pelotas, RS, Brazil. 3 Agronomist, Research Embrapa Temperate, highway BR-392, Km 78, P. O. Box 403, 96010-971 Pelotas, RS, Brazil. 4 Biologist, Masters Graduate Program in Plant Physiology, Federal University of Lavras - UFLA, P. O. Box
3037, 37200-000 - Lavras, MG, Brazil. e-mail: fabiolaoliveirakruger@gmail.com, dariommoraes@gmail.com,
daniel.franco@embrapa.br, caroline.costa@embrapa.br, cha.fvaz@hotmail.com, paulinhagayer@hotmail.com
1
Abstract
The use of seeds of great physiological potential, which is influenced by several factors from field to storage, is necessary to achieve high yields.
Storage, when irregularly performed, may lead the seeds to deterioration, promoting changes on the cell membrane system and respiratory activity
that may cause problems to general activities of protein synthesis, thus, to seed germination and vigor. Our objective was to evaluate the physiological
potential and respiratory activity of rice seeds stored for 10 years at different temperatures. Rice seeds of the cultivars BRS Pelota, BRS Atalanta,
and BRS Firmeza were used, which were placed in impermeable packaging, and stored for 10 years at -15; 1; and 18C. The physiological potential
was evaluated by germination, seedling emergence under greenhouse conditions, germination rate, length and dry matter of aerial part and roots, and
respiratory activity. Rice seeds of BRS Pelota cultivar stored at -15C presented better physiological potential. For BRS Atalanta and BRS Firmeza
cultivars, the storage temperature of 1C maintained the seed physiological potential, confirming the results observed for respiratory activity. We
concluded that it is possible to maintain the physiological potential of BRS Pelota, BRS Atalanta, and BRS Firmeza rice seeds after 10 years of storage
at -15 and 1C. The evaluation of seed respiratory activity indicated that it presents relationship with vigor of seeds stored at different temperatures.
Key words: Oryza sativa L., viability, vigor, deterioration, physiological, germination.
Introduction
Rice is one of the most cultivated cereals in the world, comprising
an area of approximately 158 million hectares 1. Brazil, which is
considered the main rice producer in the Americas, falls among
the ten largest world producers 2. For the achievement of great
yields, the use of seeds of high potential is necessary, and storage
is considered one of the main stages for conservation of seed
physical, physiological, and sanitary quality 3.
The seed lot quality comprises several characteristics or
attributes that determine its value for sowing, so that an
inappropriate storage may result in serious seed damage.
In this sense, we may highlight the deterioration, an irreversible
process 4 which changes, when caused in the initial germination
stages such as water absorption and metabolism activation, may
modify the cell membrane system 5 and respiratory activity 6, 7; the
latter is one of the most frequent changes. Therefore, for longterm seed conservation, it is necessary to maintain its respiratory
activity at low levels via reducing the ambient temperature and
seed water content.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the physiological
quality and respiratory activity of rice seeds stored for 10 years at
different temperatures.
175
Respiration
Cultivar
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
-15C
91 Aa
92 Aa
94 Aa
88 Aa
96 Aa
93 ABa
18.81 Ba
21.99 Aa
17.72 Ba
36.66 Bb
70.88 Ab
15.64 Cb
1C
87 Bb
93 Aa
96 Aa
89 Ba
96 Aa
93 ABa
17.88 Aa
19.26 Ab
17.85 Aa
65.63 Ba
116.35 Aa
35.93 Ca
18C
66 Ab
0 Bb
0 Bb
80 Ab
0 Bb
0 Bb
15.05 Ab
0 Bc
0 Bb
38.86 Ab
0 Bc
0 Bc
CV (%)
3.02
8.77
7.31
18.28
The same uppercase letters in the column and lowercase letters in the line do not differ from each other
by the Tukey test (p0.05).
(b)
respectively; for those stored at 1C, DMAP was 293.0 and 248.0
mg, respectively (Table 2).
The dry matter of roots (DMR) of BRS Atalanta and BRS Firmeza
was 34.75 and 72.25 mg, respectively, for seeds stored at -15C,
and 64.75 and 68.78 mg for those stored at 1C (Table 2).
The higher respiratory activity verified from seeds of BRS
Atalanta and BRS Firmeza stored at 1C did present a relationship
with the results found in the other tests for evaluation of seed
physical quality; the latter, along with high respiratory activity,
characterizes seeds of these cultivars as the most vigorous ones,
since greater CO2 release reflects more integrity of cell membranes,
including mitochondrial ones.
The use of linear correlation to define the efficiency of a vigor
test is described by Marcos Filho 13. The author emphasizes that,
among the criteria to assess the reliability of a certain test for seed
quality evaluation, the correlation of this test with field seedling
emergence is one of the most used. Such test is considered the
best indicator for inferences on seed lot vigor because, during its
execution, conditions that simulate those that seeds will be
subjected to in the field must be applied 18.
Responses of the respiratory activity test were correlated with
tests of germination, seedling emergence, germination rate, length
of aerial part and roots, and dry matter of aerial part. We observed
that these correlations were significantly high (1%), what revealed
that it is possible to estimate viability and vigor of rice seeds
stored for 10 years at different temperatures via the respiratory
activity test. The only test that it was not significant at 1% was
the dry matter of roots (Table 3).
We verified that there was significant correlation (r = -0.67)
Table 2. Length of aerial part (LAP) and roots (LR), and dry matter of
between
the tests of respiration and seedling emergence
aerial part (DMAP) and roots (DMR) of seedlings obtained
under
greenhouse
conditions (Table 3). This confirms the
from the emergence test for seeds of BRS Pelota, BRS
test
sensibility
to
detect differences in the physiological
Atalanta, and BRS Firmeza cultivars stored for 10 years at
potential
of
rice
seeds
stored at different temperatures for a
different temperatures.
long time.
Variables
LAP (cm)
LR (cm)
DMAP (mg)
DMR (mg)
Cultivar
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
BRS Pelota
BRS Atalanta
BRS Firmeza
-15 C
27.61 Aa
26.21 Aa
24.82 Aa
5.98 Ab
8.60 Aa
6.64 Aa
253.5 Ba
357.0 Aa
264.7 Ba
57.25 Aa
34.75 Ba
72.25 Aa
1 C
26.84 Aa
26.05 Aa
20.10 Bb
11.94 Aa
6.18 Ba
8.10 Ba
273.5 Aa
293.0 Aa
248.0 Aa
56.25 Aa
64.75 Aa
68.75 Aa
18 C
18.87Ab
0 Bb
0 Bc
5.11 Ab
0 Bb
0 Bb
127.75 Ab
0 Bb
0 Bb
69.50 Aa
0 Bb
0 Bb
CV (%)
Conclusions
It is possible to maintain the physiological quality of rice
seeds of BRS Pelota, BRS Atalanta, and BRS Firmeza cultivars,
submitted to drying and impermeable packaging, after 10
years of storage at -15 and 1C. The respiratory activity
presents a relationship with vigor in seeds stored at different
temperatures.
9.15
33.93
19.74
Acknowledgements
To CAPES for financial support and research scholarship.
39.45
The same uppercase letters in the column and lowercase letters in the line do not differ from each other by the
Tukey test (p0.05).
References
Table 3. Correlation coefficient among the analysed variables in the
tests for evaluation of physiological quality of rice seeds stored 1Sociedade Sul-Brasileira de arroz irrigado 2012. Arroz Irrigado.
Recomendaes tcnicas da pesquisa para o sul do Brasil/Sociedade
for 10 years at different temperatures.
Test
G
E
GR
LAP
LR
DMAP
DMR
R
G
1
0.98**
0.97**
0.96**
0.78**
0.90**
0.75**
0.63**
GR
LAP
LR
DMAP
DMR
1
0.98**
0.95**
0.78**
0.89**
0.74**
0.67**
1
0.97**
0.80**
0.91**
0.68**
0.68**
1
0.80**
0.92**
0.67**
0.68**
1
0.78**
0.49**
0.56**
1
0.57**
0.68**
1
0.41*
G = germination; E = emergence; GR = Germination rate; LAP = length of aerial part; LR = length of roots; DMAP
= dry matter of aerial part; DMR = dry matter of roots; R = respiration; ns = non-significant; ** = significant at 1%
probability; * = significant at 5% by the r test.
178
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Effect of dietary crude palm oil on quality and oxidative stability of chicken eggs
YeasminAkter 1, 2*, Azhar Kasim 1*, Hishamuddin Omar 3 and Awis Qurni Sazili
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
Department of Animal Science and Nutrition, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur-5200,
Bangladesh. 3 Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*e-mail: yesakter@yahoo.com,azharkasim@putra.upm.edu.my
1
Abstract
The experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of different levels of dietary crude palm oil (CPO) on quality characteristics and oxidative
stability of chicken eggs. A total of ninety six ISA Brown hens was assigned randomly into four dietary treatments containing 0 (control), 1.5, 3 and
5% CPO with four replications pre-treatment. Experimental diets were iso-nitrogenous and iso-calorie. Eggs were collected daily analysed for its
quality characteristics and lipid peroxidation. Yolk colour and oxidative stability were markedly improved (p<0.05) with corresponding increased
CPO in the diets. On the basis of this study it may be concluded that dietary CPO reduced lipid peroxidation in egg yolk without affecting egg quality
characteristics.
Key words: Chicken eggs, crude palm oil, egg quality, lipid oxidation.
Introduction
Oils and fats consist of fatty acids and glycerol, which have high
caloric value among the all nutrients 1. These are also important
sources of some essential fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins,
decreases dustiness of diets, increases palatability of diets and
increases the efficiency of consumed energy. Moreover, it reduces
the rate of passage which may increase the retention time of feed
in the digestive tract, and increase the digestion and absorption
of feed nutrients 2. Generally commercial poultry producers use
fats and oils in poultry diets to supply higher amount of energy at
an economically justifiable cost. Many studies have demonstrated
that vegetable oils such as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and
corn oils, can be successfully used in poultry feeding 1. These
oils are rich in linoleic acid which is an essential PUFA 3. It is well
known that oils containing PUFA are more prone to oxidation
than SFA which proceeds by a free radical chain mechanism 4.
Poultry diets with a higher concentration of vegetable oil should
be supplemented with antioxidants which can protect the poultry
and its products 5. Crude palm oil (CPO) is a potential source of
dietary energy and it may be used as a perfect substitute for other
vegetable oils. It will provide some additional benefits over other
vegetable oils when it will be incorporated in poultry ration
because it contains a vast amount of natural antioxidants such as
carotenoids, tocopherols, and tocotrienols. The combined effects
of high levels of carotenoids, tocopherols, and tocotrienols, and
a 50% saturation of fatty acids give palm oil higher oxidative
stability than other conventional vegetable oils 6. In this context,
the current experiment was arranged to investigate the effects of
dietary CPO on quality characteristics and lipid peroxidation of
chicken eggs.
Materials and Methods
Experimental birds and diets: The experiment was conducted at
the poultry unit, Department of Animal Science, University Putra
179
Dietary treatments
Control
1.5% CPO
3% CPO
Shape index
76.91 0.33 76.69 0.33 76.46 0.43
Egg weight (g)
59.45 0.40 59.74 0.73 60.39 0.75
11.51 0.85 11.47 0.43 10.76 0.58
Shell weight (%)
0.35 0.01
0.35 0.01 0.34 0.02
Shell thickness (mm)
63.04 0.80 62.27 0.59 63.71 0.89
Albumen weight (%)
5.89 0.02 5.91 0.03
Albumen Height (mm) 5.88 0.02
75.69 1.32 76.19 1.41 76.92 1.29
Haugh unit (H.U)
25.60 0.64 25.66 0.92 26.27 0.58
Yolk weight (%)
180
4
3
2
1
0
Control
1.5% CPO
3% CPO
Dietary treatments
5% CPO
5% CPO
76.42 0.67
59.31 0.49
10.79 0.40
0.34 0.02
63.54 0.43
5.90 0.03
75.48 1.48
25.98 0.49
1.6
TBARS (mg/kg) of yolk
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Control
5% CPO
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Abstract
A locally-prepared polyvalent vaccine (C. pseudotuberculosis and Staphylococcus aureus subsp. anaerobius) against abscess disease of sheep was
investigated. Twenty Najdi ewes were divided into 4 groups of 5 animals each. The animals were mixed with 5 rams infected with abscess disease as
a source of infection. The results show that 1 ml of the vaccine is protective for 6 months while higher doses were protective for 8 months. The results
showed also that the vaccine was safe and vaccination raised antibody titres against the disease as shown by the ELISA results.
Key words: Abscess disease, sheep, local vaccine.
Introduction
Abscess disease, commonly known as Morels disease and
caseous lymphadenitis (pseudotuberculosis) deserves interest
because of its contagious nature, worldwide distribution and lack
of effective control measures. It is primarily a disease of sheep
and goats, and once introduced into a flock, it is very difficult to
control because of its poor response to treatment, its ability to
persist in the environment and the limitations in detecting subclinically infected animals 9, 20.
Morels disease is caused by Staphyloccocus aureus subsp.
anaerobius, that exists as a single bacterial clone worldwide 2, 6.
Caseous lymphadentitis is characterized by formation of abscesses
in external and internal lymph nodes and is caused by
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis 1. Some sheep breeds were
found to be more susceptible to the disease than others 15.
The losses caused by CLA may become important when the
prevalence is high, particularly in countries with large numbers of
sheep such as Australia. The losses are caused by condemnation
and downgrading of carcasses and skin in abattoirs as well as
reduction in wool growth 11, 12, 20.
Previous studies 3, 11 have indicated spread of CLA mostly
occurred around the time of shearing. Several modes of
transmission of CLA during shearing have been suggested and
there are evidence incriminating the lungs in the transmission of
the disease 7. C. pseudotuberculosis was isolated from the tracheae
of sheep with lung abscesses, which indicated that the lung
transmits CLA through aerosol contamination of skin cuts of
uninfected sheep.
There is no available vaccine that is known to confer solid
immunity against abscess disease. Production of effective vaccines
targeting all known C. pseudotuberculosis antigens are advised 4.
In some countries where vaccines are available, vaccination failure
is blamed on improper implementation of CLA vaccination
program 13.
182
183
G1 (n=5)
9 x109
bacteria
1
1
G2 (n=5)
2x 9 x109
bacteria
1
1
G3 (n=5)
3x 9 x109
bacteria
1
G4 (negative
control)
(n=5)
1
1
1
-
G1 (n=5)
9x109
bacteria
G2 (n=5)
2x9x109
bacteria
G3 (n=5)
3x9x109
bacteria
G4
(negative
control)
(n=5)
8.61.2
9.81.2
10.01.6
9.81.2
9.41.6
10.21.2
8.61.6
10.01.6
9.41.4
8.81.4
10.41.2
9.21.4
0.330.02
0.330.02
0.300.06
0.340.02
0.320.04
0.320.04
0.320.06
0.340.02
0.310.02
0.0300.04
0.0290.02
0.0320.02
G1 (n=5)
9x109
bacteria
G2 (n=5)
2x9x109
bacteria
G3 (n=5)
3x9x109
bacteria
G4
(negative
control)
(n=5)
18.4 1.4
16.2 2.4
18.6 1.4
16.6 2.2
16.8 3.2
20.6 2.0
14.2 2.2
16.2 3.4
14.43.2
16.2 2.2
14.8 2.4
14.8 2.6
9.2 3.4
10.4 2.2
11.0 2.0
10.0 2.2
10.6 1.2
10.6 2.2
10.0 2.6
10.8 4.6
11.0 1.8
9.8 2.2
10.8 2.0
10.4 2.2
60.0 3.2
56.0 3.6
60.4 2.4
62.2 2.0
56.4 2.2
54.0 3.2
52.0 4.2
52.2 2.4
54.0 3.2
48.2 2.2
54.2 2.4
48.8 3.2
which indicated that the injected vaccine was safe and did not
affect blood, liver or kidney functions.
Autogenous vaccine
0.73* 0.69 0.70
0.85 0.84 0.82
Control
0.36
0.28
0.3
*Value = OD value of vaccinated animal serum OD value of control well mean (no
serum). Values 0.4 is considered significant.
185
Paton, M. W., Rose, J. R., Hart, R. A., Sutherland, S. S., Mercy, A. R.,
Ellis, T. M. and Dhaliwal, J. A. 1994. New infection with
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis reduces wool production.
Australian Veterinary Journal 71:47-49.
13
Paton, M. W., Walker, S. B., Rose, I. R. and Watt, G. F. 2003. Prevalence
of caseous lymphadenitis and usage of caseous lymphadenitis vaccines
in sheep flocks. Austral. Vet J. 81(1-2):91-95.
14
Pepin, M., Fontaine, J. J., Pardon, P., Marly, J. and Parodi, A. L.
1991. Histopathology of the early phase during experimental
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis infection in lambs. Vet.
Microbiol. 29:123134.
15
Pepin, M., Pardon, P. and Lantier, F. 1988. Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis infection in adult ewes by inoculation in the external
ear. American Journal of Veterinary Research 49(4):459-463.
16
Ppin, M., Pardon, P., Marly, J., Lantier, F. and Arrigo, J. L. 1993.
Acquired immunity after primary caseous lymphadenitis in sheep.
Am. J. Vet. Res. 54(6):873-877.1.
17
Pepin, M., Seow, H. F., Corner, L., Rothel, J. S., Hodgson, A. L. M. and
Wood, P. R. 1997. Cytokine gene expression in sheep following
experimental infection with various strains of Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis differing in virulence. Vet. Res. 28:149163.
18
Quinn, P. J., Carter, M. E., Markey, B. K. and Carter, G. R. 1994.
Clinical Veterinary Microbiology. Wolfe Publishing, an imprint of
Mosby-Year Book Europe Limited, pp. 21-66.
19
Renshaw, H. W., Graff, V. P. and Gates, N. L. 1979. Visceral caseous
lymphadenitis in thin ewe syndrome: isolation of Corynebacterium,
Staphylococcus, and Moraxella spp. from internal abscesses in
emaciated ewes. American Journal of Veterinary Research 40(8):11101114.
20
Williamson, L. H. 2001. Caseous lymphadenitis in small ruminants.
Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 17:359
371.
12
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Water Engineering and Management, School of Engineering and Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4 Klong
Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand. 2 Directorate of Irrigation Water Management, Directorate General of Agricultural
Infrastructure and Facility, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Indonesia. 3 International Research Centre for River Basin
Environment (ICRE), University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan.
*e-mail: sangamshrestha@gmail.com, sangam@ait.ac.th
Abstract
This study evaluates the performance of five categories of irrigated areas of the Telagasari Irrigation Scheme (TIS) in Indonesia for the period 20072011 by using a set of twelve indicators representing irrigation performances in terms of service delivery, finance, and production efficiency. The
quality of irrigation at farm level was also evaluated using a set of structured questionnaires focusing on four aspects of service: equity, reliability,
flexibility, and adequacy. The results indicate that most areas in all five categories receive enough irrigation to meet crop water demand. Efficiency was
measured as the standardised gross value of production (SGVP) per unit of water consumed, and decreased from 2008-2011 as a result of reduced
world rice prices. The service quality of irrigation decreases downstream; the highest being in category area I and the lowest in V. Such evaluation helps
to determine the degree of influence of various factors on irrigation management, and supports the decision making process towards improved
irrigation performance.
Key words: Indonesia, irrigation management, performance evaluation, Telgasari Irrigation Scheme (TIS).
Introduction
Global water consumption has so far doubled every 20 years along
with population growth, urbanisation, and expanding economic
activities, and this increase has intensified pressure on water
resources. On a global scale, the irrigation sector is by far the
largest water user, which accounts for more than 70% of the total
water use and contributes to most of the worlds food production.
Water usage in Asia and the Pacific is primarily for agriculture, it
accounts for 79% of total withdrawals in 2002 compared to 13% for
industrial use and only 8% for domestic use 1. Investment in water
for agriculture has made a positive contribution to rural livelihoods,
food security, and poverty reduction 2. However, the majority of
irrigation systems are proven to be inefficient, resulting in
significant water wastage 3 through water logging and salinity. On
the other hand, with the fact of increasing fresh water scarcity,
many countries have inadequate water supplies to meet their
current urban, environmental, and agricultural needs. These needs
will continue to grow 4. The challenge therefore is to produce
enough food for two billion extra people over the next 50 years
while satisfying growing urban and environmental water
requirements 5. Some analysts have estimated that 60% of the
additional food required will come from irrigation 6. Raising food
production to support this larger global population requires an
improved and sustainable irrigation performance.
Optimising the use of irrigation water is vital in conserving land
and water resources as well as maximising yield with the water
available. Performance evaluation of irrigation systems is a major
187
is carried out with irrigation staff and farmers to assess the quality
of the irrigation service in terms of adequacy, reliability, equity,
and flexibility.
Materials and Methods
Study area:
Karawang Regency: Karawang Regency, located in the western
part of West Java Province, is about 52 km from Jakarta, the capital
city of Indonesia (Fig. 1). Geographically, it is located between
10702 to 10740 east longitude, and 556 to 643 south latitude.
Karawang Regency covers an area of approximately 1,700 km2,
which is 3.73% of the West Java Provinces area.
Topographically, the region lies in flat and low elevation land
with an altitude ranging from 0-1,279 m above mean sea level
(masl). The slope range is 0-40%, with flat slopes dominant in the
major part of Karawang. Generally, the soil type in Karawang
Regency is alluvial in the lowland area, and podsolik and latosol
in the highland area. The average annual temperature of this region
is about 27C.
Telagasari Irrigation Scheme (TIS): The Telagasari Irrigation
Scheme (TIS) covers an area of 410 km2 in Karawang Regency.
Irrigation water in the TIS is distributed from the Walahar Dam
and this receives water from the Jatiluhur Dam. There are three
main primary canals, which deliver water from the Walahar Dam:
(i) The Tarum Timur Canal, which is 67 km long and delivers water
to the Subang District and surrounding area, (ii) The Tarum Utara
Canal that delivers water to the Karawang District and surrounding
area through the Walahar Dam, and (iii) The Tarum Barat Canal,
which is 70 km long and delivers water to the Bekasi District, and
a drinking water supply company in Jakarta.
Irrigation activity in the primary and secondary canals in this
area is managed by Perum Jasa Tirta II, a state-owned enterprise,
Methodology: For performance evaluation of the TIS, an indicatorbased approach was applied. Indicators for irrigation performance
range from water distribution to agricultural, economic, social, and
environmental aspects 12. To enable comparison
of the system with different infrastructures,
management types and environment, the
International Water Management Institute
(IWMI) has suggested the use of a minimum
set of comparative indicators, to give a broad
overview of the hydrological, agronomical,
financial, and environmental performance of
irrigation systems. The selection of a suitable
set of indicators varies depending on the
purpose of performance evaluation. After a
careful review of the indicators suggested in
certain literature 2, 9, 12, 26, 29, 30, twelve indicators,
under three types of performance (namely,
service delivery, financial, and production
efficiency) were selected for quantitative
evaluation of the TIS performance. We also
conducted a structured questionnaire survey
with irrigation staff and farmers to evaluate the
quality of irrigation service. The questionnaire
focused on evaluating performance from the
following four aspects: adequacy, reliability,
Figure 2. Category of irrigated area in the TIS based on water distribution. Category I
equity, and flexibility.
receives water first and Category V last.
Table 1. Characteristics of different irrigation area categories in the TIS.
Cat.
Command
area (ha)
I
II
III
IV
V
22,506
20,050
17,800
16,500
34,894
Irrigated
area
(ha)
5,200
8,800
10,800
7,200
9,000
Primary
canal
Secondary
canal
1
2
0
1
0
7
14
16
12
17
Canal
length
(km)
32.7
53.0
42.3
53.5
33.8
Canal
performance
(%)
70
73
70
69
67
Rice planting
Rainy season
Dry season
Early-Mid Oct.
Mid Oct.- Early Nov.
Early-Mid Nov.
Mid Nov. Early-Dec.
Early-Mid Dec.
Early-Mid April
Mid April-Early May
Early-Mid May
Mid May Early June
Early-Mid June
189
SC. Talunpare
Walahar DAM
Legends:
Primary Canal (PC)
Secondary Canal (SC)
DAM
Branch/Division box
Category I
Category II
Category III
Category IV
Category V
Figure 3. Irrigation canal network of the Telagasari Irrigation Scheme (TIS) (not to scale).
(1)
Water supply
Actual crop evapotranspiration
(2)
(3)
Effective rainfall
Pe
=
Actual crop evapotranspiration ETc
(4)
(5)
SGVP = crops Ai * Yi *
Pworld
Pb
(6)
191
one in all categories and for all years, which suggests a reduced
rainfall contribution to total water demand. A lower than one RIS
value in Categories IV and V in all years suggests that water
supplied through irrigation is not enough to meet the crop water
demand. On the other hand, values lower than one RIS in all
categories in all years during wet seasons reveal that the irrigation
water supply is not sufficient to meet the crop water demand.
However, it is supplied through rainfall in Categories III-V during
2007-2010 as the values of RRS are greater than one.
In addition, the evolution of wet and dry season RWS, RIS and
RRS values were also calculated for each category from 2007 to
2011. During the dry season, in Category I-III, irrigation water is
sufficient to meet the crop water demand; whereas it was
inadequate in Categories IV and V. During the wet season, in
Category III-V, rainfall is the only source of water supplied to meet
the crop water demand.
Water delivery capacity (WDC): Water delivery capacity indicates
if the system design is a constraint to meet the maximum irrigation
water requirement. A value greater than one indicates capacity is
not a constraint to meet irrigation water demands. Generally, water
in the conveyance system of the TIS can meet the irrigation water
demand even in the peak season. The maximum discharge capacity
that can be delivered from the canal intake is 38 m3/s, while peak
crop water demand in the five category areas during 2007-2011 is
in the range 17 24 m3/s. WDC values for all years from 2007-2011
are greater than one (Table 2), indicating adequate capacity of the
conveyance system intake to deliver water to each category area.
Financial performance: Financial performance was analysed in
order to understand the performance of management, operation,
and maintenance in the TIS in relation to budget and cost
allocation. In this assessment, the relevant budget and
management costs include: staff, office equipment, operation, and
maintenance but not the operation and maintenance cost of tertiary
canals and costs associated with farmers participation.
Management, operation, and maintenance (MOM) cost per unit
area (US$/ha): The MOM cost per unit area is calculated using
the budget allocation for those activities. As seen in Table 2, this
indicator varies over the years (i.e., 2007-2011). This is because
differences in canal conditions, currency fluctuations, and
management policy. The highest MOM budget per unit area (US$
7.69/ha) in the TIS was allocated in 2010 and the lowest (US$ 2.06/
ha) in 2008. The maintenance component contributes substantially
to the increase or decrease in the total MOM cost per unit area in
each year, while management and operation component cost is
relatively stable.
Area per staff (APS; ha/person): This indicator was analysed to
compare whether the number of staff to control the irrigation
system is appropriate for the best efficiency of the system. In the
TIS, one irrigation staff managed approximately 280 ha in 2007,
2010, and 2011 (Table 2). Due to staff retirement in 2008 and 2009,
the staff per unit area decreased to one person per 293 ha and one
person per 285 ha, respectively (Table 2). If compared to the
optimum staff number of one person per 333 ha to control an
irrigation system 36, the TIS may benefit from decreasing staff
numbers for optimum performance. The most appropriate number
193
Q
MCM
93.3
156.2
162.5
89.8
109.0
93.6
180.7
185.5
90.5
120.6
91.3
153.7
190.0
105.7
114.2
82.0
138.4
158.7
112.1
145.7
81.6
140.7
175.9
117.3
155.9
A
Ha
5200
8800
10800
7200
9000
5200
8800
10800
7200
9000
5200
8800
10800
7200
9000
5200
8800
10800
7200
9000
5200
8800
10800
7200
9000
132.7
132.7
132.7
132.7
132.7
263.8
263.8
263.8
263.8
263.8
247.5
247.5
247.5
247.5
247.5
231.4
231.4
231.4
231.4
231.4
301.3
301.3
301.3
301.3
301.3
P
mm
74.4
125.8
154.5
102.9
128.7
67.7
114.6
140.6
93.7
117.2
64.7
109.5
134.5
89.6
112.0
69.8
118.1
145.0
96.7
120.8
71.1
120.4
147.8
98.5
123.2
7.36
7.15
7.11
6.79
6.53
7.16
7.45
7.37
7.50
7.52
6.92
7.16
7.01
7.11
7.32
6.94
6.94
6.53
6.53
6.59
6.69
6.47
5.72
5.27
5.18
540.5
540.5
540.5
540.5
540.5
550.2
550.2
550.2
550.2
550.2
480.4
480.4
480.4
480.4
480.4
515.9
515.9
515.9
515.9
515.9
470.5
470.5
470.5
470.5
470.5
Input Parameters
CWD Yield LRP
MCM
t/ha
US$/t
551.7
551.7
551.7
551.7
551.7
520.6
520.6
520.6
520.6
520.6
589.4
589.4
589.4
589.4
589.4
700.2
700.2
700.2
700.2
700.2
335.9
335.9
335.9
335.9
335.9
WRP
US$/t
19.7
32.9
40.7
24.3
27.7
18.9
34.1
41.3
28.3
35.9
22.3
39.7
46.5
31.9
40.6
26.7
47.1
52.7
35.4
44.9
11.7
19.2
20.8
12.8
15.7
SGVP
MUS$
15.7
15.9
16.2
16.3
17.3
15.7
15.7
14.7
15.5
16.2
17.5
17.4
17.6
14.6
12.7
18.0
20.5
17.1
12.5
13.4
17.9
17.7
15.0
12.4
12.1
IWDA
*m3/ha
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.14
1.21
1.21
1.21
1.13
1.20
1.24
1.41
1.40
1.41
1.18
1.02
1.34
1.53
1.28
0.94
1.00
1.31
1.30
1.10
0.91
0.89
RWS
-
RRS
-
RIS
-
1.60
1.60
2.16
1.82
WDC
1.57
6.59
7.69
3.81
2.06
2.81
281
285
293
184
169
134
134
Performance indicators
MOMPA APS
CPP
US$/ha
ha/p US$/p
3.35
281
122
1469
1639
2287
1476
1272
1412
1701
2322
1714
1647
1665
1980
2615
1939
1862
3786
3735
3769
3384
3080
3639
3875
3827
3927
3989
4291
4511
4310
4444
4511
5147
5358
4882
4918
4990
2253
2179
1927
1775
1744
874
956
1169
775
720
1997
2352
2962
2146
2060
SPIA
US$/ha
SPSA
US$/ha
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.21
0.18
0.23
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.25
0.24
0.26
0.24
0.33
0.42
0.29
0.26
0.38
0.48
0.55
0.14
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.19
SPIS
US$/m3
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.28
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.34
0.36
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.13
SPWC
US$/m3
I
II
III
IV
V
I
II
III
IV
V
I
II
III
IV
V
I
II
III
IV
V
Category
Category
I
II
III
IV
V
I
II
III
IV
V
Category
Cat. is category; A is coverage/service area; ha is hectare; Q is total volume of irrigation water delivered; MCM is million-cubic-metres; P is total amount of rainfall; mm is millimetres; CWD is crop water demand (or actual evapotranspiration);Yield is rice
yield; t is ton; LRP is local rice price; WRP is world rice price (source: World Bank database); SGVP is standardised gross value of production; MUS$ is US Dollars in Million; xx/p is xx per person; full form of performance indicators are in Section-3; *IWDA
values are in 1000 m3/ha.
Cat.
area
Unit
2007
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
2008
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
2009
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
2010
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
2011
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
II
II
II
II
II
III
Category
III
III
III
III
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
RWS
RIS
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
RRS
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
II
II
II
II
II
Category
III
III
III
III
III
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
Figure 4. Evolution of RWS, RIS and RRS in all categories (I-V) from 2007-2011.
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
RWS/RIS/RRS
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2008
2008
2008
2007
2008
Category V
2007
Category IV
2007
Category III
2007
Category II
2007
2008
Year
2009
2009
2009
2009
2009
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
RWS
2011
2011
2011
2011
2011
RIS
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
2008
2008
2008
RRS
2007
2008
Category V
2007
Category IV
2007
Category III
2007
Category II
2007
2008
Year
2009
2009
2009
2009
2009
2010
2010
2010
2010
2010
Figure 5. Evolution of RWS, RIS and RRS from 2007-2011 in each category.
RWS/RIS/RRS
194
2011
2011
2011
2011
2011
0.5
0.45
2008
2009
2010
2011
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
2007
0.4
Cat. I
Cat. II
Cat. III
Cat. IV
Cat. V
Table 6. Assessment of equity, reliability, flexibility, and adequacy of the TIS at service level.
Indicators for quality of services
1. Equity
1.1 Organisational rules
1.2 Physical constraints for uniform distribution
1.3 Rotation of secondary canals for first irrigation
1.4 Rotation order after first irrigation
2. Reliability
2.1 Reliability of the person in charge of irrigation distribution
2.2 Inundation risk
2.3 Canal state
3. Flexibility
3.1 Duration, flow rate, and frequency of irrigation
4. Adequacy
4.1 Water deficit in high water demand period
Weight
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.40
0.40
1.00
1.00
Cat. I
0.67
0.22
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.68
0.08
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00
1.00
1.00
Cat. II
0.60
0.15
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.68
0.08
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00
1.00
1.00
Cat. III
0.60
0.15
0.30
0.05
0.10
0.68
0.08
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00
1.00
1.00
Cat. IV
0.50
0.15
0.20
0.05
0.10
0.58
0.08
0.30
0.20
0.00
0.00
0.75
0.75
Cat. V
0.50
0.15
0.20
0.05
0.10
0.38
0.08
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.75
0.75
Cat. = Category
195
197
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Ministry of Agriculture, Ulica grada Vukovara 78, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia. 2 Faculty of Agriculture University of Zagreb,
Svetosimunska 25, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia. 3 Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology University of Zagreb,
Marulicev trg 19, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia. *e-mail: zeljko.herner@mps.hr
Abstract
The aim of the study was to determine in which way and at what speed a composting process affects the degradation of imidacloprid N-{1-[(6-chloro3-pyridyl)methyl]-4,5-dihydroimidazol-2-yl} nitramide, one of the most effective and most widely used insecticide in the world, but also at the same
time one of the most accused insecticide for bee colony collapse disorder. The process of imidacloprid degradation through composting was monitored
at four experimental open piles, with an additional fifth pile composed of random green parts of plants and soil and used as a simulation of natural
and spontaneous degradation of organic matter in a field. Two of the compost piles were kept under aerobic conditions and forced aerated through
perforated pipes with a ventilator, while two were kept under anoxic conditions (the compost was wrapped in impermeable foil). Pseudomonas
aeruginosa FN culture was added in two composting piles, one under aerobic conditions and one under anoxic conditions. It has been established that
the half-life of imidacloprid occurred after 29 days in the pile inoculated with bacterial cells P. aeruginosa FN under anoxic condition, which is
considerably faster than in spontaneous degradation in the soil, which was simulated in the fifth pile (60 days). The physical and chemical properties
of compost piles did not significantly affect the dynamics of degradation rate, which was faster in the mesophilic and thermophilic phase and slower
in the maturation phase. The half-life of imidacloprid was shorter in piles with anoxic condition. The added culture, P. aeruginosa FN, has accelerated
the imidacloprid degradation rate in both piles with anoxic and aerobic conditions, faster than in the piles without the P. aeruginosa FN culture. That
is lesser influence than was expected, probably because of the abundance of microorganisms from animal manure, which created the competitive
relations with P. aeruginosa FN cultures.
Key words: Imidacloprid, composting process, dynamics of degradation, half-life time, aerobic, anoxic, Pseudomonas aeruginosa FN.
Introduction
Imidacloprid belongs to the group of pesticides called
neonicotinoids and it has been highly efficient in pests control in
agriculture. However, there are doubts about the negative effects
of imidacloprid and some other active ingredients belonging to
the group of neonicotinoids on pollinators 11. Many crops are
routinely treated with neonicotinoid insecticides as a seed
dressing or as a foliar treatment 12. Soil or seed applied plant
protection products (PPPs) aim at bringing the amount of active
substance involved to the only parts of the plant that have to be
protected 2. These compounds are systemic, migrating in the sap
to all parts of the plant and providing protection against insect
herbivores 18. Despite a reduced exposure of non-target organisms
by this way, an exposure of honey bees through residues in pollen
and/or nectar may not be excluded for substances that migrate
towards the upper plant parts 11. In modern cereal farming systems,
honey bees are readily exposed to pesticides because they rely
heavily on common blooming crops, like oilseed rape (Brassica
napus), maize (Zea mays) or sunflower (Helianthus annuus), which
are now routinely treated against insect pests 13. The most widely
used of these compounds is imidacloprid, which is routinely used
on most major crops including cereals, oilseed rape, corn, cotton,
sunflower and sugar beets. Potentially, bees could come in touch
with neonicotinoids through plant (nectar, pollen, guttation water,
propolis and plant surface such as leaves, petioles, axils, etc.) and
198
a)
APS
ANPS
d)
ANO
b)
BL
c)
e)
199
C/N ratio
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
% Oxygen
Temperature (C)
5
0
2
4
5
Time (weeks)
AO temperature
APS temperature
ANO temperature
ANPS temperature
BL temperature
AO oxygen
APS oxygen
ANO oxygen
ANPS oxygen
BL oxygen
200
APS
ANO
ANPS
BL
APS
4
5
Time (weeks)
ANO
ANPS
BL
10
1
AO
10
15
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.1
7.9
7.7
7.5
0
40
20
20
30
AO
60
50
Time (weeks)
pH
acetonitrile (HPLC grade) and water in a ratio 80:20 v/v was used.
Extraction was performed on a shaker for two hours. After 10 min
when the precipitate had settled, the extract was separated by
decantation and filtered on a system for rapid filtration through
blue ribbon filter paper. The extraction was repeated once more.
The entire sample was filtered through the same system and the
residues were rinsed with a solvent. The combined filtrate was
evaporated for the most part on a rotary evaporator. Then the
sample was filtered and injected in a HPLC-MS/MS system. For
detection and quantification of imidacloprid in samples, HPLCMS/MS method was developed on Agilent 1200 HPLC, which
was connected to the mass spectrometer with triple quadrupole
Agilent 6410 (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA). All samples
were analysed in two replicates to ensure the accuracy and
repeatability.
Concentration
(mg kg-1)
AO
10
20
30
40
50
Time (days)
Concentration
(mg kg-1)
z experiment data
60
70
0.5
20
40
Time (days)
z experiment data
20
40
Time (days)
1.5
z experiment data
1.5
ANPS
first-order kinetics
ANO
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
80
Concentration
(mg kg-1)
Concentration
(mg kg-1)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
60
80
Concentration
(mg kg-1)
80
first-order kinetics
APS
1
0.5
0
first-order kinetics
20
40
Time (days)
z experiment data
1.5
60
60
80
first-order kinetics
BL
1
0.5
0
20
z experiment data
40
Time (days)
60
80
first-order kinetics
kd (mg kg-1/d)
0.0208
0.0236
0.0224
0.0278
0.0141
SD
0.0045
0.0029
0.0046
0.0025
0.0033
t1/2 (days)
36
32
34
29
60
201
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Potential methane production from manure of cattle fed diet supplemented with wet
brewery grain
Larissa Schmatz Mallmann, Maximiliane Alavarse Zambom, , Douglas Guedes Torres Batista, Leiliane Cristine
Souza, Jefferson Luiz Gonalves Silva, Silvia Renata Machado Coelho and Simone Damasceno Gomes
Research Group on Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation, Western Paran State University, Cascavel, Universitaria
Street, 2069 - CEP: 85819-110 - Cascavel, PR, Brazil. e-mail: larissasmallmann@gmail.com, mazambom@hotmail.com,
douglasgbtorres@hotmail.com, leilics@hotmail.com, j.lg11@yahoo.com.br, silvia.coelho@unioeste.br,
simone.gomes@unioeste.br
Received 22 June 2014, accepted 30 September 2014.
Abstract
This study aimed at evaluating the potential methane production from manure of cattle fed diets containing different levels of wet brewery grain to
replace the forage in the diet, whose levels were 0, 20, 25 and 30% dry matter. Four steers fitted with a rumen cannula were assigned in a 4 4 Latin
square design, in four 21 day-experimental periods (14 days for adaptation and 7 days for data collection). In the last week of each period, we collected
the animal manure to conduct anaerobic digestion tests for 120 days. During this period, we evaluated the removal of total and volatile solids, removal of
soluble chemical oxygen demand, daily and cumulative production of methane gas, production of volatile fatty acids (lactic, acetic, propionic and butyric),
acidity/alkalinity ratio and pH of reactors. For statistical analysis, cumulative methane production curves were fitted according to the modified Gompertz
model. Tukeys test was applied to compare mean values with significance level of 5%. The treatment with the highest level of wet brewery grain
showed higher potential methane production from manure; the inclusion of wet brewery grain did not affect the production of volatile fatty acids; the
modified Gompertz model provided a good fit to the data of methane production.
Key words: Anaerobic digestion, volatile fatty acids, modified Gompertz, biodegradability, energy, ruminants.
Introduction
Brazil has the second largest amount of cattle in the world with
over 212.8 million heads, and therefore has a crucial role in the
development of strategies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions
in integrated production systems 1, 2.
Livestock farming is responsible for 96% of methane
emissions by the agricultural sector in Brazil. As the global
enteric CH4 is estimated at 86.109 kg year-1 and from animal
manure is in the range of 18.109 kg year-1 3, it is possible to infer
that the Brazilian cattle industry accounts for 11.3% of world
production of enteric CH4 and, on average, for 2.6% of world
production of CH4 originating from manure.
There are several techniques used to increase the efficiency
and metabolic energy of animals, one of them being the dietary
supplementation. However, the main supplemental sources are
expensive, and an alternative to reduce production costs
without compromising the balance of the diet would be the use
of agro-industrial wastes in animal feed 4-7.
Some agro-industrial wastes can be used in animal feeding but
food characteristics can be both positive and negative with
respect to the conversion of the food into animal product. The
wet brewery grain (WBG) is a by-product with high levels of
protein, neutral detergent fibre (NDF), total carbohydrates (TC)
and ether extract (EE) 5, 6, 8, 9. In this way, the use of the WBG in
nutritional supplementation for beef cattle provides a lower cost
in production because of good nutritional value of the by-product,
in addition to the correct disposal of this industrial waste.
The anaerobic digestion has proven to be an efficient method,
also called green technology, in the reduction of organic matter
203
0%
WBG silage
0.00
Corn silage
60.00
Concentrate fraction
40.00
Dry matter (DM)
54.87
Mineral matter (MM)
5.34
Organic matter (OM)
94.66
Crude protein (CP)
18.86
Ether extract (EE)
3.28
Neutral detergent fibre (NDF)
26.71
Acid detergent fibre (ADF)
15.77
Indigestible neutral detergent fibre (iNDF) 8.69
NDF corrected to ash and protein (NDFcp) 26.06
Lignin
2.18
Cellulose
12.61
Total carbohydrates
72.53
Non-fibre carbohydrates
24.52
Level
20% 25%
20.00 25.00
40.00 35.00
40.00 40.00
54.49 53.60
5.29 5.29
94.71 94.71
18.52 17.80
4.39 4.65
30.20 31.48
14.40 13.84
11.65 12.61
27.69 29.18
1.98 2.18
10.73 10.04
71.80 72.25
19.42 17.03
30%
30.00
30.00
40.00
53.73
5.26
94.74
18.68
5.13
33.21
13.75
12.47
30.16
2.41
9.81
70.94
14.36
(1)
where:
= general constant;
Ti = effect of treatment i (i = 0, 20, 25, 30%);
Pj = effect of period j (1, 2, 3, 4);
Ak = effect of animal k (1, 2, 3, 4);
eijk = random effect associated with each observation.
Non-linear curves were fitted to the data of cumulative methane
production for estimation of kinetic parameters of cumulative
production of methane, using the modified Gompertz model 21, 22
P(t) = P exp {-exp[
Rm
e P
( - t) + 1]}
(2)
(Eq. 2):
where:
P = potential CH4 production;
Rm = maximum production of CH4;
= time lag phase;
t = time.
A comparison of means for the variables was performed
according to the Tukeys test at 5% significance level.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of manure: Table 2 presents the average
composition of cattle manure according to WBG levels in the
diet, which were used in the test of anaerobic digestion.
In relation to the composition of manure, it can be said that the
cattle manure (Table 2) has the potential to be degraded and
produce biogas, because the levels of volatile solids accounted
for approximately 80% of the levels of total solids 23, 24. The levels
Table 2. Average composition of cattle manure
according to WBG levels in the diet,
used in the test of anaerobic digestion.
Parameters
0%
pH
6.46
TS (%)
22.02
VS (%)
17.09
Mineral Matter (%DM) 18.07
Organic Matter (%DM) 81.93
Crude Protein (%DM) 21.38
Ether extract (%DM)
3.30
NDF (%MS)
58.82
ADF (%MS)
26.57
Lignin (%MS)
2.10
WBG levels
20% 25%
6.38 6.48
22.19 23.38
17.05 19.42
19.52 18.27
80.48 81.73
19.04 19.34
3.63 3.91
56.62 58.92
29.43 25.60
2.30 2.10
30%
6.48
21.82
18.46
15.80
84.20
14.72
4.13
60.93
28.37
2.08
TS- total solids; VS- volative solids; NDF- neutral detergent fibre; ADF- acid
detergent fibre.
pH
0
11.39
0.21
0.27
0.18
20
14.15
0.27
0.35
0.25
25
15.20
0.28
0.33
0.25
30
19.31
0.37
0.44
0.30
TS- total solids; VS- volatile solids; COD sol.- soluble chemical oxygen demand.
Time (days)
the values of VA/TA, these remained below 0.5 during the entire test
of anaerobic biodigestion, indicating the stability of the reactor 25.
Methane production from cattle manure: The production and
potential methane production are listed in Table 4.
Methane production was higher in the treatment with the
highest level of WBG (30%). This is probably due to characteristics
of the manure of this treatment (Table 2): higher concentration of
NDF (60.93%), higher content of OM (84.20%), lower values of
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
Period:
Period:
Period:
Period:
10
8
6
-5
10 15 20
Treatment
25
30
R1
R2
R3
R4
35
Table 3. Characterization of substrates (manure and inoculum) of the reactors at the start of the test of
anaerobic digestion for the inclusion levels of 0, 20, 25 and 30% of wet brewery grain to the diet of
cattle.
TS (%)
VS (%)
Initial COD sol.(g.L-1)
pH
VA/TA
FDN
FDA
Initial
6.46
5.03
25.26
6.47
0.13
0
Removal (%)
95.11 a
97.24 a
90.78 a
28.9 b
18.7 b
Initial
6.32
4.80
24.29
6.38
0.14
20
Removal (%)
94.67 a
96.57 a
88.98 a
31.10 ab
20.01 ab
Initial
6.14
5.06
26.61
6.48
0.09
25
Removal (%)
94.99 a
97.88 a
89.68 a
32.59 ab
20.39 ab
Initial
6.23
5.24
28.50
6.45
0.15
30
Removal (%)
94.72 a
96.79 a
91.00 a
36.04 a
24.25 a
TS- total solids; VS- volatile solids; COD sol.- soluble chemical oxygen demand; VA/TA- volatile acidity and total alkalinity; NDF- neutral detergent fibre; ADF- acid detergent
fibre. Means followed by the same letter in the row are not significantly different by Tukeys test at 5% probability.
205
degradation.
In this study, we observed an increase in the concentration of
NDF in response to an increase in additions of WBG in the diet. As
the NDF represents the fibrous fraction of diet 26 and also of faeces,
increases in their concentration may have favoured the production
of acetic acid, which is the substrate for methanogenic bacteria 30.
Manure produced from the diet with the lowest proportion of
forage (40:60) has higher contents of carbohydrates for rapid
degradation (CHOr) and lower contents of fibrous fractions, as a
result of the higher proportion of concentrate in the diet 31. It is
worth noting that the WBR had more behaviour near the food
concentrates, especially due to the lower digestibility of NDF
present in its composition 6. This explains the results obtained in
this experiment, even presenting diet with higher proportion of
forage (60:40).
Modified Gompertz model: Table 5 shows the kinetic
characteristics of the modified Gompertz model.
The coefficient of determination R2 is high, i.e., indicating good
statistical fit. With respect to the parameter P (methane production,
in litres), the treatments 0, 20 and 25 are statistically similar, but
different from the treatment 30. The maximum production (Rm)
was 0.34 L.d-1, for the treatment 30 and the lag phase in days ()
ranged from 0.78 to 2.46 d. The increased production of methane
refers to treatment with the shortest lowest lag phase (), i.e.,
treatment with the greatest increase of WBG.
Therefore, the fit of the model to the methane volume was good
and the oscillations between the expected and cumulative volumes
were associated with biological processes. The dispersion of the
points around the fitted model characterized the efficiency of the
model for the treatments 0 (Fig. 3a), 20 (Fig. 3b), 25 (Fig. 3c) and 30
(b)
Estimates production of methane
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
(c)
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (days)
Time (days)
(d)d)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
(L) T 20 (L)
Estimates productionTof20methane
18
16
20
20
40
60
Time (days)
80
100
120
P (L)
Rm (L.d-1)
(d)
R2
0
11.14 b
0.28
1.52
0.987
20
13.97 ab
0.25
1.31
0.982
25
15.47 ab
0.25
2.46
0.99
30
19.72 a
0.34
0.78
0.99
P: total methane production; Rm: maximum methane production; : lag phase. Means followed
by the same letter in the row are not significantly different by Tukeys test at 5% probability.
(Fig. 3d). In this way, the estimated gas production is good when
using the Gompertz model.
Volatile fatty acids production profile: It appears that, in the
course of the experiment, the concentrations of volatile fatty acids
showed declining trends. When we analyse the Fig. 4, we can
observe that the profile of the averages of the volatile fatty acids
originated in biodigestion of manure in function of time.
The results indicate predominance of acetic acid in every period
of evaluation and can be considered as the main precursor to the
formation of methane. The butyric acid was present in
concentrations above the propionic and lactic acid, except to acetic
acid.
Another assumption is that a low addition of WBG can stimulate
the production of these acids; however, with the increased addition
of WBG, the increase of production ceases to be expressive; the
limitation of protein in faeces can also limit the development of
micro-organisms, and this may have limited both the populations
as the productions.
The production of acetic acid was higher than that of other
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
20
40
60
Time
(days)
Time (days)
80
20
40
60
80
Time (days)
100
120
20
Estimates production of methane T 30 (L)
(a)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20
100
120
Figure 3. Estimates for fitting the modified Gompertz model, obtained from the production of
methane from manure, depending on the levels of wet brewery grain added to the diet: T zero (a),
T 20 (b), T 25 (c) and T 30 (d).
206
Concentration (mg.L-1)
Lactic
Acetic
Propionic
Butyric
Time (days)
207
208
WFL Publisher
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
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Department of Physics and Agrophysics, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, ul. Papiea Pawa VI No3, 71459 Szczecin, Poland. 2 Department of Plant Genetic, Breeding and Biotechnology, West Pomeranian University of Technology in
Szczecin, ul. Papiea Pawa VI No3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland. *e-mail: Andrzej.Gawlik@zut.edu.pl
1
Abstract
Humic acids (HA) can be found in all aquatic and land-based ecosystems. They may directly or indirectly influence the growth of plants. The aim of
the study was to determine the influence of HA extracted from peloid on the growth and morphological features of pea plants by in vitro cultures.
Sterilized pea seeds (Pisum sativum L.) of Ramdrod variety were placed on Murashige & Skoog (MS) medium with HA of the following concentration,
expressed as content of HA carbon in dm3 of medium: 0.005; 0.01 and 0.02 (gCHAdm-3). Control samples included those in which HA was not added
to MS medium. After two weeks of the experiment, morphological features were determined in young pea plants and microbiometric features
examined using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Biometric measurements showed that HA added to the medium caused statistically
significant increase in the height of the pea plant shoot, as well as longer roots in comparison with control samples. Additionally, growth of fresh
weight of the shoot was observed, whereas in the case of the highest and the lowest concentration of HA a significant increase in fresh and dry weight
of roots. Examination using the SEM showed that humic acids had positive influence on the length of internodal shoot and root cells. At the same time,
a decrease in the number of stomas was observed. The experiment showed that HA activity is similar to auxins. No influence of HA on the green index
and dry weight of shoots were recorded.
Key words: Auxin-like activity of humic acid, biometric and microbiometric parameters of pea plants, Pisum sativum L., scanning electron microscope.
Introduction
At the moment, in both aquatic and land ecosystems, humic acid
(HA) is the most important fraction of humic substances. Despite
different origin and chemical composition, HA show a number of
common features. The core of macromolecules of HA has an
aromatic structure containing a network of aromatic rings (chiefly
derivatives of benzene) linked by various bridges and parts of
aliphatic chains. The HA structure contains numerous functional
groups, in particular COOH and OH, which contribute to its nature
of polycarboxylic organic acids. Apart from C, O and H, some of
basic elements present in the HA structure also includes nitrogen.
HA is a reservoir of nitrogen for plants. It is released gradually.
Durable forms of nitrogen in the HA structure are connected to a
large extent with aromatic chains in the form of amines or
heterocyclic structures. Due to its properties, HA plays a number
of important functions in the environment. HAs may have an
important influence on the structure and properties of soil and its
water and air properties 1. They are responsible for soil sorption
capacity as well as they may directly modify life processes in
plants 2-4.
Humic acids have the capacity of creating complexes with
various metals 5, 6. That way they may influence the concentration
of free ions in the soil solution. Ions of iron and aluminium deserve
special attention 7, 8. Moreover, humic substances show capacity
to bind heavy metals in soil and thus reducing their availability
for plants 9. The presence of sufficient quantity of humic
substances in soil and formation of stable humusenzyme
209
was centrifuged and purified by centrifuging and washing it with Table 1. Biometrical parameters of pea plants grown from seeds
distilled water several times. The HA gel obtained was freezeon agar base with MS medium with HA 0, 0.005, 0.01
dried in the lyophilizer. Dry HA mixture underwent elemental
and 0.02 gCHAdm-3.
analysis in the CHNS/O series II, 2400 analyser by Perkin Elmer. HA in
Fresh
Dry
Fresh
Dry
Green
Root
HA mixture used contained C (36.57 2.29%); H (38.66 1.72%); medium Height shoot
shoot
root
root
leaf
length
-3
index
N (2.18 0.42%) and O (22.59 1.70%). Atom ratios calculated (gCHAdm (cm) weight weight (cm) weight weight
medium)
(g)
(g)
(g)
(g)
(SPAD)
based on elemental analysis typical for HA mixture are as follows: Control-0
7.1a
0.639a
0.083a
7.6a
0.491a
0.054a
32a
H/C-1.06; C/N- 16.78; and O/C- 0.62.
0.005
7.9ab 0.683ab
0.089a
14.8b
0.585b
0.064b
33a
Plant material: Seeds of pea (Pisum sativum L.) Ramrod variety
were sterilized by immersing them in 70% solution of ethanol for
10 s, then in 7% solution of sodium hypochlorite for 10 min.
Sterilized seeds were placed on MS medium 18 with 0.005, 0.01 and
0.02 (gCHAdm-3) HA. Plants on an MS medium without growth
regulators were the control group. The pH of culture media was
adjusted to 5.7 using solutions of 0.1 M HCl and NaOH and
sterilized in an autoclave at 121+1C and pressure of 1 atmosphere
for 20 min. The cultures were placed in a phytotron for 14 days at
24C and relative air humidity of 70-80%. The cultures were exposed
to fluorescent light of PPFD 40 (molm-2s-1) for 16 h per day.
After two weeks of the experiment, microbiometric examination
was performed and morphological features determined, including
plant height (cm), length of roots (cm), fresh and dry weight of
shoots and roots (g) and green leaf index (SPAD). Dry weight of
plants or their parts was measured after drying at 105C to reach
constant weight.
Microscopic observations: Microbiometric measurements used
scanning electron microscope Quanta 200 by Fei. Fresh samples
of plants were taken for testing. Parts of shoots and roots were
cut longitudinally with a scalpel. Leaves sampled from the second
node from the top were placed directly on measurement tables.
After samples were placed on tables in the measurement chamber,
pumps were switched on to remove air. Measurements were made
using fresh plant material without prior irradiation and vapour
deposition.
Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed using ANOVA for a
completely randomized design. Tukey test was used to indicate
means with significant effect at P0.05. Homogenous groups
between analysed combinations were labelled with successive
letters of alphabet.
Results and Discussion
The experiment assessed influence of three concentrations of
humic acids (HA) on morphological features of two-week pea
plants. Humic acids added to MS medium at higher concentrations
resulted in the increase of pea height and fresh shoot weight
(Table 1). All concentrations of humic acids used contributed to
increased length of roots, however, statistically significant
increase in fresh and dry weight of roots appeared at the highest
and the lowest concentration of HA. No influence of HA was
recorded on the value of the green leaf index and dry weight of the
shoot. It is worth noticing that humic acids did not cause reduction
of the value of any parameters examined and HA influenced
biometrical parameters of roots rather than shoots of pea plants.
The activity of humic acids was similar to growth regulators
when added to medium in smaller quantities they had major
influence on the growth of plants. Young and Chen 19 arrived at
210
0.01
0.02
8.2b
8.7b
0.728b
0.716b
0.096a
0.095a
12.2b
14.8b
0.527ab
0.612b
0.060ab
0.063b
36a
32a
600
500
400
300
200
c
b
a
100
0
MS (control)
MS + HA 0.005
MS + HA 0.01
MS + HA 0.02
Figure 2. SEM picture: a) leaf blade with stomas, b) stomas length, c) shoot cross section, and d) cross section of
pea plant root exposed to HA of 0.02 (gCHAdm-3), scale: a) 400 m, b) 100 m, c) 500 m, d) 200 m.
20
500
450
400
15
300
10
350
b
a
250
100
50
MS + HA 0.005
MS + HA 0.01
MS + HA 0.02
a
MS (control)
a
MS + HA 0.005
MS + HA 0.01
MS + HA 0.02
140
120
100
m
MS (control)
150
200
80
60
40
20
0
MS (control)
MS + HA 0.005
MS + HA 0.01
MS + HA 0.02
211
212
Biochem. 34:15271537.
Gonet, S. S. and Dbska, B. 1993. Properties of humic acids developed
through decomposition of plant residues. Zesz. Probl. Postpw Nauk
Rol. 441:241-249 (in Polish).
16
Gonet, S. S. 2003. Influence of humic substances on plants. In Dbska,
B. and Gonet, S. S. (eds). Humic Substances in Soil and Fertilizer.
Wrocaw, pp. 166-172 (in Polish).
17
Shnitzer, M. and Khan, S. U. 1978. Soil Organic Matter. Developments
in Soil Science 8, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 319 p.
18
Murashige, T. and Skoog, F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth
and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiologiae Plantarum
15:473-479.
19
Young, C. C. and Chen, L. F. 1997. Polyamines in humic acid and their
effect on radical growth of lettuce seedlings. Plant Soil 195:143-149.
20
Muscolo, A. and Sidari, M. 1998. Biological activity of humic substances
and phenolic compounds extracted from two different forest soils of
Aspromonte (southern Italy). Fresenius Environ. Bull. 7:695700.
21
Russell, L., Stokes, A. R., Macdonald, H., Muscolo, A. and Nardi, S.
2006. Stomatal responses to humic substances and auxin are sensitive
to inhibitors of phospholipase A2. Plant Soil 283:175-185.
22
Pinton, R., Cesco, S., De Nobili, M., Santi, S. and Varanini, Z. 1998.
Water and pyrophosphateextractable humic substances fractions as
source of iron for Fedeficient cucumber plants. Biology and Fertility
of Soils 26:23-27.
23
Pinton, R., Cesco, S., Agnolon, F. and Varanini, Z. 1999. Waterextractable humic substances enhance iron deficiency responses by
Fe-deficient cucumber plants. Plant Soil 210:145-157.
24
Rzepka-Plevnes, D., Kulpa, D., Gobiowska, D. and Porwolik, D.
2011. Effects of auxins and humic acids on in vitro rooting of strawberry
(Fragaria x ananassa Duch.). Journal of Food, Agriculture and
Environment 9(3&4):592-595.
25
Muscolo, A. and Nardi, S. 1997. Auxin or auxinlike activity of humic
matter. In Drozd, J., Gonet, S. and Weber, J. (eds.). The Role of Humic
Substances in the Ecosystems and in Environmental Protection.
Collective paper, Wrocaw, pp. 987-992.
26
Pearson, M. and Mansfield, T. A. 1993. Interacting effects of ozone
and water stress on the stomatal resistance of beech (Fagus sylvatica
L.). New Phytologist 123:351358.
27
Pkknen, E., Vahala, J., Pohjola, M., Holopainen, T. and Krenlampi,
L. 1998. Physiological, stomatal and ultrastructural ozone responses
in birch (Betula pendula Roth.) are modified by water stress. Plant,
Cell and Environment 21:671684.
28
Muscolo, A., Panuccio, M. R., Sidari, M. and Nardi, S. 2005. The
effects of humic substances on Pinus callus are reversed by 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic acids. Journal of Chemical Ecology 31(3):577590.
15
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
1*
Laboratory of Plant Biotechnologies, Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, v.v.i., Rozvojov 263, 165 02 - Prague 6, Czech
Republic. 2 Isotope Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, v.v.i., Vdesk 1083, 142 20 - Prague 4,
Czech Republic. *e-mail: soudek@ueb.cas.cz
Abstract
The ability of plant cells cultivated in vitro synthesized and biotransformed substances of natural and synthetic origin are known for a long time. The
biotransformation of 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)-1-cycloalkanone skeleton was studied. Its knowledge is important for two reasons, partly for ease of
enzymatic synthesis juvenogens and to better understand the mechanism of action of the dicyclic juvenoids. Results obtained show that cultured
rhubarb (Rheum palmatum L.) and kangaroo apple (Solanum aviculare Forst.) plant cells were able to efficiently convert 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)-1cyclo-pentanones to its glucosides via corresponding alcohols.
Key words: Solanum aviculare, Rheum palmatum, plant cell culture, 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)-cyclopentanone, 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)cyclopentanol,
glucoside, enantiomeric purity.
Introduction
Plant cells cultivated in vitro can be used for production and
biotransformation of substances of natural and synthetic origin,
as well. Recently, we described application of this methodology
for biotransformation of plant secondary metabolites, limonene 1
and citronellal 2. To present the possibility of biotransformation
of synthetic biologically active compounds by plant cells, we
studied transformation of racemic 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)
cyclopentanone (1) towards chiral alcohols 2a and 3a. Racemic
2-(4-methoxybenzyl)cyclopentanone (1) represents an example
of a substrate unnatural for plant cells (xenobiotics). The compound
1 can serve as a model system of the dicyclic juvenile hormone
analog (JHA) skeleton. The JHAs have been investigated for many
years and reviewed recently 3- 6. In the plant tissue both enzymatic
fission of the incorporated juvenogen glucoside and eventually
the synthesis of a novel one could occur.
The juvenogens term used for compounds capable induced an
active component (juvenoids) in response to a biotic or abiotic
stress factors. Mechanism of enzymatic fission within the insect
was studied using both esters and glucosides juvenogens. They
were also tested the possibility of their practical use as a new
systemic pesticide against the herbivore insects. In the plant
tissues both pathways of enzymatic fission of incorporated
juvenogen glucoside are found 7 , 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)
cycloalkanone derivatives have been investigated intensively 3.
Presence of an alcoholic functional group in the JHAs molecule
allows their further modification in order to afford biologically
inactive complex substances (juvenogens). The juvenogens can
subsequently liberate the biologically active JHA within the insect
organism under the enzymatic action 4, 5, 8-10. The investigation of
the biotransformation of 2-(4-alkoxybenzyl)cyclopentanone
skeleton is important for studying the chemical properties of this
213
Figure 1. Reaction course of biotransformation of 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)1-cyclopentanone using plant cells (the starting material was racemic and
the formulae show the relative, not the absolute, configurations).
2-(4-methoxybenzyl)-1-cyclopentanone (1), cis - alcohol (2), trans - alcohol (3), cis - b - D
- glucoside (4), trans - b - D - glucoside (5).
mm 25 mm) packed with the SiC-18 (30 m). The column was
washed with water (100 ml), 10% methanol/water mixture (100 ml)
and the sorbed products were eluted with methanol (50 ml). The
compounds present in the reaction mixtures were separated by a
preparative HPLC, and their yields are given in Table 1. The purity
of the products was checked using analytical HPLC, and their
structure was proved by their 1H NMR spectra. 1H NMR (CDCl3):
2a: 1.44-1.88 (m, 6H), 1.97 (m, 1H), 2.63 (dd, J = 7.8, 13.8 Hz, 1H),
2.75 (dd, J = 7.8, 13.8 Hz, 1H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 4.08 (dt, J = 1.5, 4.4, 4.4
Hz, 1H), 6.96 (m, 2H), 7.14 (m, 2H). 3a: 1.20-1.88 (m, 6H), 1.99 (m,
1H), 2.49 (dd, J = 8.3, 13.7 Hz, 1H), 2.69 (dd, J = 6.8, 13.7 Hz, 1H),
3.78 (s, 3H), 3.90 (dt, J = 5.6, 5.6, 6.8 Hz, 1H), 6.96 (m, 2H), 7.11 (m,
2H). 4a: 1.45-1.90 (m, 6H), 1.96 (m, 1H), 2.64 (dd, J = 7.6, 13.7 Hz,
1H), 2.80 (dd, J = 7.5, 13.7 Hz, 1H), 3.11 (dt, J = 4.0, 4.0, 8.8 Hz, 1H),
3.22 (t, J = 8.4 Hz, 1H), 3.40 (t, J = 8.8 Hz, 1H), 3.46 (t, J = 9.1 Hz, 1H),
3.70 (dd, J = 4.2, 12.0 Hz, 1H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.85 (dd, J = 3.7, 12.0 Hz,
1H), 3.93 (d, J = 8.1 Hz, 1H), 4.10 (dt, J = 1.7, 4.6, 4.6 Hz, 1H), 6.96 (m,
2H), 7.13 (m, 2H). 5a: 1.18 - 1.92 (m, 6H), 2.20 (m, 1H), 2.50 (dd, J =
8.8, 13.8 Hz, 1H), 2.62 (dd, J = 6.6, 13.8 Hz, 1H), 3.06 (dt, J = 4.1, 4.1,
8.8 Hz, 1H), 3.19 (t, J = 8.3 Hz, 1H), 3.41 (t, J = 8.9 Hz, 1H), 3.50 (t, J
= 9.3 Hz, 1H), 3.73 (dd, J = 4.3, 12.0 Hz), 3.79 (s, 3H), 3.82 (dd, J = 3.9,
12.0 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (dt, J = 4.4, 4.4, 6.4 Hz, 1H), 3.95 (d, J = 7.8 Hz, 1H),
6.84 (m, 2H), 7.11 (m, 2H).
Table 1. Compounds isolated after bio transformation of
2-(4-methoxybenzyl) cyclopentanone (1) by plant cell
cultures.
Compound
1
2a
3a
4a
5a
Plant Cells
Solanum aviculare
Rheum palmatum
Yield (%) e.e. (%) Yield (%) e.e. (%)
10
11
25
48
10
39
35
52
24
44
5
10
6
7
16
10
Diastereoisomeric 3,3,3-trifluoro-2-methoxy-2-phenylpropanoic
acid esters 6a - 7d of the alcohols 2a - 3b: A general procedure
used for the synthesis of the 3,3,3-trifluoro-2-methoxy-2phenylpropanoic acid esters on a milligram scale starting from the
(S)-(+)- or (R)-(-)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-methoxy-2-phenylpropanoyl
chloride was already described in details 15-18. Esters 6a - 7d were
obtained in quantitative yields. Selected 1H and 19F NMR data for
esters 6a - 7d, which are important for assignment of the absolute
configuration of the parent major enantiomers 2a and 3a of the
alcohols, as well as for the minor enantiomers 2b and 3b are given
in Table 2. The enantiomeric purity of the alcohols 2a and 3a is
presented in Table 1.
Results and Discussion
The substrate 1 was fed as racemate. The reaction course was
checked using an HPLC analysis employing UV detection at 268
Table 2. Selected 1H and 19F NMR NMR data of the MTPA (3,3,3trifluoro-2-methoxy-2-phenylpropanoic acid) esters 6a 7d.
CH2Ar
CH2Ar
CF3
A. C. a
a
6a
6b
6c
6d
7a
7b
7c
7d
2.51
2.41
2.41
2.51
2.49
2.42
2.42
2.49
2.72
2.62
2.62
2.71
2.74
2.71
2.71
2.75
-67.49 -67.32 -67.31 -67.48 -67.85 -67.93 -67.94 -67.84
S,S,S R,R,S S,S,R R,R,R S,R,S R,S,S S,R,R R,S,R
analysed on the basis of their 1H and 19F NMR spectra (cf. Table 2)
and by an HPLC analysis. Using Rheum palmatum plant cells, the
2-(4-methoxybenzyl)cyclopentyl--D-glucopyranosides (4a and
5a) were found as additional products of the biotransformation
process.
The above results show that the absolute configuration of 2a
was determined as (1S, 2S), and that of 3a was determined as (1S,
2R). In addition, the Solanum aviculare and Rheum palmatum
cells transformed the substrate 1 to several main products, either
the isomeric chiral alcohols 2a and 3a or the 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)
cyclopentyl-b-D-glucopyranosides 4a and 5a. However, the
disadvantage of both these plant cell cultures is the fact that
neither of them was able to perform biotransformation process in
a way affording either of the products with more acceptable (> 90
- 95% ee) enantiomeric or diastereomeric purity. In the case of
Solanum aviculare Forst cells we found both alcohols to be the
main products in the yield of 25% cis- and 35% trans-alcohol
(Table 1). These alcohols were isolated by HPLC and their
configuration was determined using MTPA esters 18, 23, 24. Using
Rheum palmatum L. plant cells, we found both glycosides to be
the main products (Table 1, Fig. 2). This is a good example of
different activity of enzyme system in the plant cells.
25
80
20
60
15
40
10
20
100
Percentage of initial concentration
(Compound 1)
0
0
6
Time (Days)
10
12
= cis - b - D -
Conclusions
The transformation of 2-(4-methoxybenzyl)-l-cyclopentanone by
Solanum aviculare Forst and Rheum palmatum L. cells was
described. We obtained racemic mixture of alcohols. The plant
cells transformed the starting compounds to the different main
product (alcohols and/or glycosides) and with different yields.
This is a good example of different activity of enzyme system in
the plant cells.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by project Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sports (KONTAKT LH 12162).
References
Vank, T., Valterov, I. and Vaisar, T. 1999. Biotransformation of (S)()- and (R)-(+)-limonene using Solanum aviculare and Dioscorea
deltoidea plant cells. Phytochemistry 50(8):1347-1351.
2
Vank, T., Novotn, M., Podlipn, R., Valterov, I. and aman, D.
2003. Biotransformation of citronellal by Solanum aviculare
1
215
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Water Management Research Institute, National Water Research Center, P. O. Box 13621/5, Delta Barrage, Qalubia, Egypt.
2
Agronomy Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafr El-Sheikh University, P. O. BOX 33516, Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt.
3
Department of Agricultural Sciences, P. O. Box 27, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland. 4 Department of Crop Sciences, Faculty of
Agriculture, Minufiya University, 32511 Shibin El-kom, Egypt. *e-mail: mahmoud.seleiman@helsinki.fi, emadhafez2014@gmail.com
1
Abstract
Water and N are considered the most limiting factors for the growth and yield during the grain filling stage, particularly in the arid, semi-arid zones.
The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of N applications (0, 140, 280 and 420 kg ha-1) and water regimes (I1= 100%, I2= 80% and I3= 60%
of field capacity) on nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), water utilization efficiency (WUtE) and related parameters and grain yield and its components
of Zea mays L. (cv maize hybrid Giza 10). The highest N application resulted in a significant increase in grain yield and its components, accumulated
N in grains and shoots. However, it significantly decreased apparent N fertiliser recovery (ANR) and N utilisation efficiency when all water regimes
were applied. N application of 280 kg ha-1 was the optimal in our study for such environmental conditions. Yield and its components were increased
with increasing soil field capacity from 60 to 100%. There was a significant effect of the interaction between irrigation and N treatments on N
efficiencies, growth and consequently on yields. The results showed that the yield of maize can be increased through the reasonable N application
(i.e., declining the gap between the recommended N levels and the estimated levels) and suitable irrigation regime (I2). Also, the optimal management
of N practices is highly recommended to avoid the loss of the N when there is a deficiency or excessiveness in water supplied to the soil.
Key words: Field capacity, grain yield, maize, N accumulation, N-application, NUE, WUtE.
Introduction
Globally, the cultivated area of maize (Zea mays L.) is about 177.37
M ha and the total production is about 872.06 Tg, while the
cultivated area of maize in Egypt is about 1.04 M ha and the local
production is about 8.09 Tg 1. Maize is the third most important
cereal crop after wheat and rice in the world 2 and also in Egypt. It
has an exceptional importance because the Egyptian national
production is not sufficient. This is imputable to the growth in the
gap between the internal output of maize and the demands 3. Thus,
an important aim of the Egyptian government is consequently to
reduce the dependence on imported maize by enhancing grain
yield and production. Maize is usually used for a human food and
livestock feed, as well as it can be used in the production of
alcohol and medical materials 2-6. Recently, it has been used as a
biomass for bioenergy purposes 7, 8.
Irrigation is considered one of the most important factors that
can influence the yield and the quality of the crop 6, 9, 10. The water
deficiency is considered a serious issue that can limit maize growth
due to its effect on the most important process, such as
physiological and morphological processes 11. Water management
and N-fertiliser application are considered the most significant
elements to increase crop productivity 11. For example, about 30%
of the gap between potential and actual maize grain yields in the
farms of developing countries is attributable to the drought and N
deficiency. Many studies have been conducted to examine the
only effects of irrigation or N applications on the grain yield and
its parts as well as the N-related parameters of maize. Nevertheless,
few investigations have been made out along the interaction
217
measured and recorded using Parshall flume (20 cm90 cm). After
measuring the water discharge and the required time, the amount
of water applied per unit area was calculated. The water utilization
efficiency (WUtE) (kg m-3) was estimated as the weight of
marketable crops produced (kg) per unit volume of applied water
(m3).
Plants were harvested at 120 days after sowing (DAS) in both
of the growing seasons. Ten plants at harvest, were randomly
chosen from the fourth inner rows for measuring the yield
components, i.e. ear length (cm), number of rows per ear, number
of grains per row and 100-grain weight (g) as well as the plant
height (cm). From the central area of each plot 1 m2 was harvested
to measure the shoots (i.e., whole biomass above soil except grains)
and grain yield to get the shoot and grain yield per ha. Grain yield
of maize was then adjusted to 15.5% moisture content.
To determine N in shoots and grains, ten maize plants were
chosen randomly and harvested at the soil surface and shoots
and grains were separated. Different parts were dried in oven for
72 h at 70C and ground in a mill to produce a fine powder, which
is needed for the N analysis. About 0.2 g of each sample was used
to analyse N content using the standard procedure of Kjeldahl
method. Then, N harvest index (NHI) at maturity was calculated 24
and also N accumulation (kg N ha-1) in the shoots or grains was
calculated 8, 25 as follows:
N harvest index =
(1)
Shoots N content
Shoots DM
(g kg-1)
(kg ha-1)
1000
Grains DM
Grains N content
(kg ha-1)
(g kg-1)
Grains N accumulation =
1000
(kg ha-1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
where GYt and GYc express the grain yield at different N treatments
and control, respectively. While NFt and NFc express the N
applications for different N treatments and control, respectively.
Total N accumulationt - Total N accumulationc (kg ha-1)
ANR
-1 =
(kg kgN )
NFt - NFc (kg ha-1)
(5)
(6)
where GYt and GYc express the grain yield at different N treatments
and control, respectively. While N uptaket and N uptakec express
the total N accumulation in whole plant biomass above ground
(grains and stover) for different N treatments and control,
respectively.
Statistical analysis: Data obtained from the current investigation
was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using PASW
statistics 20.0 (IBM Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Different means were
compared using Duncans multiple range test, when the ANOVA
showed significant differences (P<0.05).
Results and Discussion
The total amounts of irrigation water delivered to different
treatments were measured and statistically analyzed. In general,
the amounts of water applied and water utilization efficiency in
different treatments increased with the increase in N application
for maize crop. In addition, with decreasing soil moisture content,
both amount of applied water as well as the WUtE were decreased.
The highest value recorded for the WUtE, when N 420 kg ha-1 and
80% of field capacity were applied. In general, the highest WUtE
was obtained with 80% of field capacity (Fig. 1). The management
of the irrigation process has an important role not only for the
increasing production of plant species via the better availability
of the water resources, but also for supplying water with reducing
the potential risk for water-borne diseases 27. Generally, the WUtE
is more associated to the grain yield, and contrariwise in the
relationship with the quantity of water applied to plant species 28.
N fertiliser application significantly increased grain yield and
its components, but the N effect depended on the availability of
water for maize (Tables 3 and 4). There was an improvement in the
plant growth, when N 280 kg ha-1 and 80% of field capacity were
applied. This might be due to the well utilisation of the supplied N
in the metabolism and the meristemic activity, which consequently
improve growth characters and yield components. The marked
increase in growth characteristics and yield components
contributed to the significant increase in maize grain yield 29.
There was not a significant difference in plant height and number
of grains per row when maize was fertilised either with N 280 or
420 kg ha-1 under all of the studied water regimes (Table 3). However,
the lowest field capacity (I3) and the lowest N application (zero N)
resulted in the lowest plant height, ear weight and number of
grains per row during both of growing seasons (Table 3). This
reduction might be caused by the low field capacity of the soil.
The data of the current study showed also that some of yield
components (i.e., ear weight and number of grains per row) was
significantly affected by the interaction between both of the
studied factors. These results are in agreement with Iqbal et al. 30,
who reported the significant interaction effect between the
fertilisation and irrigation treatments on the plant growth. Uptake
of N during silking influences the number of grains 37. This might
be due to the high demand of embryos for the N following the
fertilisation 40. Therefore, the number of grains is very sensitive to
the N deficiency compared with grain weight.
On the contrary, 1000-grain weight was decreased when N
application level was increased, regardless of the different
treatments of water regime (Table 3). The 1000-grain weight of
plants grown with 60% of field capacity was noticeably lower
than in those grown with either 80% or 100% of field capacity
(Table 3). This was shown when this parameter was reduced due
to decrease in field capacity by 9% in 2012 and by 3% in 2013.
Generally, the impact of soil moisture stress, in the case of
increasing or reducing soil moisture, on the plant growth could be
associated with unbalanced water-air relations in the soil.
Consequently, this can cause a reduction in the photosynthesis
activities as well as can affect the balance in the relations between
plant hormones and different biological processes in the different
organs of the plant 31. These undesirable conditions in the treated
soils are certainly critical, since they can affect the growth and
accumulation of dry matter in maize.
In the current study, there was an interaction effect between
the N applications and the capacity on the dry weight productivity
(i.e., shoots and grain yield) of the maize crop. The shoot and
grain yields were significantly increased when both of N
application and field capacity were increased (Table 4). There was
no significant difference between the effect of highest two N
application under the different field capacity treatments, in
219
Table 4. Grains and shoots N contents (g kg-1), grains and shoots yield (Mg ha-1), N harvest index (NHI), apparent N recovery
(ANR), N utilisation efficiency (NUtE) and agronomical NUE of maize grown with different soil moisture content
(SMC) and N applications.
SMC
I1
I2
I3
N-fertiliser
(kg ha-1)
0
140
280
420
0
140
280
420
0
140
280
420
S.E.M.
SMC
N- fertilizer
SMC N
Grain N
(g kg-1)
2012 2013
11.9 12.1
13.5 13.7
14.6 14.9
15.9 15.9
12.7 12.8
13.9 14.0
15.2 15.5
16.2 16.4
13.1 13.2
14.1 14.2
15.9 16.3
16.8 16.7
0.11 0.13
Shoot N
(g kg-1)
2012 2013
8.9
8.4
9.6
9.1
10.4
9.8
11.1 10.5
9.4
9.5
10.4
9.9
11.3 10.7
11.8 11.5
10.1
9.7
11.0 10.5
11.8 11.2
12.5 12.1
0.10 0.09
Shoot DM
(Mg ha-1)
2012 2013
12.2 11.8
13.9 13.5
15.5 15.1
15.9 15.4
11.9 11.6
13.3 13.1
15.2 14.9
15.6 15.1
10.2
9.7
12.2 11.8
14.1 13.5
14.3 13.7
0.13 0.15
Grain yield
(Mg ha-1)
2012 2013
5.86 6.21
6.90 7.24
8.28 7.93
8.97 8.62
5.65 5.84
6.75 6.91
8.02 7.75
8.75 8.52
5.27 5.33
6.20 6.32
7.00 7.48
8.36 8.19
0.05 0.07
NHI
2012
0.32
0.35
0.39
0.42
0.26
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.26
0.28
0.33
0.34
0.01
2013
0.34
0.37
0.42
0.45
0.29
0.36
0.40
0.44
0.28
0.31
0.36
0.39
0.01
ANR
(kg kg-1)
2012 2013
-
0.30
0.31
0.27
0.34
0.33
0.24
0.27
0.24
0.24
0.28
0.27
0.25
0.16
0.20
0.16
0.005
0.16
0.21
0.18
0.007
NUtE
(kg kg-1)
2012 2013
24.6 21.6
27.7 18.7
26.8 31.8
29.8 27.6
34.3 24.9
30.5 25.0
40.2 44.0
38.2 35.2
43.8 35.9
0.12 0.14
ANUE
(kg kg-1)
2012 2013
-
7.37
8.61
7.38
7.39
6.16
5.74
7.85
8.46
7.38
7.64
6.82
6.37
6.64
7.96
7.35
0.06
7.07
7.67
7.21
0.09
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
ns
ns
ns
ns
**
**
**
**
ns
ns
I1= 100% of field capacity, I2= 80% of field capacity, I3= 60% of field capacity. S.E.M.=Standard error of means. *= P0.05 and **= P 0.01.
220
Season 2012
175 I
1
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
75
50
25
0
Shoots N accumulation (kg ha-1)
Season 2013
175 I
1
150
125
100
175
I2
150
175
125
100
125
100
75
150
75
50
I2
50
25
25
0
0
175
175
I3
150
150
125
125
100
I3
100
75
75
50
50
25
25
0
140
280
420
140
280
420
Figure 2. N accumulation in shoots (kg ha-1) of maize grown with different soil
moisture content (SMC) and N applications during two growing seasons. Data
are meanSE and r = 4.
120
100
Season 2012
I1
100
80
120
60
40
40
20
20
100
120
I2
100
80
60
40
40
20
20
100
120
I3
100
I3
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
I2
80
60
120
I1
80
60
120
Season 2013
140
280
420
N application (kg ha-1)
140
280
420
N application (kg ha-1)
Figure 3. N accumulation in grains (kg ha-1) of maize grown with different soil
moisture content (SMC) and N applications during two growing seasons. Data
are mean SE and r = 4.
221
References
222
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Abstract
The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of water stress on yield components of hybrid of sorghum BR-700. The experiment was conducted
in a greenhouse at the Federal University of Rural of Amaznia, Belm city, State of Par, Brazil. The experiment was carried out in the completely
randomized design in a 2 x 3 factorial scheme, consisting of two water conditions (control and stress), and initiation of water stress at three growth
stages of sorghum (vegetative, reproductive and physiological maturity), with 5 repetitions. The evaluations were performed after each period of
stress in the plant, measuring variables: dry mass of stem, dry mass of leaves, dry mass of panicle, dry mass of shoots, total dry mass, number of
grains plant-1, mass of 100 grains and dry mass of grains plant-1. Water stress promoted a reduction in the number of leaves and stem diameter,
regardless of the phenological stage of culture, except plant height, which was statistically equal to the control. Concerning the variable dry mass of
stem, dry mass of leaves, dry mass of panicle, dry mass of shoots and the total dry mass were reduced dramatically with fifteen days of water stress.
Water stress promoted low production of plant, evidenced by the low number of grains plant-1, 100 grain mass and grain yield plant-1, showing that
the hybrid sorghum BR-700 was sensitive to water stress, independent of phenological stage of water stress occurrence.
Key words: Grain yield, drought tolerance, plant biometrics.
Introduction
Cultivated plants are constantly exposed to abiotic or biotic
stresses, and interactions that cause changes in growth,
metabolism and yield. The main abiotic factors limiting crop
productivity are: water stress, salinity, low and high temperatures
and excess water, pollution and radiation 1, emphasizing water
stress to be considered the main obstacle of global agricultural
productivity 2-4.
The water, besides being the major component of the cell, is
essential for the maintenance of cellular turgor and allows the
continuation of the process of plant growth, expansion,
photosynthesis and cell division 5. According to Lawlor and
Cornic 6, the leaf water potential, and also the relative water content
are reduced with the declining availability of soil water, resulting
in the loss of turgor and stomatal closure 7.
Water stress is a common situation to occur during the
development of many cultures, and may cause negative impact
on growth and development of crop plants 8. Thus, there is a need
to classify species, biotypes and cultivars in drought tolerant or
sensitive plants, in which each of the possible methods of
classification is by allometric data of the plants. Camacho and
Caraballo 9, studying maize cultivars exposed to water stress in
soil, determined that the dry mass of root can be used as an
indicator parameter for drought tolerant plants.
Studies about the distribution of the root system are considered
essential to the proper management of cultivated plants. The water
223
250
(a)
Ba
Ba
150
Bb
100
50
Ca*
Ca*
Cb
10
(b)
E
Aa
Aa
8
6
4
Ba
Ba
*
Ca
Ca*
Ab
Ab
Ab
Bb
Bb
2
0
25
(c)
Aa
20
Stem diameter (mm)
Stress
Aa
Aa
Aa
200
Control
Ba
Ba
15
10
5
0
*
Ca
Ca*
Ab
Ab
Bb
Bb
Cb
Cb
R
Phenological state
PM
70
Stress
Aa
Aa
60
Ba
Ba
50
40
30
20
Ab
Ab
Ab
Ab
Ca*
Ca*
Bb
Bb
25
(b)
Aa
Aa
20
15
Ba
Ab
Ab
Ca
Ca**
Bb
Bb
10
Cb
Cb
5
0
R
Phenological state
PM
60
(c)
Aa
50
40
30
20
10
0
Control
(a)
10
Ab
Ab
Ba*
Ba*
Bb
Bb
R
Phenological state
PM
Figure 2. Dry mass of the stem (a), leaf (b) and panicle (c) in
Sorghum bicolor plants cv BR-700 submitted to water stress.
* Averages followed by the same uppercase letter within of the stages
(vegetative, reproductive and maturation) and lowercase letter among the
conditions (control and stress), do not differ among themselves by the Tukey
test at 5% of probability. The bars represent the mean standard error.
225
120
(a)
Control
Stress
Aa
Aa
100
Ba
Ba
80
60
40
Ab
Ab
Bb
Bb
*
Ca
Ca*
20
Cb
Cb
30
(b)
Aa
Aa
25
20
Bb
Ba
Ba
Ca
Ca
15
10
Aa
Aa
Cb*
Cb*
5
0
140
(c)
Aa
120
Ba
Ba
100
Ab
Ab
80
Bb
Bb
60
40
*
Ca
Ca*
Cb
Cb
20
0
R
Phenological state
PM
Figure 3. Dry mass of shoot (a), root (b) and total (c) in
Sorghum bicolor plants cv BR-700 submitted to water stress.
* Averages followed by the same uppercase letter within of the stages (vegetative,
reproductive and maturation) and lowercase letter among the conditions (control
and stress), do not differ among themselves by the Tukey test at 5% of probability.
The bars represent the mean standard error.
The dry mass of root was the only variable studied, which
showed higher values for plants subjected to water stress compared
to control plants, verifying the superiority of 4.61, 8.40 and 1.37 g
compared with control plant (Fig. 3b). The significant increase in
root dry mass in plants subjected to water stress was promoted
by more developed root system, thus, characterizing a more deep
and extensive root system, promoting a greater efficiency in
capturing water in the soil. Thus, more specific researches,
biochemical and molecular levels, to elucidate the detailed
mechanism of tolerance to drought, must be made, since
physiological measures such as water potential and osmotic
adjustment do not correlate with differences in productivity of
grain sorghum under water stress 26.
The increase in root growth can be explained that water stress
have been little severe, affecting a greater proportion of shoot
growth of the plant, which promoted an increase in the availability
of assimilates to the roots 11. Another possibility to increase the
dry matter of the roots in plants under water stress can be
correlated with the increase and/or cell expansion by increasing
226
Control
1600
(a)
Stress
a*
a*
1400
1200
1000
bb
800
650
References
400
(b)
a*
a*
b
b
0
50
45
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Pimentel, C. 2004. The relationship of the plant with water. Seropdica,
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Oliveira Neto, C. F., Lobato, A. K. S., Costa, R. C. L., Maia, W. J. M.
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Oliveira Neto, C. F., Lobato, A. K. S., Gonalves-Vidigal, M. C., Costa,
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F. J. R., Neves, H. K. B. and Lopes, M. J. S. 2009b. Carbon compounds
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Ferreira, D. F. 2011. Sisvar: A computer statistical analysis system.
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Tomich, T. R., Rodrigues, J. A. S., Tomich, R.G., Gonalves, L. C. and
Borges, I. 2004. Forage potential of sorghum sudangrass hybrids.
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Amaral, S. R., Lira, M. A., Tabosa, J. N., Santos, M. V. F., Mello, A. C.
L. and Santos, V. F. 2003. Forage sorghum lines submitted to water
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Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. 2009. Plant Physiology. 4th edn. Artmed, Porto
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Larcher, W. 2000. Ecofisiologia vegetal. RIMA, So Carlos, 531 p.
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Havaux, M. 1992. Stress tolerance of photosystem II in vivo.
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Carlesso, R. and Santos, R. F. 1999. Soil water availability to maize
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1
200
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Federal University Rural of
Amaznia for the financial support of this work and collaborations
of researchers participating in the Core Research and Plant
Production, Belm city, State of Par, Brazil, the granting of the
area study and scientific contribution of researchers.
(c)
a*
a*
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
bb
5
0
Physiological maturity
227
228
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Abstract
This study aimed to verify the linseed responses when subjected to different doses of swine wastewater (SWW). The experiment was conducted in
the city of Cascavel, Paran state, Brazil. The treatments considered were: T1 control sample; T2 5; T3 10; T4 20; T5 30 and T6 40 m3ha-1 SWW.
The sowing was performed in a 12 m2 area. After 180 days of cultivation stem diameter, plant height, number of capsules, stem branch number and
fresh and dry weight of the aerial part were measured. The SWW application proved to have a positive effect on the linseed culture with an application
of 10 m3ha-1. The application of 40 m3ha-1 inhibited the linseed development. The immobilization of nutrients and the shortage of oxygen in the soil
may have been the main cause of the linseed development decrease in applications exceeding 10 m3ha-1 of SWW.
Key words: Macronutrients, linseed, biofertilizer.
Introduction
The linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), belonging to the Linaceae
family, is native of Asia. A fiber of flax can be extracted from bark,
which is used as raw material in fabrics manufacturing; from
capsule is possible to extract a seed rich in oil, which can be used
for human consumption, oils industrialization for painting or in
animal feeding 4.
The linseed is cultivated as a commercial or subsistence culture
in over than 30 countries. The world production of linseed in
2004 was 1,902,688 tons in 2,620,396 ha. Canada and China are
the main producers, representing 27 and 24%, respectively, of the
linseed worldwide production in 2004 (FAO, 2005).
The cultivation of linseed can be used as an alternative in
agriculture, which allows an increase in diversification of the
production systems in temperate environments. However, in many
regions where the traditional planting system is predominant, it is
necessary to have an agro-economic incentive, in order to
encourage the farmers to work with the linseed culture 5.
For an adequate plant development, it is necessary that a soil
can supply its nutritional needs. This soil should provide adequate
amounts of nutrients and ideal conditions for plants to absorb them2.
According to Prado 12, the factors that affect the availability of
nutrients in soil are: pH, aeration, humidity, organic matter,
temperature and presence of other ions.
The aeration is an important aspect of physical soil quality,
because part of biological activities needs oxygen for good
development. For good aeration, it is necessary to be gas
exchanges between soil and atmosphere 17. The soil aeration is an
important limiting factor for the root system development, growth
and culture productions 3.
The use of bio-fertilizers in organic agriculture has been widely
used to supply the plants nutritional demand and the trophobiotic
management of pests and diseases. In general, the biofertilizers
229
60
55
A
Plant height in cm
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
10
20
30
m3.ha-1 of swine wastewater
C
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
m3.ha-1 of swine wastewater
40
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
40
75
Stem diameter in mm
10
20
30
m3.ha-1 of swine wastewater
40
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
20
30
m3.ha-1 of swine wastewater
40
Figure 1. Stem diameter (A); Plant height (B); Fresh mass from aerial part (C); Dry mass from aerial part (D).
230
References
Ali, M. A., Nawab, N. N., Abbas, A., Zulkiffal, M. and Sajjad, M. 2009.
Evaluation of selection criteria in Cicer arietinum L. using correlation
coefficients and path analysis. Australian Journal of Crop Science
3(2):6570.
2
Chiodini, B. M., Silva, A. G. da, Negreiros, A. B. and Magalhes, L. B.
2013. Matria orgnica e a sua influncia na nutrio de plantas Bruna.
Cultivando o Saber 6(1):181190.
3
Czy, E. A., Tomaszewska, J. and Dexter, A. R. 2001. Response of
spring barley to changes of compaction and aeration of sandy soil
under model conditions. International Agrophysics, Lublin, 15:912.
4
Gabiana, C. P. 2005. The Response of Linseed (Linum usitatissimum
L.) to Irrigation, Nitrogen and Plant Population. M.Sc. thesis, Lincoln
University, Christchurch, New Zealand.
5
Dordas, C. A. 2010a. Variation of physiological determinants of yield in
linseed in response to nitrogen fertilization. Industrial Crops and
Products 31(3):455465.
6
Dordas, C. A. 2012. Nitrogen and dry matter dynamics in linseed as
affected by the nitrogen level and genotype in a Mediterranean
environment. Biomass and Bioenergy 43(0):111.
7
El-Nagdy, G., Nassar, D. M. A., El-Kady, E. A. and El-Yamanee, G. S. A.
2010. Response of flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L.) to treatments
with mineral and bio-fertilizers from nitrogen and phosphorus. Journal
of American Science 6(10):207217.
8
Flnet, F., Gurif, M., Boiffin, J., Dorvillez, D. and Champolivier, L.
2006. The critical N dilution curve for linseed (Linum usitatissimum
L.) is different from other {C3} species. European Journal of Agronomy
24(4):367373.
9
Grant, C. A., Dribnenki, J. C. P. and Bailey, L. D. 1999. A comparison of
the yield response of solin (cv. Linola 947) and flax (cvs. McGregor
and Vimy) to application of nitrogen, phosphorus, and Provide
(Penicillium bilaji). Canadian Journal of Plant Science 79(4):527533.
10
Kaefer, D. B. 2007. Diagnstico local do Municpio de Missal.
Universidade Federal Do Paran Setor De Cincias Da Saude.
11
Lafond, G. P., Irvine, B., Johnston, A. M., May, W. E., McAndrew, D.
W., Shirtliffe, S. J. and Stevenson, F. C. 2008. Impact of agronomic
factors on seed yield formation and quality in flax. Canadian Journal of
Plant Science 88(3):485500.
12
Prado, M. R. 2008. Nutrio de plantas. UNESP, So Paulo, 407 p.
13
Rahimi, M. M., Zarei, M. A. and Arminian, A. 2011. Selection criteria
of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) for seed yield, yield components and
biochemical compositions under various planting dates and nitrogen.
African Journal of Agricultural 6:31673175.
14
Siqueira Neto, M., Piccolo, M. C., Venzke Filho, S. P., Feigl, B. J.,
Cerri, C. C. 2010. Mineralizao e desnitrificao do nitrognio no
solo sob sistema plantio direto. Bragantia 69:923-936.
15
Sampaio, E. V. S. B., Oliveira, N. M. B. and Nascimento, P. R. F. 2007.
Eficincia da adubao orgnica com esterco bovino e com Egeria densa.
Revista Brasileira de Cincia do Solo 31:995-1002.
16
Santos, G. A., Silva, L. S., Canellas, L. P. and Camargo, F. A. O. 2008.
Fundamentos da Matria Orgnica do Solo: Ecossistemas Tropicais &
Subtropicais. Metropole, Porto Alegre, 654 p.
17
Warkentin, B. P. 1995. The changing concept of soil quality. Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation 50:226-228.
1
Conclusions
The SWW application proved to have a positive effect on the
linseed culture with an application of 10 m3ha-1. The application
of 40 m3ha-1 inhibited the linseed development. The immobilization
of nutrients and the shortage of oxygen in the soil may have been
the main cause of the linseed development decrease in applications
exceeding 10 m3ha-1 of SWW.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
231
WFL Publisher
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Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Thermic sum and crop coefficient of canola (Brassica napus L.) for the region of
Tangar da Serra, Mato Grosso State, Brazil
Kssio De Marco 1, Rivanildo Dallacort 1*, Adalberto Santi 1, Ricardo Shigueru Okumura 2, Mirian Hiroko Inoue 1,
Joo Danilo Barbieri 1, Dejnia Vieira de Araujo 1, Roberto Antnio Savelli Martinez 1 and Willian Fenner 1
Campus de Tangar da Serra, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, 78300-00, Tangar da Serra, Brasil. 2 Campus de
Capito Poo, Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia Par, 66650-000, Capito Poo, Brasil. *e-mail: rivanildo@unemat.br
1
Abstract
The canola cultivation is highly dependent on water resources, which makes it necessary to conduct studies to determine the crop coefficient (Kc),
with the purpose of improving the efficiency of water use. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the Kc and calculate the thermic sum
required to complete its development cycle. The experiment was conducted at the University of the State of Mato Grosso - UNEMAT Campus of
Tangar da Serra, Brazil, in the period of February 20th 2013 to May 25th 2013, in which the hybrids Hyola-433 and Hyola-61 were sown. To
determine the reference evapotranspiration (ETo), the Penmam - Monteith method was used, while the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was determined
using drainage lysimeters, and the Kc obtained by the relation between ETc and ETo. In calculating the thermic sum, base temperatures were used,
determined in the literature for each cultivar. The ETc had a mean of 4.50 mm day-1 for the hybrid Hyola-433 and 3.38 mm day-1 for the hybrid Hyola61, the ETo had an average of 3.14 mm day-1 and the Kc of the hybrid Hyola-433 was 1.09; 2.15 and 1.43, while the hybrid Hyola-61 showed 0.79;
1.65 and 1.33 in the vegetative growth, flowering and maturity stages, respectively. During its growing cycle the hybrids and Hyola-61 and Hyola433 required a thermic sum of 1,778 and 1,816 degree days, respectively.
Key words: Degree day, evapotranspiration, plant development.
Introduction
The decrease of fossil fuel reserves, increase of oil prices and the
concern with the environment caused by the greenhouse gas
emission have stimulated research on alternative sources for
biofuels 1, 2, such as canola (Brassica napus L.).
The canola is oilseed species which has high oil content (about
38% 3). Moreover, the crop has shown a great potential for
incorporation in grain production systems in Brazil due to the
possibility of production of alternative fuel 4, 5 as well as the oil
extraction for human and animal nutrition 6.
According to FAO statistics 7, canola is the third most widely
grown oilseed in the world, and in Brazil its cultivation has
increased significantly in recent years, with a range of
approximately 45,000 hectares of cultivated crop area in 2012. From
that amount, the Brazilian South region accounts for 95% of the
total 8.
Recently, the crop was introduced in the Midwest region,
cultivated as off-season between soybean harvests in rotation
and/or succession in crop systems 4; however, being an extremely
demanding plant in temperatures and water has its vegetative
growth and grain yield affected in extreme conditions 9.
Thus, the plant is still little explored in the central region of the
country and one of the first steps to be defined before the
domestication of a species is the determination of the agroclimatic
adaptability of the crop 10, the correct quantification of the crop
evapotranspiration being extremely important for the specific
region 11.
232
M.O.
g
dm-3
41.0
CaCl2
4.7
P
mg
dm-3
6.0
K+
Ca2+
Mg2+
Al3+
H+Al
CTC
-3
-----------------mmolc dm ----------------0.8
14.0
7.0
2.0
46.0
68.0
V
%
33.0
Tmed
30
100
25
80
20
60
15
40
10
20
0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 101
DAS
Temperature (C)
Prec
120
Precipitation (mm)
least one open flower; end of flowering (FF) when the plants had
no more flowers except atypical plants; and finally the physiological
maturity (MF) when 50% of the seeds switched to the dark colour
silique located in about the middle of the main raceme of plants.
Determination of thermic sum: The thermic sum was determined
for each stage of crop development, considering the base
temperature (Tb) of: -0.8C (E-IF), 10C (IF-FF) and 7.2C (FF-MF)
for the hybrid Hyola-61 and 0.3C (E-IF), 9.9C (IF-FF) and 7.9C
(FF-MF) for hybrid Hyola-433 as determined by Luz et al. 19, using
the equation:
GD = (Tmd - Tb)
Soil moisture
Field capacity
Wilting point
0.45
0.3
y = -4.0918x2 + 2.4307x - 0.0102
R2 = 0.8137
0.15
0
11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86
DAE
233
AP
(cm)
145.64 a
147.08 a
2.63
AIPS
(cm)
74.08 a
72.52 a
3.34
DC
(mm)
10.25 a
10.98 a
6.94
P 1000
(g)
2.84 b
3.19 a
6.42
PROD
(kg ha-1)
2,332.55 a
1,772.11 b
15.48
UNEMAT Campus of Tangar da Serra. Mato Grosso State. Brazil. 2013. *Means followed by
the same letter in the column do not differ by the Tukey test at 5% probability.
EMER
H433
H61
25/02 25/02
5
5
-
IF
H433
10/04
45
139
FF
H61
13/04
48
106
H433
10/05
30
185
H61
15/05
32
153
MAT
H433
H61
21/05 25/05
10
10
39
31
Total
H433 H61
90
363
95
290
234
40
Hyola-61*
30
Degree days
Hyola-433**
20
E-IF = 1.203 GD*
E-IF = 1.179 GD**
10
0
1
11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91
DAE
mm
9
6
3
0
1 4 7
Conclusions
Based on the results the following conclusions were obtained:
a) The average high temperature during the crop cycle (24.6C)
resulted in a rapid development, ending its cycle with 95 days
for the Hyola-61 hybrid and 90 days for the Hyola-433 hybrid;
b) Thermic sum for the hybrid Hyola-433 was 1,778 GD and 1,816
GD for the hybrid Hyola-61, wherein the thermic sum for the
sub periods E-IF, IF- FF and FF-MF are 1,179, 414 and 185 GD
for hybrid Hyola-433 and 1,203, 436 and 177 GD for the hybrid
Hyola-61, respectively;
c) The period of greatest water consumption of canola was
comprised by the phenological stages of flowering initiation to
the final flowering period, with a consumption of 187 mm for
Hyola-433 and 166 mm for Hyola-61 in suitable water conditions;
d) The hybrid Hyola-433 presented evapo-transpiration values
higher than the hybrid Hyola-61, with water
consumption during the whole cycle of 363 mm,
as well as higher grain yield, with an average of
Eto
Etc Hyolla 433
Etc Hyolla 61
2,332.55 kg ha-1;
e) The average crop coefficients (Kc) for the hybrid
Hyola-433 in the initial phase was 1.09, the
flowering phase was 2.15 and 1.43 for the
maturation and for the hybrid Hyola-61 was 0.76
10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85
in the initial stage, 1.65 in the flowering stage and
DAE
1.33 at maturity.
L1*
1.02
2.08
1.41
Hyola-433
L2
L3
1.12 1.18
2.18 2.13
1.42 1.38
L8
0.79
1.61
1.25
Mean
Kc
0.76
1.65
1.33
UNEMAT. Tangar da Serra - MT. 2013. *Lysimeters from 1 to 4 (Hyola 433) and lysimeters from 5 to 8 (Hyola 61).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their
acknowledgement to the National Council for
Scientific and Technological Development - CNPq
for granting a Scientific Initiation scholarship to the
first author and to the Foundation for Research
Support of the State of Mato Grosso - FAPEMAT
for the financial support for the research project
UNIVERSAL EDITAL/ FAPEMAT - No. 009/2011
Process No. 749427/2011, as well as to Celena
Alimentos S/A for the technical support.
235
References
236
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The need of sustainable agriculture is universal and way to achieving it has been defined through intensive empirical research. Several indicators for
the sustainability of agricultural systems have also been developed. Use of synthetic fertilizers and their effects on crop production, soil health,
environmental quality, biodiversity conservation and self-reliance of farming system have been discussed in the context of agricultural sustainability.
Degradation of soil fertility due to use of synthetic agro-inputs is considered as one of the most important factors affecting sustainability of
agricultural systems. Presence of soil organic matter and soil microbial population are primarily useful indicators of soil health and productivity of
both crops and livestock. A long-term integrated approach will be an appropriate solution for standardizing fertility management in organic farming
considering the complex interactions among different components of this system. A comprehensive and systematic review on different qualitative and
quantitative changes of soil health parameters for improved nutrient management supports these observations.
Key words: Organic farming, soil fertility, soil health, sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
According to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movement 112, the primary objective of organic farming is the
sustainable crop production for maintaining long-term soil fertility
in harmony with natural systems. Therefore, to sustain the
agricultural productivity and environmental quality soil health
management should be the primary concern of all stakeholders of
agricultural development 87. According to Larson and Pierce 59,
apart from nourishing plants, mother earth creates a congenial
atmosphere for the survival of the soil organisms. Therefore, better
soil health is inevitable for better growth and development of
crop leading to higher production 29. Soil health is defined as the
continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system. The
biological elements are key to ecosystem function within landuse boundaries 23, 50 and are able to sustain not only biological
productivity of soil but also maintain the quality of surrounding
environment. These ultimately promote plant, animal, and human
health. Conversely, Oldeman 71 defined soil degradation as the
process, which lowers the current and/or future capacity of soil to
produce goods or services. Application of excessive chemical
fertilizers, imbalanced nutrient management, and soil pollution are
the main causes of soil degradation 42, 117. Noticeably, the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) sponsored project,
Global Assessment of Soil Degradation estimated more than
two decades ago 38% of degraded agricultural land globally
due to anthropogenic reason 71.
The context is no exception to a country like India, which has a
glorious agricultural background since the Vedic era 9, 85. In Vedic
era, the cultivation procedure was solely based on local resources,
which were completely free from the application of synthetic
compounds 9. The uses of animal manure, oil cakes, green manures
etc. were emphasized in the Vedic Era to maintain the soil fertility82.
The Indian epic Ramayana described the importance of organic
matter in soil management as all dead things rotting corpse or
stinking garbage returned to earth are transformed into
wholesome things that nourish life. Such is the alchemy of mother
earth. Farmers treated the soil as living entity, which was one of
the five elements of life along with air, water, fire, and sky,
collectively known as Panchabhuta 51. In Vedas, soil was
considered as Mother and the human beings were treated as her
Sons: Mata bhumi putro aham prthvya (Atharva Veda
12.1.12) 86. In the modern context, Doran et al. 24, in similar vein,
has described soil as the mother of any agricultural activity.
With the advent of industrial agriculture or so called green
revolution technologies agriculture became dependent on external
inputs, environment became polluted, natural resources depleted,
human health deteriorated, and agriculture itself experienced the
challenge of sustainability 104. There are several evidences, which
prove that agrochemical based, external input intensive agriculture
is not sustainable in long run due to gradual decline in productivity
factor and adverse impact on soil health and quality including soil
organic carbon 90, 102, 104, 110. Thus, the Europeanization of Indian
agriculture, i.e. the introduction of green revolution has threatened
long-term soil health, and at the same time farmers have become
frustrated because of declining agricultural productivity and surged
cost of cultivation.
Organic farming system is based on the management of soil
organic matter, which in turn maintains the physical, chemical,
and biological properties of soil 84, 101. It is now a well-established
fact that organically managed soil exhibits greater soil organic
carbon and total nitrogen, lower nitrate leaching 26 and biological
237
Review Methodology
Although case study or single source of information on a given
issue may generate rich insight, inferring relationships or
developing theory on the issue require information from a wider
universe 78. Literature survey is no exception to this, since it is
also laden with the biasness of social surveys and questions may
well be raised on the validity of making conclusions based on a
single review 76. Thorne et al. 107 propose synthesis-based
methodologies to address this limitation and calls for building
new knowledge from rigorous analysis of existing research
findings, which is clearly distinguishable from single reviews in
terms of collection and treatment of data and detection of literature
omissions 78. Although systematic reviews have widely been
quantitative in nature, recently, qualitative systematic reviews
have been used as useful methodology 68. Following Plummer et
al. 78, a four-step approach for the systematic review and analysis
of literature was undertaken for the present paper. First, the
G. Nutrient Management
Manure (FYM, Vermicompost, Compost etc.),
Bio-fertilizer,
Organic Liquid Manure
Soil Organic
Matter
B. Crop
Rotation
HEALTHY
FERTILE
&
a) Healthy
Crop
b) Healthy
Livestock
LIVING
SOIL
c) Healthy
Human
d) Food
Security
e) Nutrition
al
security
C. Mulching
Biomass
D. Live
Mulching
E. Live Fencing
A. Pest
Management
Bio-control
Botanical control
Microbial control
Crop protection
No residual toxicity
biomass and respiration 99. It has also been well documented that
the organically managed soil enriched with several beneficial
microorganisms like arbuscular mycorrizal fungi for ensuring
improved crop nutrition and decreasing soilborne diseases 8, 64.
Arbuscular mycorrizal fungi is a special fungal group, which makes
symbiotic association with the plants root system 93 enhancing
plant nutrient uptake and water absorption 32, 97, 98. This mutualistic
relationship primarily helps plant to take more P from the soil and
also protects plants from several diseases 97. As organic farming
increases the microbial activity, leads to increased competition,
parasitism and predation in the rhizosphere, it collectively reduces
the chances of plant disease infestation 53, 115. Application of
quality organic inputs enhances the microbial population in the
soil 15, 33, 75. Organic fertilizer application improved nodule dry
weight, photosynthetic rates, N2 fixation, and N accumulation as
well as N concentration in several crops 49. However, it was also
found that organic agroecosystem management strongly
influences the soil nutrients and enzyme activity while it has lesser
influence on soil microbial communities 11. Several composts like
vermin-compost, farmyard manure etc. are generally used for
nutrient management in organic farming, which ultimately promote
the beneficial macro and micro flora in the soil 94. Application of
organic inputs like human urine, sewage sludge, municipal waste,
deep litter, cattle slurry, cattle manure etc. ensures higher soil
microbial biomass. Hence, household waste and sewage sludge
help to maintain the highest number of colony forming
heterotrophic bacteria in the soil 66, 79.
Organic farming and biodiversity: Biodiversity in soil refers to a
variety of taxonomic groups including bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
nematodes, earthworms, and arthropods present in the soil 108.
Intensification and expansion of modern agriculture have created
a threat to biodiversity worldwide 22, 55 and several studies have
shown that it has been reducing the abundance and diversity of a
host of plant and invertebrate taxa over the past four decades 21, 80,
114
. On the contrary, organic farming helps to maintain biodiversity 20,
44, 63, 69
. After a study of 21-years on agro-economic and agroecological performance of biodynamic, bioorganic, and
conventional farming systems in Central Europe, organic farming
resulted higher biodiversity and enhanced soil fertility than
conventional farming 65. However, recent studies found no effect
of landscape heterogeneity, and differences in any of the measured
soil and microbial variables between conventional and organic
farms; but N mineralization was higher in organic farms 113.
Outcome of Soil Management through Organic
and Inorganic Means
At the end of 40-47 years of dairy farm management in Denmark,
organically managed soil had greater fragment size, aggregate
stability in water, and microbial biomass carbon than
conventionally managed soil 92. Moreover, at the end of 21 years
of long-term crop rotation management in Switzerland, soil organic
carbon and total N were greater under biodynamic than
conventional management, but organic management and
integrated management (combination of manures, inorganic
fertilizers, and herbicides) were moderate 34. Soil microbial biomass
carbon and dehydrogenase activity were greater under organic
than that of conventional management, but basal soil respiration
did not vary between systems. In North Dakota and Nebraska,
239
Conclusions
To achieve sustainable crop and livestock production, the primary
requirement is the maintenance of soil fertility and soil health.
Organic farming systems being highly complex and integrated
biological systems could be the potential technology option to
maintain good soil heath. Organic practice has both direct and
indirect effect to soil properties as it affects more than one
component of the system simultaneously. The previous studies
on the impact of organic practices on different aspects of crop
production, soil health and environment envisage the potentiality
of the organic farming in maintaining the soil health and soil fertility.
Acknowledgements
The financial assistance of Department of Science and
Technologys INSPRIRE Fellowship, Govt. of India, New Delhi, is
gratefully acknowledged.
Soil Properties
Physical
Chemical
FYM, Vermi-compost,
Green Manuring,
Household waste and
sewage sludge and Soil
Organic Matter
Biological
Physical
Crop Rotation
Chemical
Biological
Physical
Mulching
Chemical
Biological
240
Citation
Altieri and Nicholls 5, Papadopoulos e
al. 73 and Jannoura et al. 49.
Bharadwaj and Guar 10 and
Parthasarathy et al. 74.
Agbede et al. 2.
Lal 57, Ojeniyi and Adetoro 70,
Awodun and Ojeniyi 6.
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242
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Abstract
To compare paddy threshing activity undertaken by farm women, an ergonomics study using four methods, viz. traditional method, thresher cum
winnower, VL paddy thresher and motorized thresher, was taken up. Although paddy threshing by using wooden plank is popular among small and
marginal farmers of hill region and about nine percent of paddy is lost due to use of this outdated method therefore time saving motorized thresher
was developed. Split plot method was used to ascertain total number of experiments and response surface methodology (RSM) technique required
for standardization of design was selected. The results revealed that improved thresher was best among all threshing methods, and it reduces the
drudgery and gives maximum production with minimum energy expenditure. New motorized paddy threshing gives maximum production, i.e. 16.69
kg with 9.6 kJ/min energy expenditure, and 299 beats TCCW, 127 beats/min, heart rate 20.94% MSD and 20.86% RPE.
Key words: Agriculture, threshing methods, paddy, drudgery, women, musculo-skeletal disorder.
Introduction
The women are backbone of agriculture workforce and are a vital
part of Indian economy. Over the years, there is a gradual realization
of the key role of women in agricultural development and their
contribution in the field of agriculture, food security, horticulture,
dairy, nutrition, sericulture, fisheries, and other allied sectors. The
role of women in agricultural production in India can never be
overemphasized. They perform crucial roles in the domestic and
economic life of the society. They contribute a higher proportion
of labour in agricultural sector than men. However, they are not
active in decision making. Swaminathan, the famous agricultural
scientist, describes that it was woman who first domesticated
crop plants and thereby initiated the art and science of farming.
The nature and extent of womens involvement in agriculture, no
doubt, varies greatly from region to region 8. Even within a region,
their involvement varies widely among different ecological
subzones, farming systems, castes, classes and stages in the family
cycle, but regardless of these variations, there is hardly any activity
involved. Many studies have shown that the Indian women carry
out the most arduous activity on farm. Modernization of
agriculture is taking place at a faster pace. However, job attended
by women, more or less, remained the same. Though, considerable
work has been done to develop agriculture with major emphasis
on technical and economic achievement, very little attention has
been given to gender issues.
The importance of developing farming technologies relevant to
farm women has only recently been recognized as an extensive
participation of farm women in the field of agriculture and other
allied sectors has been gradually realized in coming years. For
assessment of equipment suitable of farm women, ergonomic
consideration is better option than other as it covers all aspects
244
Height 2 (m)
S15
D1
D2
D4
D3
D2
D3
D1
D4
R2
D3
D4
D2
D1
D4
D1
D3
D2
S1
D1
D2
D2
D3
S15
D3
D3
D1
D4
D4
D1
D4
D2
D2
D4
D3
D1
R3
S1
Weight (kg)
BMI (kg/m2) =
S15
D1
D3
D2
D1
Replication
I.
Replication: R1
II. Replication: R2
III. Replication: R3
D3
D1
D3
D4
D4
D1
D4
D3
D2
D4
D1
D2
Conventional
method
Manual beating
50 kg
-
Thresher cum
winnower
Manually operated
25 kg
1300
1000
600
40
VL peddle
thresher
Peddle operated
50-70 kg
970
1030
630
35
Motorized
paddy thresher
Motor operated
200.28
1120
560
93
55
245
Mean SD
25.53 3.75
153 3.02
52.4 4.67
21.10 5.54
Physiological
characteristics
Blood pressure
Pulse pressure
Body temperature
Mean SD
80 / 115 7.31 / 6.22
72 7.189
97.13 0.83
246
Physiological parameters
Average working heart rate (Beats/min)
Average energy expenditure (kJ/min)
Peak heart rate (Beats/min)
Peak energy expenditure (kJ/min)
Average TCCW (Beats)
Average physiological cost of work (Beats/min)
Traditional
method
144.21
14.20
158.57
14.50
1036.16
69.07
Thresher cum
winnower
122.50
10.80
134.60
12.68
780.40
52.03
VL peddle
thresher
120.63
10.45
130.00
11.56
592.30
39.84
Improvised
thresher
108.57
8.54
113.33
8.77
452.16
30.14
d
s>W /
d
d
d
D
Treshing method
s>
>
D,
s,
put the mark on the line, which was then analysed. Mean and SD
values were determined for VAS (Visual Analogue Scale) validated
by Huskisson 5. Similar work was reported by Newell 12. She
conducted studies to find out the comparison of instantaneous
and cumulative loads of the low, back and neck in orthodontists.
She applied the VAS scale ranging from 0-10, with 0 meaning no
discomfort and 10 meaning severe discomfort. Her individual
values ranged between 0.6-9. The neck had the highest mean
value 2.6, with shoulder and lower back closest behind at the 2.3
and 1.6, respectively. The mean and SD results of the postural
discomfort questionnaire were analysed and found among
respondents.
The mean score of the pain felt by the respondents in threshing
of paddy by traditional method was highest in the upper arm
(7.26) followed by lower back (7.2), mid back (6.13) and shoulder
(5.73) among the respondents. The pain and discomfort in legs
was highest, whereas discomfort in buttock thighs and upper
back where comparatively low (Table 4). This revealed that the
workers suffered from pain and discomforts more in upper arm
due to manual beating for a long duration, which also caused
musculo-skeletal disorders. The pain in lower arm was noticed
due to respective motion of lower arms during beating. The
discomfort in shoulder and upper back were due to blending
postures adopted by them at work place.
Table 4. Postural discomfort of the respondents by using different
threshing methods.
Traditional Thresher cum
methods
winnower
MeanSD
MeanSD
Neck
5.2 1.74
1.730.79
Shoulder
5.731.09
4.21.01
Upper back 3.931.09
1.20.41
Upper arm 7.261.03
3.80.86
Mid back
6.131.24
1.530.63
Lower arm
3.40.50
2.660.48
Lower back 7.20.94
2.80.67
Buttock
3.570.75
0.260.45
Thighs
3.640.84
1.10.63
Legs
5.281.38
2.260.79
Body parts
VL peddle
thresher
MeanSD
2.250.44
2.810.75
1.180.40
3.750.68
2.180.54
1.180.40
2.750.85
6.430.89
4.181.16
3.931.12
Motorized
paddy thresher
MeanSD
0.730.45
1.20.41
0.60.50
2.460.83
1.40.50
1.260.45
1.930.79
0.20.41
0.530.51
1.80.67
247
Performed by
Threshing
Farm Workers
Time of cost
Dissatisfied (86.66)
Fairly satisfied (13.4)
Satisfaction
Pace of work
Posture at work
Dissatisfied (80)
Dissatisfied (93.3)
Fairly satisfied (20) Fairly satisfied (6.7)
Note: Very satisfied: 5, satisfied: 4, fairly satisfied: 3, dissatisfied: 2, very dissatisfied: 1. **Percentage in paranthesis.
User
Farm workers
VL peddle thresher
Farm workers
Time of cost
Dissatisfied (73.33)
Satisfied (26.7)
Dissatisfied (93.33)
Satisfied (6.7)
Note: Very satisfied: 5, satisfied: 4, fairly satisfied: 3, dissatisfied: 2, very dissatisfied: 1. **Percentage in paranthesis.
User
Farm workers
Time of cost
Satisfied (86.66)
Very satisfied (13.4)
Note: Very satisfied: 5, satisfied: 4, fairly satisfied: 3, dissatisfied: 2, very dissatisfied: 1. **Percentage in paranthesis.
248
93.33
100
80
60
40
20
0
86.66
86.66
73.33
Respondents
Time saving
Reduces
Advantageous Labour saving
drudgery
Relative advantage of machine
machine and machine could easily be used (93.33%), 90% felt that
it was easy to operate device and 73.33% of workers agreed for
passed the information regarding usefulness of the machine. The
majority of workers (80%) was satisfied with the working of
machine (Fig. 5). All the workers were very satisfied and they
believed that the improved threshing machine was very convenient
and comfortable for hill region as compared to other threshing
machines. Similar results were reported by Rai 14.
E^
W
W
^
h
K /
Z
D
h
Table 8. Heart rate for different subject at different method of paddy threshing.
Sl. no.
Number of
subject
Traditional
method
146.07
143.57
143.17
142.07
143.83
143.67
144.37
144.43
145.13
144.10
144.37
144.37
143.43
145.70
145.00
144.22
1
S-1
2
S-2
3
S-3
4
S-4
5
S-5
6
S-6
7
S-7
8
S-8
9
S-9
10
S-10
11
S-11
12
S-12
13
S-13
14
S-14
15
S-15
Mean
Factors
Method (D)
Subject (S)
Factor S at Same level of D
Factor D at Same level of S
Heart rate
Thresher cum
VL peddle
winnower
thresher
126.01
116.57
129.69
123.63
127.17
123.77
132.13
110.53
130.00
122.37
135.67
115.70
124.67
110.07
124.00
127.57
126.67
123.23
134.00
124.07
129.33
121.53
133.67
122.73
128.33
123.23
128.67
121.10
126.33
123.47
129.09
120.64
C.D. at 5% LOS
2.63
1.93
4.09
4.55
Improvised
method
107.60
109.40
110.07
109.83
109.63
108.77
107.93
107.43
106.43
105.77
108.87
109.87
110.07
108.60
108.33
108.57
SE (d)
1.08
0.98
1.95
2.17
Mean
124.06
126.57
126.04
123.64
126.46
125.95
121.76
125.86
125.37
126.98
126.03
127.66
126.27
126.02
125.78
SE (m)
0.76
0.69
2.96
1.54
249
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1
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Phenology and green leaf yield of coriander at different sowing dates and harvesting
times
Sagarika Guha 1, Amit Baran Sharangi 2* and Sandip Debnath 3
Department of Spices and Plantation Crops, Faculty of Horticulture, BCKV (Agricultural University), Mohanpur
741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India. 3 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, BCKV
(Agricultural University), Mohanpur- 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India. *e-mail: dr_absharangi@yahoo.co.in
1,2
Abstract
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), one of the major seed spices, is valued both for leaves as well as seeds that are often used for culinary and
medicinal purposes worldwide. However, there is limited research on management practices for efficient utilization of this crop for both leaf and seed
production. The principle objective of this study was to optimise sowing time of the crop and harvest times of leaves. The experiment comprised of
seven dates of sowing and three harvest treatments, no harvest, 1 harvest and 2 harvests, at 30 - 63 DAS when each harvest was made on coriander
plants cultivated during months of September through March. The first and second harvests were made at about 15 days interval when leaves were
without any signs of serration and in ideal marketable condition and preferred by the consumers. The time of sowing influenced significantly the days
taken for seedling emergence and the production of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd leaf. Thereafter, November sown seeds were earliest to emerge and produce
leaves among different sowing dates. Both, sowing date and harvest time had significant effect on flowering time, leaf serration, seed setting and
physiological maturity of coriander. Sowing in October resulted in superior leaf yield compared to other sowing dates. Two harvests may be
recommended as a crucial agronomic practice for better green leaf yield.
Key words: Coriander, Coriandrum sativum, sowing dates, leaf harvesting, phenology, green leaf yield.
Introduction
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum. L.), one of the major seed spices,
is grown over 531,000 ha with an annual production of 482,000
tons of fresh leaf at the rate of 0.9 tons ha-1 1. It is a dual purpose
crop, grown for fresh leaf as well as for seed for use as a spice.
The plant has regenerative capacity and hence 2 - 3 harvests can
be made very easily. It was suggested that leaf plucking of
coriander seed crop at early stages can provide an extra income to
its growers 2, 3. For leaf purpose, coriander is grown all the year
round. Harvesting at leafy stage has also been found to improve
the seed yield in coriander. A single harvest at 30 DAS provides
higher yield of seeds 4. The harvested leaves apart from being
used raw as such could also be used for extraction of essential oil.
India being the largest producer as well as consumer of fresh
leaves, there is a persistent demand for fresh leaves in the market.
It has been documented that, seed and green leaf yield had
increased with increase in the levels of nitrogen from 0 to 60 kg
ha-1, whereas seed yield had decreased with the increase in
frequencies of leaf cutting 5. Coriander sown on 1st November and
having treated with nitrogen @ 60 kg ha-1 and cut once (at 30 DAS)
had the highest seed yield and good green leaf yield 6. Several
studies have been reported on the response of coriander to sowing
dates 7-11 as well as to cutting management 5, 12. However, the
information available on leaf production of coriander at different
sowing dates in multiple harvest system is very much limited
especially of coriander crops grown on Gangetic alluvial soils of
West Bengal. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted to study
the phenology and green leaf yield of coriander at different sowing
dates and multiple harvests.
251
Treatment
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
One cut
Two cut
first leaf (Tables 2 and 3). The first leaf emerged at about 10 DAS
in November sown seeds, which was the earliest one among
different dates of sowing. However, March sown seedlings took
the longest period of time of about 15 DAS. Emergence of 1st leaf
was earlier in early sown crops and was progressively delayed
with delay in sowing time.
Time of cutting
(Days after sowing, DAS)
30
45
42
56
45
63
45
63
42
56
43
56
35
49
Results
Time of emergence: When 50% of the seed in each plot was
visually seen above the ground level it is called as emergence of
seedling. Time taken for emergence (Tables 2 and 3) was
significantly influenced by the sowing time of coriander seeds.
November sown seeds emerged at about 8 DAS which was earliest
among different sowing dates. However, March sown seeds
emerged in the longest time period of about 13 DAS. No significant
effect of cutting was found in germination on coriander. The most
interestingly, emergence of seedlings had taken shorter time period
where early sowing was done. On the other hand, late sown seeds
were found to take more time for emergence.
Emergence of first leaf: Different time of sowing of coriander
seeds significantly influenced the time taken for emergence of
Table 2. Mean comparison of effects of sowing dates on phenological variables under study.
Sowing
Date
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
S.Em (r)
CD (0.05)
Germination
(DAS)
First
leaf
10.11c
9.44c
7.89d
9.11dc
10.44c
12.22b
13.11a
0.21
0.59
12.00c
11.56d
9.56e
11.11d
12.44c
14.11b
15.56a
0.25
0.72
Emergence of
Second
Third
leaf
leaf
DAS
14.00d
16.11ba
13.67c
15.56bc
11.56c
13.67d
13.78c
15.11c
13.78c
15.67ba
15.89b
17.89a
17.11a
18.56a
0.29
0.25
0.83
0.71
Flowering
Leaf
serration
71.67ab
78.67a
78.00a
75.67ab
73.33ab
68.67bc
64.00c
2.35
6.72
72.56c
82.56a
78.22ab
75.78bc
75.89bc
79.89ab
75.56bc
1.58
4.52
Time of
Seed
setting
DAS
82.56ab
84.89a
84.56a
83.56ab
82.89ab
79.78ab
78.56b
1.20
3.43
Physiological
maturity
114.22a
117.00a
116.89a
116.78a
115.78a
110.56ab
107.33b
1.99
5.68
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the P 0.05 probability level. Means within a column followed by a different letter
denotes significant differences (P 0.05) as determined by Fishers protected least significant differences.
Table 3. Mean comparison of effects of level of cutting on phenological variables under study.
Harvest
levels
No cut
One cut
Two cut
S.Em (r)
CD (0.05)
Germination
(DAS)
10.14q
10.29pq
10.57p
0.13
NS
Emergence of
Second
leaf
DAS
12.10q
14.10p
12.62p
14.57p
12.29pq
14.10p
0.17
0.19
NS
NS
First
leaf
Third
leaf
Flowering
16.14p
16.00p
16.10p
0.16
NS
66.29r
73.33q
78.95p
1.54
4.40
Time of
Seed
setting
DAS
70.05r
76.33r
78.71q
82.76q
82.86p
88.10p
1.03
0.79
2.96
2.25
Leaf
serration
Physiological
maturity
105.29r
115.71q
121.24p
1.30
3.72
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the P 0.05 probability level. Means within a column followed by a different letter
denotes significant differences (P 0.05) as determined by Fishers protected least significant differences. # NS, not significant at P 0.05.
252
One cut
Two cuts
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Discussion
Coriander cultivation starts with direct sowing of seeds to the
open field during winter. If the environmental conditions, such as
temperature, humidity and sunshine hours in particular, are
unfavourable during this time, emergence could be delayed and
result in uneven plant stand. This, in turn, affects negatively
further growth and development of plants and their yield. There
may be some macro and micro agro-climatic factors responsible
for early or delayed germination. Low temperature seems to favour
germination by promoting the breakdown of reserve proteins in
the seed to the particular amino acids which are necessary for
growth of the embryo 13. The effects of unfavourable temperature
and light on seed germination of celery were discussed.
Germination of seeds was affected by mean maximum and mean
minimum temperatures and minimum relative humidity. It was
further reported that seeds sown on 4th November at 20 20 cm
spacing took minimum time for germination 14. The earliness or
delay in first, second and third leaf emergence are also governed
by several or more environmental factors. Among the factors,
temperature is the main determinant of the rate of leaf appearance
in plants 15-17.
Flowering in coriander was earlier with delay in sowing time 18.
It was reported that flowering was delayed when sown early 19. So
far as green leaf yield is concerned, the result is in accordance
with the earlier reports 20 with regards to sowing dates. The highest
green leaf yield was recorded with 60 kg N ha-1 and two cuttings 5,
21
. It was also opined that lower yield in delayed sowing was due
to insufficient time for vegetative growth as the plant entered the
reproductive phase at a faster rate 22. It has been reported that,
with 2C increase in temperature resulted in 15 to 17% decrease in
grain yield in rice under low temperature conditions 22, 23.
Conclusions
The results showed that time of sowing of coriander seeds
influenced significantly the time taken for germination and
emergence of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd leaves. November sown plants were
earliest in leaf emergence. Sowing dates and different levels of
cutting had significant effect on time of flowering, time taken for
serration, for seed setting and for physiological maturity of
coriander. October sown plants were most superior among the
treatments as all reproductive stages were delayed and plants
with prolonged vegetative phase also gave higher fresh green
leaf yield. Two cuttings may be recommended as crucial agronomic
practice for better green leaf yield.
Acknowledgements
The authors greatfully acknowledge the help and assistance of
Dr M. K. Nanda in calculating protected situation data and of Ms
Samima Sultana during various stages of manuscript preparation.
References
National Horticulture Board 2011. Indian Horticulture Database-2011
(Chief Editor: Bijoy Kumar). Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India, Gurgaon, Haryana, pp. 1-278.
2
Menon, R., Khader, M. A. and Menon, R. 1997. Effect of leaf plucking
on the growth and yield of coriander. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices J.
21:74-75.
3
Thapa, U. 1999. Nutrient Management of Some Leaf Vegetables. Ph.D.
thesis, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,
1
September
October
February
March
253
254
23
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
, Hui-lian Xu 2*, Fenglan Li 3, Feifei Qin 4, Yili Chen 1*, Dianqiu L 5, Linshuang Hu 5, Yong Li 5,
Shaopeng Wang 5 and Ying Shi 1
1, 5
College of Agriculture, Northeast Agricultural University, 59 Mucai Road, Xiangfang, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China.
International Nature Farming Research Center, 5632-1 Hata, Matsumoto, Nagano 390-1401, Japan. 3 College of Life Science,
Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China. 4 Peanut Institute, Shandong Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, 126 Wannianquan Road, Qingdao 266100, China. 5 Virus-Free Seedling Research Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, 360 Xuefu Road, Nangang, Harbin 150086, China. e-mail: xuhuilian@163.com, potato@mail.neau.edu.cn
1
Abstract
Seed tubers of potato are usually cut into blocks to reduce seed cost, break dormancy and induce dominance while desiccation of the tuber blocks is
prevented. In the present research, the cut trace of the seed tuber blocks was intentionally dried as a treatment to induce positive xerophytophysiological
regulations. Drying the seed tuber block cut trace induced more production of O2-, which might act as a stimulation signal, and consequently activate
the antioxidant enzyme, SOD. The stimulation of drying the cut trace was not strong enough to activate POD and CAT and showed also no damage
to cells, which was confirmed by unchanged MDA concentration. Properly drying the cut trace induced osmotic adjustment, leaf turgor improvement,
disease resistance and yield increase in the potato crop although severely drying dramatically decreased plant growth and tuber yield. These results
were confirmed similar under all the three different organic material application regimes although the surface soil layer application was more favourite
to the potato crop. Analysis of pressure-volume curve showed that active solute accumulation was higher, symplastic water fraction was larger and
osmotic potential at plasmolysis was lower in plots of drying cut trace compared with the non-dry controls. Leaf turgor potential at both midday and
at full turgid status was maintained higher in plots of drying cut trace. High maintenance of leaf turgor and symplastic water fraction was accountable
for the improved tuber yield. Higher osmotic potential and relative water content at incipient plasmolysis suggested higher stress tolerance in the
potato plants treated by drying cut trace of the seed tuber blocks. Higher water retention ability analyzed by using excised leaf transpiration declining
curve suggested higher resistance to water stress and disease. In conclusion, properly drying cut trace of seed tuber blocks was feasible to improve
potato crops as one of applications of xerophytophysiology in plant production.
Key words: Antioxidant enzyme, osmotic adjustment, potato (Solanum tuberosum), cut seed tuber, signal, turgor, xerophytophysiology.
Introduction
When the adverse environment approaches, the animal can move
to evade, but the plant cannot and must come up to adapt the
changed environment in the original position. The adverse
environment includes windblown and sunburn, drought and flood,
winter cold and summer heat, shading and radiation, salinity and
alkalinity, and disease and insect pests. In the long duration of
adaptation and evolution, the plant has formed a series of
sensation and intrinsic adjustment mechanisms to adapt adverse
environment. In other words, the plant can perceive changes of
its environment, produces signal substances in response to the
stimulation by the environmental changes, and transduces crisis
signals to the gene system, where the corresponding genes are
activated, expressed and transcripted, leading to the corresponding
adjustments or regulations for resistance to the adverse
environment. Even if the plant is intelligent in this sense, its
intelligence is limited. In other words, the plant cannot clearly
distinguish whether the change is true or false, slight or severe,
and long time or temporary. Therefore, one can use the virtual,
mild, short-term and partial stimulations to induce expected
positive regulations in plant. The theories of plant environmental
perception and signal transduction have been well studied using
the model plant of Arabidopsis and detailed mechanisms have
been clarified 1, 2. However, the theories have not been sufficiently
used to food or cash plant production. According to the
abovementioned theories and situations, Xu et al. 3 have proposed
and started a research field in applications of xerophytophysiology
and signal transduction in plant production. Some silent or
sleeping genes can be activated to make the plant more vigorous
and healthier than usual if a drought stimulus is imposed to certain
organ or part of a plant in guarantee without real water stress. The
related techniques include PRD (partial root drying), which means
that the crisis signals and responsive regulations are induced by
placing partial root zone in dry soil while another part of root zone
is in moist soil to ensure a sufficient water supply to the plant 4, 5.
255
Table 1. Climate data in the Matsumoto highland plain area, Nagano Prefecture, Japan,
Climate variable
Record high (C)
Average high (C)
Average low (C)
Record low (C)
Precipitation (mm)
Snowfall (mm)
Jan
18.8
4.9
-5.5
-24.8
31.1
230
Feb
21.1
5.6
-5.3
-20.4
42.5
260
Mar
25.9
10
-2
-17.9
73.5
180
Apr
30.9
17.5
3.9
-10.1
86.8
20
May
32.3
22.6
9.4
-2.7
92.5
0
Jun
35.9
25.5
14.8
2.3
135.9
0
Jul
37.9
29
18.9
10.2
132.6
0
Aug
38.5
30.5
19.8
8.0
95.8
0
Sep
35.3
25
15.3
3.0
162.3
0
Oct
31.8
19
7.9
-3.6
89.4
0
Nov
25.6
13.3
1.7
-8.4
52.9
0
Dec
21.5
7.9
-3.1
-19.2
23.3
110
Year
38.5
17.6
6.3
-24.8
1018.8
800
256
pH
5.84a
5.83a
5.89a
EC
(mS cm-1)
0.05a
0.05a
0.04a
T-C
T-N
g kg-1
38.6a 3.3a
37.7b 2.9b
37.1b 2.7b
NH4-N
NO3-N
0.58a
0.57a
0.65a
1.17a
0.80b
0.57c
P2O5
K2O
mg g-1
19.6a 36.2a
19.3a 36.8a
20a
34.7b
CaO
MgO
283.3a
292.7a
286.5a
45.1a
43.4b
41.1c
CEC
(meq 100 g-1)
18.5a
18.1a
18.3a
257
400
Dry
Dry
0.10
0.12
No-Dry
No-Dry
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0
40
80
Time (h)
120
200
150
100
50
0
Dry
Dry
No-Dry
No-dry
20
160
No-Dry
No-Dry
25
20
15
10
0
80
Time (h)
120
Dry
No-Dry
Do-Dry
20
15
10
5
40
80
Time (h)
120
160
8
Dry
Dry
No-Dry
No-Dry
6
4
2
0
40
80
Time (h)
120
160
80
Time (h)
120
160
2.0
Dry
Dry
No-Dry
No-Dry
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
40
80
120
Time (h)
160
8
7
6
5
4
Dry
Dry
No-Dry
Np-Dry
3
2
1
0
0
40
25
160
40
120
Dry
Dry
30
80
Time (h)
10
258
40
40
30
35
40
Dry
Dry
No-Dry
No-Dry
160
50
O2- content (mmol kg-1 FW)
350
300
250
40
80
Time (h)
120
160
19.1% (with charcoal powder), 12.0% and 18.3%, and 15.2% and
16.8% in the abovementioned three organic application plots,
respectively. However, in Exp I, severely drying the cut seed tubers
caused rotting of the seed tubers in soil and dramatically decreased
plant growth and the final tuber yield. In Exp II, pasting bamboo
charcoal onto the cut surface of the seed tuber also significantly
increased the tuber yield with percentage increments of 7.5, 8.2
and 10.7% in the three organic regimes when the cut seed tubers
were not dried but the increments reached 13.6, 14.2 and 11.5% in
the three organic regimes when the cut seed tubers were properly
dried. There were positive additive interaction effects on tuber
yield between seed tuber cut trace drying treatment and cut trace
charcoal powder pasting treatments.
Table 3. Effects of drying cut trace of the seed tubers on tuber yield, disease incidence and photosynthetic activities
(Exp I).
Organic
Drying
Surface
No dry
Dry
Over-dry
No dry
Dry
Over-dry
No dry
Dry
Over-dry
Whole
No org
Organic
Drying
DryOrg
(g pl-1)
461
543
73
343
408
67
320
372
59
**
**
*
Yield
(kg m-2)
3.8
4.48
0.6
2.83
3.37
0.55
2.64
3.07
0.49
**
**
*
%
100
117.8
15.8
100
119
19.5
100
116.3
18.4
**
**
*
Tuber no
(pl-1)
8.4
9.6
3.7
6.6
7.2
3.3
5.4
6.4
2.6
**
*
*
Size
(g)
54.9
56.8
19.6
52
56.7
20.5
59.3
57.8
22.4
*
*
ns
DI
(%)
13.4
7.3
8.9
16.7
8.4
7.6
17.6
9.2
8.7
*
**
*
PC
RD
(mol m-2 s-1)
25.2
3.3
26.4
3.7
22.1
3.1
23.8
3.8
24.9
4.1
24.9
4.1
21.2
3.5
23.2
3.9
21.4
3.1
*
*
*
*
*
*
YQ
(mol mol-1)
0.077
0.089
0.072
0.069
0.081
0.081
0.066
0.075
0.061
**
**
*
Leaf colour
(SPDA)
65.6
69.7
68.2
62.4
67.3
67.3
60.3
65.6
64.7
*
**
*
PC, photosynthetic capacity; RD, dark respiration; YQ, the maximum photon use efficiency. DI, disease index.
Table 4. Effects of drying cut trace and pasting charcoal powder onto cut trace of the seed tubers on tuber yield,
disease incidence and photosynthetic activities (Exp II).
Organic
Drying
Charcoal
Surface
No dry
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Dry
Whole
No dry
Dry
CK
No dry
Dry
Organic
Drying
DryOrg
DryCha
DryChaOrg
(g pl-1)
351.9
411.1
396.2
449.2
310.5
337
348.5
397.5
253.5
277.9
293.2
324.4
**
**
*
**
*
Yield
(kg m-2)
2.92
3.14
3.29
3.74
2.58
2.79
2.89
3.3
2.11
2.32
2.43
2.71
**
**
*
**
*
%
100
107.5
112.7
128.1
100
108.2
112
12.9
100
110.7
112
128.2
**
**
*
**
*
Tuber
(pl-1)
7.1
7.8
7.6
7.9
6.4
7
6.6
7.2
5.6
6.0
6.7
7.2
**
*
*
ns
ns
Size
(g)
49.7
52.9
52.1
57.1
48.4
52.1
53.6
5
45.4
48.7
43.8
46.9
*
*
ns
ns
ns
DI
(%)
15.4
10.3
8.3
6.6
19.6
17
17.9
8.3
23.4
20.3
19.9
17.4
*
**
*
*
*
PC
RD
(mol m-2 s-1)
22.8
2.7
22.6
2.9
23.4
3.1
23.8
3.2
21.6
2.8
21.9
2.6
22.8
2.7
22.6
2.9
20.3
2.7
20.1
2.5
20.9
2.8
21.2
2.9
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
**
*
ns
YQ
(mol mol-1)
0.058
0.059
0.066
0.068
0.052
0.053
0.061
0.062
0.052
0.051
0.059
0.061
**
**
*
ns
*
Leaf colour
(SPDA)
59.3
60.6
61.1
62.7
58.2
57.4
60.5
60.3
55.1
55.3
58.1
58.6
*
**
*
ns
*
259
350
C-No-Dry
C-No-Dry-Model
C-Dry
C-Dry-Model
W-No-Dry
W-No-Dry-Model
W-Dry
W-Dry-Model
S-No-Dry
S-No-Dry-Model
S-Dry
S-Dry-Model
C-No-Dry
C-No-Dry-Model
300
C-Dry
C-Dry-Model
W-No-Dry
W-No-Dry-Model
W-Dry
W-Dry-Model
250
200
150
S-No-Dry
S-No-Dry-Model
S-Dry
100
50
0
S-Dry-Model
20
40
60
Time (day)
80
Exp I, C, no organic application; W, whole soil layer organic application; S, surface soil layer
organic application.
60
No-Dry
No-Dry-Model
Dry
Dry-Model
EM-No-Dry
EM-No-Dry-Model
EM-Dry
EM-Dry-Model
No-dry
50
No-Dry-Model
Dry
40
Dry-Model
EM-No-Dry
30
EM-No-Dry-Model
EM-Dry
EM-Dry-Model
20
10
0
10 20
30 40 50 60 70
Time (day)
80 90
No-dry
No-Dry-Model
100
80
Dry
Dry-Model
60
EM-No-Dry
EM-No-Dry-Model
EM-Dry
EM-Dry-Model
40
20
0
10
20 30
40 50 60 70
Time (day)
80 90
Go
11.7
11.5
11.9
11.8
11.9
11.6
ns
ns
ns
0.117
0.128
0.126
0.141
0.126
0.146
*
**
**
0.0087
0.0092
0.0087
0.0093
0.0082
0.0094
ns
*
*
63.5
64.5
61.5
64.5
62.5
64.5
ns
*
*
0.0072
0.0082
0.0069
0.0075
ns
*
*
50.2
46.8
52.7
51.3
ns
*
*
0.0079
0.0091
0.0082
0.0094
ns
*
ns
61.6
63.3
60.7
62.3
ns
*
ns
is the time when the dry mass reached half of GM and higher in
drying treatment than in no-dry control but showed no difference
among organic application regimes although there was a
synergistic interaction between drying treatment and organic
application.
In Exp II, dry mass was separated into shoot and tuber part.
Interestingly, the change trends of all GM, and for shoot part
dry mass were not consistent but opposite to those of tuber dry
mass. Although GM of tuber dry mass was consistent with the
tuber yield, GM of shoot part was smaller in the treatment of drying
cut tubers than in no-dry control. The leaf area index was not
measured in this experiment, but it could be suggested from the
shoot dry mass that leaf area index was not higher in drying
treatment than in no-dry control. It is also suggested that higher
tuber yield in drying treatment was attributed to its higher
photosynthetic activities as shown in Table 4.
Osmotic adjustment ability: Osmotic adjustment ability was
estimated by analyzing the P-V curves. The parameters are shown
in Table 7 for Exp I and Table 8 for Exp II.
Treat
C-No-Dry
C-Dry
W-No-Dry
W-Dry
S-No-Dry
S-Dry
Organic
Drying
DryOrg
No-Dry
Dry
Ch-No-Dry
Ch-Dry
Charcoal
Drying
DryCh
GM
Go
Table 7. Parameters obtained from the P-V curve analysis (Exp I).
Plot
No dry-Surface
No dry-Whole
No dry-No org
Dry-Surface
Dry-Whole
Dry-No Org
Organic
Drying
OrgDry
FT
-0.20
-0.21
-0.21
-0.2
-0.22
-0.21
ns
ns
ns
FT
-0.83
-0.79
-0.81
-0.99
-0.9
-0.86
*
**
*
PFT
0.63
0.58
0.60
0.79
0.68
0.65
*
**
*
s+a
-0.51
-0.47
-0.53
-0.65
-0.6
-0.59
*
**
*
MD
-0.77
-0.76
-0.77
-0.78
-0.74
-0.75
ns
ns
ns
MD
-0.96
-0.94
-0.93
-1.05
-1.01
-1.02
*
**
*
PMD
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.27
0.26
0.26
*
**
*
IP
-1.1
-1.02
-1.05
-1.2
-1.1
-1.13
*
*
*
sym
0.3
0.28
0.28
0.37
0.35
0.34
*
**
*
apo
0.7
0.72
0.72
0.63
0.65
0.66
*
**
*
35
37.9
42.1
51.9
45.1
52
ns
*
*
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.99
ns
ns
ns
IP
0.842
0.845
0.842
0.831
0.827
0.821
ns
*
*
CFT
340.3
323.9
332.1
405.9
369
352.6
*
**
*
CFT
65.6
45.1
20.5
*
**
*
-, leaf water potential. , osmotic potential. , leaf relative water content. Subscripts, FT, s+a, IP, sym and apo, mean those at full turgid status, symplastic water + apoplastic water, incipient
plasmolysis, symplastic water fraction and apoplastic water fraction, respectively. and are constants related with the slope at the first part and that at the second part, respectively. CFT,
concentration of osmotic substances at full turgor. CFT, the active increment of CFT compared with control.
Table 8. Parameters obtained from the P-V curve analysis (Exp II).
Plot
No dry
Ch-No-dry
Dry
Ch-Dry
Dry
Charcoal
DryCharcoal
FT
-0.21
-0.21
-0.22
-0.21
ns
ns
ns
FT
-0.8
-0.81
-0.88
-0.945
ns
**
*
PFT
0.59
0.6
0.66
0.735
ns
**
*
s+a
-0.5
-0.49
-0.61
-0.63
ns
**
*
MD
-0.76
-0.77
-0.74
-0.73
ns
ns
ns
MD
-0.93
-0.95
-1.02
-1.05
ns
**
*
PMD
0.17
0.18
0.28
0.32
ns
**
*
IP
-1.04
-1.05
-1.11
-1.16
ns
*
*
sym
0.28
0.27
0.31
0.34
ns
**
*
apo
0.72
0.73
0.69
0.66
ns
**
*
40.1
36.5
48.4
48.5
ns
*
*
0.985
0.991
0.985
0.983
ns
ns
ns
IP
0.844
0.843
0.824
0.829
ns
*
*
CFT
328
332.1
360.8
387.45
ns
**
*
CFT
0
4.1
32.8
59.45
**
**
**
261
1.00
0.96
No-Day
No-Day-Model
Dry
Dry-Model
Exp. I
Exp I
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
20
40
60
80 100
Time (min)
120
140
160
180
1.00
0.96
No-Day
No-Day-Model
Dry
Dry-Model
Exp. II
Exp II
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
100
120
140
SC
0.856
0.859
0.864
0.826
0.834
0.842
**
ns
*
0.117
0.123
0.121
0.141
0.134
0.129
**
ns
*
0.000404
0.000408
0.000417
0.000229
0.000236
0.000244
**
ns
**
10 (min)
2187
2165
2120
3944
3728
3610
**
ns
**
SC
0.881
0.858
0.89
0.849
**
ns
*
0.102
0.107
0.101
0.111
**
ns
*
0.000471
0.000235
0.000479
0.000214
**
ns
**
10 (min)
1832
3761
1852
4121
**
ns
**
The time used to dry the excised leaf to 10% of the leaf water
content (10): The value of 10, showing the time used to dry the
excised leaf to 10% of the leaf water content, was larger in treatment
of drying cut tubers than in control.
Discussion
The main objective of this experiment was to confirm the positive
physiological regulations, such as osmotic adjustment, leaf turgor
maintenance, photosynthetic improvement and yield increase in
the potato crop induced by drying the cut trace of seed tubers
according to the principle of xerophytophysiology. Reproduction
of potato is mainly through vegetative or clonal propagation, while
sowing seeds is only used for breeding purpose and for producing
virus-free seed tubers. Compared with the grain seeds, the tuber
262
263
264
Huang, G. T., Ma, S. L., Bai, L. P., Zhang, L., Ma, H., Jia, P., Liu, J.,
Zhong, M. and Guo, Z. F. 2011. Signal transduction during cold, salt,
and drought stresses in plants. Mol. Biol. Rep. 39(2):969-987.
27
Patakas, A. and Noitsakis, B. 1997. Cell wall elasticity as a mechanism
to maintain favorable water relations during leaf ontogeny in grapevines.
Amer. J. Enology Vitic. 48:352-356.
28
Xu, H. L., Xu, Q. C., Qin, F. F., Liu, G. M. and Lin, S. 2011. Grain yield
and leaf photosynthesis in transplanted winter wheat. Journal of Food,
Agriculture & Environment 9(2):328-334.
29
Xu, H. L., Xu, Q. C., Li, F. L., Feng, Y. Z., Qin, F. F. and Fang, W. 2012.
Applications of xerophytophysiology in plant productionLED blue
light as a stimulus improved the tomato crop. Sci. Hort. 148:190196.
30
Xu, H. L., Gauthier, L. and Gosselin, A. 1995. Effects of fertigation
management on growth and photosynthesis of tomato plants grown in
peat, rockwool and NFT. Scientia Horticulturae 63:11-20.
31
Xu, H. L., Iraqi, D. and Gosselin, A. 2007. Effect of ambient humidity
on physiological activities and fruit yield and quality of greenhouse
tomato. Acta Horticulturae 761:85-92.
26
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Hydric and physiological monitoring of soybean in oxisol and oxisol incorporated with
biodegradable waste residue
Alexandre C. Salvestro*, Paulo Sergio Loureno de Freitas, Roberto Rezende, Erci Marcos Del Quiqui,
Cludia Regina Dias Arieira, Jos Carlini Junior, Magnun Rodrigo Silva, Vinicius Hicaro Frederico Abe and
Matheus A. Mendes
Universidade Estadual de Maring/CCA/DCA Agronomia, Umuarama - P. R, Brazil. *e-mail: alexandresalvestro@gmail.com
Received 6 May 2014, accepted 28 September 2014.
Abstract
The objective of this work was to determine and compare the evapotranspiration of soybean cultivation at vegetative stage in two soils, oxisol and
oxisol incorporated with biodegradable organic waste, for environmental incorporation and water retention, as well as to determine the physiological
conditions of the culture in relation to moisture.The experiment was conducted in Umuarama, PR, at the State University of Maring in the
greenhouse. Sowing was carried out in October 2011 in pots with two hydraulic systems (field capacity and 80% of field capacity). The physiological
parameters, net photosynthetic rate (A) and stomatal conductance (gs), were assessed using IRGA (Infrared Gas Analyze). From A and gs the
efficiency of water use (A/gs) was determined. During the physiological assessments, mass measurements of the pots were carried out through
gravity balance, which together with the data from the meteorological station site determined the evapotranspiration of the cultivation. The
conclusion was that the average evapotranspiration of the culture at the vegetative phase was 3.0 mm day-1 for both moisture and soil conditions and
culture coefficient of 0.86, where oxisol had lower water use efficiency than the soil incorporated with biodegradable waste.
Key words: Evapotranspiration, soil moisture, soy.
Introduction
Studying water dynamic in soil refers to include contradictory
and evolutionary concepts and definitions of several works;
highlighting this dynamic in a research about water availability in
soil disposed as an energy state (potential) for the plant and match
it to a volumetric limit of minimum disposal, deduces a reference
of relative significance to establish criteria of ideal water
replacement for agricultural productivity 7.
Water is the most important and limiting factor to crop
productivity, it has a great influence over several physiological
and chemical processes of the plants, a soil reserve conditioned
to the plant in a disposal potential. According to Ritchie et al. 16,
this water disposal potential is related to the available water
concept, which is a result between field capacity (FC) and
permanent wilting point (PWP). Appropriate water management
must be established through the connexion between available
water in concise parameters and total water availability in the soil,
crop water necessity, and evapotranspiration levels 8.
Water restriction is the main factor that delimits the growing
phenomena, development and production, however, resulting the
minimum amount of water that the soil provides to the plant without
causing irreparable damage in this phenomenon is fundamental.
According to Lima et al. 6, quantitative information about
evapotranspiration and evaporation is necessary in the several
scientific fields that deal with numerous problems concerning water
management.
There are several physiological factors that are affected by the
the available water fraction, among them photosynthesis stands
out. Machado et al. 10 measured photosynthesis rates for three
varieties of citrus, they were from 9.8, 13.0 and 12.8 mol m-2 s-1 in
Valence, Murcott and Tahiti, respectively, indicating different
capacities of electron transport and CO2 assimilation efficiency
according to moisture conditioning.
However, as the soil water potential changes, these
physiological factors will be reflected in plant turgidity, that serves
as an indicator for the permanent wilting point, the preservation
of turgidity 3 demonstrates an effective mechanism of tolerance
to drought when the water potential decreases, emphasizing water
relation of minimum availability to the plant with its physiology
and water reposition quantity appropriate to its productivity.
The identification of a threshold value of water potential, in
which the photosynthetic process would start to decay, would be
greatly relevant, for it would determine a scale of the soil and
plant water status, which would probably result in massive
biological productivity reductions 2.
Reassuring this concept of hydric and physiological relation
Machado et al. 9 adds that weather factors are like photosynthesis
intervenors as a consequence of water stress, and the
photosynthesis rate increases with the irradiance, whose most
elevated values happened at times around 1 pm more than in
other periods, when the temperatures were higher and air relative
humidity was lower, consequently having higher plant
transpiration demand, but, under water deficiency, transpiratory
demand is not answered and therefore, stomatal closure and a
decrease in photosynthesis occur.
In this context, this work aimed to determine soybean culture
evapotranspiration in developing stages and the culture
265
Grit
36
%
Fine sand
36
Silt
03
Clay
25
Value
6,152.91
399,798.00
2,501.72
1,166.06
21.85
391.27
339.80
413.13
752.93
8.07
7.91
4,809.57
1,914.01
1,380.10
2,846.49
358,460.00
43.53
The values of Etc varied from 1.6 a 4.7 mm day-1, with average
value 3.0 mm day-1 for both soil conditions, in developing stage
(vegetative stage) until pre-flowering, point of greatest water
demand, where parallely to the work the permanent wilting point
(PWP) was assessed, which results for oxisol 7% weight-based
moisture 7.
This humidity is similar to the one in studies that highlighted
permanent wilting point, for sandy texture soils, according to
Fooladmand 14, Puckett et al. 15, mentioned by Ghanbarian et al. 11,
the values for the relative soil texture class were 0.089 (m3 m-3) and
0.062 (m3 m-3), totalizing in base weight 6.2 and 8.9%, respectively.
The lamina evapotranspiration did not differ statistically in
relation to the humidity variation kept in soil in vegetative stage,
until it reaches PWP in the two soils studied. With three humidity
layers in relation to the field capacity for the wheat in 40-60%, 6080% and 80-100%, Freitas et al. 5 concluded that the change in
humidity layer from 40-60 to 60-80% provided a greater variation
in averages of crop evapotranspiration, than from 60-80 to 80100% maximum water capacity stored in soil.
Still according to the mentioned authors, this fact that ETc
variation is smaller in 80-100% humidity in relation to the other
humidities studied, regardless of the plant development stage,
corroborates with the idea of the work not having different
evapotranspiration in relation to humidities kept until pre-flowering
and the soil conditions.
According to Fig. 1A-B, ETc monitoring in relation to different
water conditionings for oxisol showed the same behavior with a
Results and Discussion
tendency to maximum evapotranspirometric demand in the
Evapotranspiration values of the crop (ETc) and crop coefficient
beginning of data collection until a decrease in permanent wilting
(kc) for oxisol with field capacity moisture (CC) and 80% of CC, are
point evaluation (7% weight-based volume), this same analysis
presented in Fig. 1 for oxisol with and without incorporation of
was carried out for oxisol incorporated, presenting the same
residue, demonstrating some experimental units averages in
evapotranspirometric monitoring (Fig. 1C-D).
relation to replications.
Between the two respective soil conditions,
evapotranspiration showed the same average whereas
Table 1. Chemical analysis of oxisol.
the weather conditions are the same, it was expected
DPT pH
mg dm-3 g dm-3
cmolc/dm3
only a difference according to oxisol humidity
V%
(cm) CaCl2 Al H + Al Ca Mg
K
SB CTC
P
C
incorporated into biodegradable waste residue, which
0-20
266
4,14
0,15
6,21
7,6
6,62
27,1
Humidity (%)
Humidity (%)
C
Evapotranspiration (mm d-1)
Humidity (%)
Humidity (%)
Figure 1. Evapotranspiration behavior of soybean for oxisol with and without residue incorporation at vegetative
stage in relation to humidity: (A) humidity to 80% of field capacity kept at development stage for oxisol, (B)
humidity in field capacity kept at development stage for oxisol, (C) humidity to 80% of field capacity kept at
development stage for oxisol incorporated, (D) humidity in field capacity kept at development stage for oxisol
incorporated.
Conclusions
Considering the experimental conditions and the response to the
variables studied:
Average reference evapotranspiration at development stage
(vegetative) of soybean was 3.0 mm day-1.
Average crop coefficient for the vegetative stage was 0.81.
There was no significant difference in the evapotranspiration
rate for oxisol with or without incorpotation of biodegradable waste
residue and humidities assessed.
Intrinsic efficiency of water use for oxisol is smaller than for
oxisol incorporated into biodegradable waste residue.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements awarded to State University of Maring.
References
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Paes, D. and Smith, M. 1998. Crop
Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water
Eequirements. FAO, Roma, 328 p.
2
Cavate, P. C. 2007. Morfologia, relaes hdricas e fotossntese em duas
cultivares de Coffea canephora submetidas ao dficit hdrico.
Dissertao, Mestrado em Fisiologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de
Viosa, Viosa, 100 p.
3
Kramer, P. J. and Boyer, J. S. 1995. Water Relations of Plants and Soils.
Academic, San Diego, 495 p.
4
Mendes, R. S. 2006. Determinao da evapotranspirao por mtodos
direto e indiretos e dos coeficientes de cultura da soja para o distrito
federal. Tese, Mestrado em Agronomia, Universidade de Brasilia,
Brasilia, 71 p.
5
Freitas, J. G., Cardoso, A. A., Sediyama, C. S., Ferreira, P. A., Moura, W.
F. 1985. Trigo: Efeito de trs faixas de umidade na evapotranspiraao
1
267
ETo/ETc
ETo/ETc
Humidity (%)
Humidity (%)
D
ETo/ETc
ETo/ETc
Humidity (%)
Humidity (%)
Figure 2. Crop coefficient (Kc) of soybean for oxisol oxisol with and without biodegradable waste residue
incorporation at vegetative stage in relation to humidity: (A) soybean Kc for humidity to 80% of field capacity
for oxisol, (B) soybean Kc for humidity in field capacity for oxisol, (C) soybean Kc for humidity to 80% of
field capacity for oxisol incorporated, (D) soybean Kc for humidity in field capacity for oxisol incorporated.
268
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Sowing dates and plant density of peanut cultivars in different soil and climatic
conditions of Mato Grosso state, Brazil
Joo Danilo Barbieri 1, Rivanildo Dallacort 1*, Adalberto Santi 1, Kssio De Marco 1, Alcir Jos Modolo 2,
Santino Seabra Jnior 3, Ronicely Pereira Rocha 1 and Rafael Cesar Tieppo 1
1
Campus de Tangar da Serra, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Brazil. 2 Campus de Pato Branco, Universidade
Tecnolgica Federal do Paran, Brasil. 3 Campus de Nova Mutum, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Brazil.
*e-mail: rivanildo@unemat.br
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of plant density on the development, yield components (plant height, number of pods per plant,
thousand grain weight) and yield of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars IAC Runner 886 and IAC Tatu ST in two regions under different soil and
climatic conditions. The experimental design was a randomized block design in a factorial arrangement of 2 x 2 x 2 x 3, with 4 replications, located in
Barra dos Bugres and Tangar da Serra cities, both in Mato Grosso. For each location, the sowing of cultivars (IAC Tatu ST and IAC Runner 886)
occurred on two dates, 12 and 24 of February of 2013, and at three plant densities (5, 10 and 15 plants m-1) with 4 replications. For the Barra do
Bugres city, the highest total weight, yield and productivity of peanut was obtained at density of 10 pl m-1, regardless of the sowing date. However,
in Tangar da Serra city, sowing on February 12 limited the yield due to excessive rainfall during the harvest season, thus sowing held on February 24
provided better agronomic performance for the two peanut cultivars in density of 10 pl m-1. Due to the different cultivar characteristics, the choice
of cultivar depends on the commercial interest of the region and for what purposes the production will be allocated.
Key words: Arachis hypogaea L., plant density, yield.
Introduction
The peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) is a species of the Fabaceae
family, is a crop of great importance in human nutrition, because
of characteristics of oil production (40 - 45%) and protein (20 28%) 1, 2. O il can be used directly in human nutrition and in industry
of paints, preserves and pharmaceutical products, besides the
potential for the biodiesel production 3.
The Mato Grosso state, a large arable territory, focuses its
production in some crops with higher commercial value such as
soybean, corn, cotton, sugarcane, among others, however, the
peanut crop has established itself in the region. In 2012 the crop
productivity was approximately 1630 kg ha-1, however, for 2013
the productivity has reached 2460 kg ha-1, due to the application
of agricultural technology resources 4. This increase becomes
significant in relation to the largest producer, Sao Paulo state,
with cultivated area of 79,000 ha and achieved production of 3400
kg ha-1. The expression is related to the fact that Mato Grosso has
more arable land, but not yet invested in peanuts as a secondary
crop.
The yield potential of peanut is genetically determined and
depends on limiting factors such as soil and climatic conditions,
plant arrangement and incidence of pests or diseases. Among the
factors affecting the productivity of a culture, plant density affects
directly the components production 5. For the peanut crop, plant
density may vary depending on cultivar, sowing date, fertilization
and cultivation region.
269
Spatial arrangements
(Plants m-)
5
10
15
Explored area
per plant (m)
0.090
0.045
0.022
Plants m
Plants ha-1
11.11
22.22
33.33
111.100
222.200
333.300
270
Table 3. Description of phenological stages of the peanut cultivars IAC Runner 886 and
IAC Tatu ST (days after sowing, DAS), grown at different sowing dates in the
Tangara da Serra and Barra do Bugres areas, MT (2013).
Figure 1. (A) Decennial (ten days time) averages of precipitation and relative humidity; (B) temperature and solar
radiation between 10 of February and 21 of July of 2013 for the Tangar da Serra (TGA) and Barra do Bugres (BB).
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
271
Table 4. Mean values for plant height (AP); number of pods per plant (NVP); total weight (PTOT);
thousand grain weight (P1000); bark productivity per ha-1 (PRODC); grain productivity
per ha-1 (PRODG); yield (REND); coefficient of variation (CV) and F value.
Evaluated characteristic
Barra do Bugres
Tangar da Serra
F value
AP
60.46a
60.16a
0.27ns
12/02/2013
24/02/2013
F value
66.72a
53.90b
489.43**
IAC Tatu ST
IAC Runner 886
F value
68.43a
52.18b
787.22**
D1 (5 pl m-1)
D2 (10 pl m-1)
D3 (15 pl m-1)
F value
CV (%)
59.87b
62.33a
58.73b
13.47**
4.70
NVP
PTOT
P1000
Sites
14.67a
183.43a
485.65b
6.89b
123.14b
562.06a
781.91** 128.49** 175.30**
Sowing dates
11.36a
176.51a
556.61a
10.20b
130.06b
491.10b
17.19**
76.22**
128.82**
Cultivars
10.25b
139.81b
404.33b
11.30a
166.76a
643.37a
14.23**
25.67** 1715.54**
Densities
7.57c
85.73c
523.65a
11.72b
178.48b
531.22a
13.05a
195.64a
516.68a
140.41** 164.76**
2.11ns
12.65
17.00
5.40
PRODC
PRODG
REND
2292.96a
1539.26b
128.49**
1579.42a
1106.31b
83.50**
68.98a
68.01a
2.93ns
2206.38a
1625.85b
76.22**
1611.78a
1073.95b
107.92**
72.83a
64.16b
230.45**
1747.67b
2084.55a
25.67**
1158.76b
1526.98a
50.58**
64.60b
72.39a
186.14**
1071.66c
2231.09b
2445.58a
164.76**
17.00
755.86b
1583.60a
1689.14a
129.94**
18.89
69.59a
67.98ab
67.91b
3.68*
4.08
Means followed by the same letter do not differ significantly by the Tukey test ** p < 0.01; * P < 0.05; ns (not significant).
ns
272
Table 6. Split of number of pods per plant at two sites with two peanut cultivars, two
sowing dates and three densities. Site 1 (L1) Barra do Bugres; Site 2 (L2) Tangar da Serra; Sowing date 1 (E1) - 12/02; Sowing date 2 (E2) - 24/02;
Cultivar 1 (C1) - IAC Tatu ST; Cultivar 2 (C2) - IAC Runner 886; Density 1 (D1)
- 5 pl m-1; Density 2 (D2) - 10 pl m-1; Density 3 (D3) - 15 pl m-1.
Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column and uppercase on the line do not differ statistically by Tukey test (p < 0.05) (ns) not significant.
273
Table 8. Split of thousand grain weight (g) at two sites with two peanut cultivars, two sowing
dates and three densities. Site 1 (L1) Barra do Bugres; Site 2 (L2) - Tangar da
Serra; Sowing date 1 (E1) - 12/02; Sowing date 2 (E2) - 24/02; Cultivar 1 (C1) - IAC
Tatu ST; Cultivar 2 (C2) - IAC Runner 886; Density 1 (D1) - 5 pl m-1; Density 2 (D2)
- 10 pl m-1; Density 3 (D3) - 15 pl m-1.
Thousand grain weight
Factor
E1
E2
C1
C2
D1
D2
D3
DMS
L1
480.63bA
490.66aA
370.78ns
600.52ns
505.66bA
495.38bA
455.90bB
23.93
L2
1
E2
632.58aA
-------------
491.54aB
-------------
437.89ns
431.88ns
376.79ns
686.23ns
681.33ns
605.42ns
541.65aB
548.41ns
498.90ns
567.06aA
569.72ns
492.73ns
577.47aA
551.69ns
481.68ns
23.93
ns
ns
C1
-------
-------
-------
-------
402.75bA
402.09bA
408.16bA
23.93
C2
-------
-------
-------
-------
644.56aAB
660.36aA
625.20aB
23.93
DMS
16.27
16.27
ns
ns
19.93
19.93
19.93
Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column and uppercase on the line do not differ statistically by Tukey test (p < 0.05) (ns) not
significant.
Table 9. Split of productivity in bark (kg ha-1) at two sites with two peanut cultivars, two sowing dates
and three densities. Site 1 (L1) Barra do Bugres; Site 2 (L2) - Tangar da Serra; Sowing date
1 (E1) - 12/02; Sowing date 2 (E2) - 24/02; Cultivar 1 (C1) - IAC Tatu ST; Cultivar 2 (C2) - IAC
Runner 886; Density 1 (D1) - 5 pl m-1; Density 2 (D2) - 10 pl m-1; Density 3 (D3) - 15 pl m-1.
Factor
L1
L2
E1
E2
C1
C2
DMS
E1
2292.96aA
2119.79aA
------------------------187.50
E2
2271.52aA
958.73bB
------------------------187.50
Productivity in bark
C1
C2
2199.21aA 2386.71aA
1296.13bB 1782.39bA
2335.02ns
2077.73ns
1417.61ns
1834.08ns
------------------------187.50
187.50
D1
1089.84aC
1053.49aB
1251.17aB
892.16bC
1119.97aC
1023.35aB
229.64
D2
2632.81aB
1829.37bA
2633.59aA
1828.59bB
1886.64bB
2575.54aA
229.64
D3
3156.25aA
1734.92bA
2734.37aA
2156.79bA
2236.40bA
2654.76aA
229.64
DMS
187.50
187.50
275.79
275.79
275.79
275.79
Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column and uppercase on the line do not differ statistically by Tukey test (p <0.05) (ns) not significant.
Table 10. Split of productivity in grain (kg ha-1) at two sites with two peanut cultivars in two sowing
dates and three densities. Site 1 (L1) Barra do Bugres; Site 2 (L2) - Tangar da Serra; Sowing
date 1 (E1) - 12/02; Sowing date 2 (E2) - 24/02; Cultivar 1 (C1) - IAC Tatu ST; Cultivar 2 (C2) IAC Runner 886; Density 1 (D1) - 5 pl m-1; Density 2 (D2) - 10 pl m-1; Density 3 (D3) - 15 pl m-1.
Factor
L1
L2
1
E2
C1
C2
DMS
E1
1613.14aA
1610.42aA
------------------------145.99
E2
1545.70aA
602.21bB
------------------------145.99
Productivity in grain
C1
C2
1447.51aB 1711.33aA
870.01bB 1342.62bA
1784.32ns
1439.24ns
ns
878.28
1269.63ns
------------------------145.99
145.99
D1
756.30aC
755.42aB
903.02aB
608.71bB
766.39aB
745.33aB
178.80
D2
1840.82aB
1326.39bA
1942.32aA
1224.88bA
1258.38bA
1908.83aA
178.80
D3
2141.14aA
1237.13bA
1990.00aA
1388.27bA
1451.51bA
1926.77aA
178.80
DMS
145.99
145.99
214.73
214.73
214.73
214.73
Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column and uppercase on the line do not differ statistically by Tukey test (p < 0.05) (ns) not significant.
Table 11. Split of yield (%) at two sites with two peanuts cultivars, two sowing dates and
three densities. Site 1 (L1) Barra do Bugres; Site 2 (L2) - Tangar da Serra;
Sowing date 1 (E1) - 12/02; Sowing date 2 (E2) - 24/02; Cultivar 1 (C1) - IAC Tatu
ST; Cultivar 2 (C2) - IAC Runner 886; Density 1 (D1) - 5 pl m-1; Density 2 (D2) - 10
pl m-1; Density 3 (D3) - 15 pl m-1.
Factor
L1
L2
1
E2
C1
C2
DMS
E1
70.21bA
75.44aA
------------------------1.60
E2
67.76aB
60.57bB
------------------------1.60
C1
66.47aB
62.73bB
69.61aB
59.60bB
------------1.60
Yield
C2
71.49bA
73.28aA
76.04aA
68.73bA
------------1.60
D1
69.68aA
69.50aA
72.45aA
66.74bA
66.578bA
72.61aA
1.97
D2
69.62aA
66.34bB
73.26aA
62.70bB
63.07bB
72.89aA
1.97
D3
67.65aA
68.17aAB
72.77aA
63.06bB
64.17bB
71.66aA
1.97
DMS
1.60
1.60
2.36
2.36
2.36
2.36
Means followed by the same lowercase letter in the column and uppercase on the line do not differ statistically by Tukey test (p < 0.05) (ns) not significant.
274
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University of Bari Aldo Moro, Dept. of Soil, Plant, and Food Science (Di.S.S.P.A.), Via Amendola, 165/A, I 70126, Bari, Italy.
University of Bari Aldo Moro, Dept. of Agricultural and Environmental Science (Di.S.A.A.T.), Via Amendola, 165/A, I 70126,
Bari, Italy. e-mail: antonella.pasqualone@uniba.it, lauranunziadelvecchio@yahoo.it, giovanni.lacolla@uniba.it,
luciana.piarulli@libero.it, rosanna.simeone@uniba.it, giovanna.cucci@uniba.it
Abstract
The beneficial effects of whole meal wheat products are mainly attributed to dietary fibre and secondary metabolites related to it, such as phenolic
compounds. To date, no studies have investigated the effect of fertilization with sewage sludge on the levels of wheat phenolic compounds. The aim
of this study was to point out the effects of increasing doses of composted sewage sludge, also in combination with mineral fertilization, on phenolic
compounds and antioxidant activity of durum wheat. Moreover, the effects on productivity and technological quality were verified. A randomized
block experimental system with six replicates was adopted and seven treatments were compared: unfertilized control (absence of any fertilization or
composted sewage sludge application); four doses of composted sewage sludge (3, 6, 9, and 12 Mg ha-1); mineral fertilization (MF) consisting of 120,
100 and 100 kg ha-1 of N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively; combined fertilization with 6 Mg ha-1 of composted sewage sludge and 60 kg ha-1 of N. There
was a significantly positive effect of sewage sludge application on productivity as well as on phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and
technological quality of durum wheat whole meal. Regarding the productivity, the use of 12 Mg ha-1 of composted sewage sludge can effectively
substitute mineral fertilization. Regarding phenolics and antioxidant activity, a further increase can be achieved by employing a combination of
composted sewage sludge (at the level of 6 Mg ha-1) and mineral fertilization. The phenolic compounds of whole meal raised from 1.31 mg ferulic acid
equivalents (FAE) g-1 (unfertilized control) to 1.93 mg FAE g-1 (combined application of 6 Mg ha-1 of sewage sludge and 60 kg ha-1 N). The antioxidant
activity range was 1.89-2.02 mol 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox) g-1 d.m., corresponding to a level of scavenging
capacity of the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical ranging from 56.26% (unfertilized control) to 62.29% (6 Mg ha-1 of sewage sludge plus
60 kg ha-1 N).
Key words: Triticum durum, fertilization, yield.
Introduction
Among cereals, durum wheat is one of the most used for human
nutrition and is a fundamental element of Mediterranean diet.
Moreover, the interest towards the healthy features of food is
increasingly growing and many studies have demonstrated the
association between the reduction of degenerative diseases and
the regular consumption of whole grains 1, 2. The beneficial effects
are mainly attributed to dietary fibre and secondary metabolites
related to it, such as phenolic compounds 3. In fact, several
researches assessed the antioxidant properties of wheat phenolic
compounds 4-6. Moreover, the phenolic compounds are thought
to be part of the chemical defence of the plant, where exert
physiological functions such as stabilizing cell walls, screening
UV radiation and protecting against herbivore attacks and insect
damages 7.
Doses and modality of nitrogen fertilization are known to have
a significant effect on the overall wheat grain quality 8. At this
purpose, the use of composted sewage sludge of municipal origin
to substitute the commonly used fertilizers has been proposed to
preserve or restore soil fertility, due to its ability to increase the
organic substance 9. According to the Council Directive 91/271/
EEC of 21 May 1991 10, concerning urban waste-water treatment,
276
Parameter
pH
Humidity (g 100 g-1)
Organic carbon (g 100 g-1 d.m.)
Total nitrogen (g 100 g-1 d.m.)
Organic nitrogen (% of total N)
C/N
Total phosphorus (g 100 g-1 d.m.)
Total potassium (g 100 g-1 d.m.)
Humic and fulvic acids (g 100 g-1 d.m.)
Pb (mg kg-1)
Cd (mg kg-1)
Ni (mg kg-1)
Zn (mg kg-1)
Cu (mg kg-1)
Hg (mg kg-1)
Cr (mg kg-1)
Salinity (meq 100 g-1 d.m.)
Particle size (mm)
Specific weight (kg m-3)
Value
0.9
22.5
252
1.6
2.6
1.4
7.3
0.4
0.8
20.2
60.5
20.0
19.5
23.6
12.5
1.4
Treatment
C
SS3
SS6
SS9
SS12
SS6N
MF
N
0
27
55
82
110
115
120
P2O5
0
38
77
115
153
77
100
K2O
0
20
41
61
81
41
100
277
Different letters in column correspond to significant differences according to the SNK test at P 0.05.
279
280
Beck, A. J., Alcock, R. E., Wilson, S. C., Wang, M. J., Wild, S. R.,
Sewart, A. P. and Jones, K. C. 1995. Long-term persistence of organic
chemicals in sewage sludge-amended agricultural land: A soil quality
perspective. Adv. in Agronomy 35:345-391.
13
Arvas, ., elebi, . Z. and Ylmaz, . H. 2011. The effect of sewage
sludge and chemical fertilizer on natural pastures yield and botanical
composition. J. Food, Agriculture & Environment 9(2):525-530.
14
Uzun, S., Serin, Y., Uzun, O., Kaplan, M. and Basaran, M. 2013.
Effects of sewage sludge and inorganic fertilizer treatments on yield
and botanical composition of a sown-pasture established over a
degraded pasture. J. Food, Agriculture & Environment 11(3&4):931936.
15
Lakhdar, A., Slatni, T., Iannelli, M. A., Debez, A., Pietrini, F., Jedidi,
N., Massacci, A. and Abdelly, C. 2012. Risk of municipal solid waste
compost and sewage sludge use on photosynthetic performance in
common crop (Triticum durum). Acta Physiol. Plant 34:10171026.
16
zyazc, M. A. 2013. Effects of sewage sludge on the yield of plants
in the rotation system of wheat-white head cabbage-tomato. Eurasian
J. Soil Sci. 2:35-44.
17
El-Ghany, M. F. A., Attia, M. and Khaled, S. M. 2013. Positive effects
of organic matter and nutrients on soil properties, microbial diversity
and accumulation of trace elements on crops grown on sludge amended
soil. J. Appl. Sci. Res. 9:2244-2251.
18
Chen, T. B., Gao, D. and Li, X. B. 2002. Effects of sewage sludge
compost on available nutrients and water retention ability of planting
substrate. Acta Ecol. Sinica 6:001.
19
uchowski, J., Kapusta, I., Szajwaj, B., Joczyk, K. and Oleszek, W.
2009. Phenolic acid content of organic and conventionally grown winter
wheat. Cereal Res. Comm. 37:189-197.
20
uchowski, J., Jonczyk, K., Pecio, L. and Oleszek, W. 2011. Phenolic
acid concentrations in organically and conventionally cultivated spring
and winter wheat. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91:1089-1095.
21
Dimberg, L. H., Gissn, C. and Nilsson, J. 2005. Phenolic compounds
in oat grains (Avena sativa L.) grown in conventional and organic
systems. AMBIO 34:331-337.
22
Italian Legislative Decree no. 217 of April 29th 2006. Revisione della
disciplina in materia di fertilizzanti. Ordinary Supplement no. 152 of
Off. J. Italian Republic 141:5-122.
23
Liu, Q., Qiu, Y. and Beta, T. 2010. Comparison of antioxidant activities
of different colored wheat grains and analysis of phenolic compounds.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:9235-9241.
24
Lempereur, I., Rouau, X. and Abecassis, J. 1997. Genetic and agronomic
variation in arabinoxylan and ferulic acid contents of durum wheat
(Triticum durum L.) grain and its milling fractions. J. Cereal Sci. 25:103110.
25
Koricheva, J., Larrson, S., Haukioja, E. and Keinnen, M. 1998.
Regulation of woody plant secondary metabolism by resource
availability: Hypothesis testing by means of meta-analysis. Okos
83:212-226.
26
Sne, M., Dor, T. and Gallet, C. 2001. Relationships between biomass
and phenolic production in grain sorghum grown under different
conditions. Agronomy J. 93:49-54.
27
Yu, L. and Zhou, K. 2004. Antioxidant properties of bran extracts from
Platte wheat grown at different locations. Food Chem. 90:311-316.
28
Yu, L., Perret, J., Davy, B., Wilson, J. and Melby, C. L. 2002. Antioxidant
properties of cereal products. J. Food Sci. 67:2600-2603.
29
Wieser, H. and Seilmeier, W. 1998. The influence of nitrogen fertilisation
on quantities and proportions of different protein types in wheat
flour. J. Sci. Food Agric. 76:49-55.
30
Feillet, P., Autran, J. C. and Icard-Vernire, C. 2000. Pasta brownness:
An assessment. J. Cereal Sci. 32:215-233.
31
Taranto, F., Delvecchio, L. N., Mangini, G., Del Faro, L., Blanco, A.
and Pasqualone, A. 2012. Molecular and physic-chemical evaluation
of enzymatic browning of whole meal and dough in a collection of
tetraploid wheats. J. Cereal Sci. 55:405-414.
12
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Genetic diversity and presence of DREB gene in watermelon cultivars and wild type
of watermelon based on molecular markers
Abdullah S. Alsohim * and Mohamed I. Motawei
Plant Prod. & Prot. Dept., College of Agri. & Vet. Medicine, Al-Qassim Univ., Saudi Arabia. *e-mail: a.alsohim@qu.edu.sa
Received 9 July 2014, accepted 30 September 2014.
Abstract
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is commonly grown in traditional agrosystems throughout the drought-prone Saudi Arabia. There has been little work
on investigating the relationships between wild and cultivated forms, and to study amount and partitioning of genetic variation, to allow for better
conservation strategies. Previous studies have reported relatively low levels of genetic diversity in cultivated watermelon, but these have been based
mainly on US plant introductions and modern watermelon cultivars linked to breeding programmes for disease resistance. The genetic relationships
among six cultivars from different countries of origin and with different horticultural characteristics and one related wild-type species (Citrullus
colocynthis) were assessed using inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers. Also, the presence of the resistance stress gene (DREB) as a marker
of drought tolerance in watermelon cultivars and wild-type species was investigated. The cluster analysis results demonstrated low genetic diversity
among commercial cultivars and high genetic diversity between wild species and commercial cultivars. Dendrograms produced two major clusters; one
with all the watermelon cultivars and the other with the wild-type species. The low level of marker polymorphism among the adapted cultivars
implies that a severe bottleneck in genetic diversity existed in watermelon during the initial breeding practices. There were no significant differences
in chlorophyll content and plant height of wild-type species either in three-day intervals or watered daily. All watermelon cultivars gave lower
chlorophyll content and plant height at three- and five-day intervals compared to watered daily. Specific PCR assays using AP2 primers (designed
on the basis of the AP2/EREBP sequence of gene DREB) represent a sensitive tool for screening watermelon genotypes for the DREB gene. The
DREB gene was present only in wild-type species. The amplifying DREB gene could be valuable in watermelon breeding programs for selection of
desirable alleles under drought stress.
Key words: Watermelon cultivars, wild type of watermelon, genetic diversity, DREB gene, water stress.
Introduction
Citrullus lanatus, commonly known as watermelon and belonging
to Cucurbitaceae, is an important food crop in many countries.
However, watermelon is less drought tolerant as Citrullus
colocynthis, which is closely related to watermelon (Citrullus
lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai.), a member of the
Cucurbitaceae family. This plant is a drought tolerant species with
a deep root system, widely distributed in the Sahara-Arabian
deserts in Saudi Arabia.
Drought is the major abiotic stress that has adverse effects on
growth and productivity of crop plants. During the last century,
watermelon production has increased steadily. Today, watermelon
accounts for 2% of the world area devoted to vegetable production.
Although many watermelon cultivars were developed throughout
the world during the last century, there is an ongoing need for
watermelon improvement, especially for increased drought
tolerance 9. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad is closely related to
domesticated watermelon (C. lanatus (Thunb)) Matsum & Nakai
var. lanatus) and wild watermelon (C. lanatus var. citroides). The
species, commonly known as the bitter apple or bitter gourd, is a
non-hardy drought-resistant herbaceous perennial vine.
Domesticated watermelons have been selected for their
productivity and quality. Domestication of crop plants and plant
breeding has dramatically eroded allelic variations of crop species,
which has contributed to an increasing susceptibility of crop
281
Origin
USA
USA
Niagara
Holland
USA
USA
Saudi Arabia
Primer
sequence
(AG)8T
(GA)8T
(TC)8C
(AC)8T
(AC)8C
(AC)8G
(ATG)6
(GAG)3GC
(CTC)3GC
(GTG)3GC
Annealing
temperature
(C)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
42
42
42
Amplified
products
4
5
2
5
4
5
4
4
5
4
Fraction
polymorphic
fragments
3/4
1/5
0/2
1/5
3/4
5/5
3/4
1/4
0/5
2/4
Table 3. Simple matching coefficients of similarity determined from the analysis using 42 ISSR loci.
Watermelon genotypes
Sun shade
Diamond
Charleston
Fashion
Charleston gray
Crimson
Wild genotype
Sun shade
1.0
0.83
0.95
0.85
0.95
0.90
0.65
Diamond
Charleston
Fashion
Charleston gray
Crimson
Wild genotype
1.0
0.78
0.83
0.83
0.78
0.53
1.0
0.85
0.90
0.85
0.60
1.0
0.90
0.85
0.65
1.0
0.95
0.70
1.0
0.75
1.0
HB13
M
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
Sun shade
C7
Charleston
Char. gray
Crimson
Fashion
Diamond
Wild
0.65
0.72
0.80
Coefficient
0.87
0.95
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Figure 1. Polymorphism revealed using primer ISSR primers (HB 13,
UBC827) to amplify genomic DNA purified from the tested watermelon
genotypes (C1 = Sun shade, C2 = Diamond, C3 = Charleston, C4 =
Fashion, C5 = Charleston gray, C6 = Crimson, and C7 = Wild genotype).
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
283
Table 4. Effect of interaction between irrigation treatments and cultivars on chlorophyll content
(SPAD) and plant height (cm) of seven watermelon genotypes.
Cultivars
Sun shade
Diamond
Charleston
Charleston gray
Crimson sweet
Fashion
Wild type
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Impact of PAR interception at different time points on total dry matter production in
rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop transplanted on different dates
Shrabani Basu 1*, Srijani Maji 1, Swaraj Kumar Dutta 2, Sarika Jena 3, Rajib Nath 1 and Prodip Kumar Chakraborty 4
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture,Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal741252, India. 2 Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Bihar Agriculture University, Sabour, Bihar-813210, India.
3
AINP Jute Research Station, Kendrapara, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Odisha -754250, India.
4
Department of Agric. Meteorology and Physics, Faculty of Agriculture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
Nadia, West Bengal-741252, India. *e-mail: shrabanibasu808@gmail.com
1
Abstract
The main rice-growing season in Eastern India spans from July-October. The average productivity is low because of cloudiness during the season.
Interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) by the crop at the different time points of a day plays a significant role in biomass
accumulation, which is ultimately translated into yield. The effect of radiation has been investigated but the impact of different time-point has not
been discussed in the literatures. To identify the congenial time point for PAR interception, an experiment was carried out for two years (2007 and
2008) on rice [variety IET-4786 (Satabdi)], which was transplanted during a period of 1st to 29th July having one week interval. The experiment was
conducted at the B.C.K.V Research Farm (2256'N and 8832'E) in a randomised block design with four replications having a plot size of 30 m2. The
PAR interception was measured at 7.30, 9.30, 11.30, 13.30 and 15.30 h during tillering, panicle initiation, flower emergence and 100% flowering
stages. The total dry matter accumulation and leaf area index (LAI) were measured at these same growth stages. The mean interception was maximum
at 100% flowering and minimum at the tillering stage; interception by the rice crop declined gradually after 15th July transplanting. Maximum dry
matter accumulation was observed at 100% flowering. About 88, 92,73 and 97% variations in dry matter accumulation were explained by PAR
interception at 13.30 h under 1st, 8th, 22nd and 29th July transplanted rice; whereas, 73% variation in dry matter accumulation could be explained
through the variation in interception of PAR under 15th July transplanted crop. It was observed that the interception during early morning and
afternoon played a significant role in biomass production. In case of late-planted crop, interception almost throughout the day played a regulatory
role in dry matter production. The LAI increased gradually and the maximum LAI was recorded at 100% flowering. Delay in transplanting reduced
the LAI. PAR interception increased significantly with the increment in LAI; the strength of relationship declined beyond 15th July transplanting. The
results suggested that the rice should not be transplanted beyond 15th of July depending on PAR interception by the crop.
Key words: Dry matter, interception, tillering, panicle initiation, flower emergence, 100% flowering, PAR, planting dates, leaf area index, rice.
Introduction
Rice yield in Eastern India enhanced when the high yielding
varieties replaced the traditional ones. Modern research helped
to evolve a large number of high yielding varieties in rice for yield
improvement. However, these varieties could not reach the
potential yield level of rice crop. The rice yield in the main rice
growing rainy season is comparatively lower than the summer
season when irrigation is given to this crop for high productivity.
Use of groundwater causes a number of problems such as arsenic
contamination, depletion of groundwater level and fluoride
contamination. The concentration of arsenic in groundwater has
crossed the critical limit (>0.01 ppm) and has caused a human
disaster, affecting more than nine million people 1, 2. In spite of
these difficulties, farmers are reluctant to grow other alternative
crops having low water requirement. Therefore, it is highly
important to improve the rice yield by transplanting the crop in an
ideal weather situation, so that the crop may use the weather
input in a better aspect. Rice yield increases with the increase in
total solar radiation under unstressed condition 3. Solar radiation
in a rice canopy plays an important role in energy balance on both
the plant leaves and soil/water surface. Absorption coefficients
of rice leaves throughout the growing period were almost constant,
but the leaf inclination factor increased with the growth of the
crop 4. Absorption or interception of solar radiation changes with
the solar elevation angle during the apparent diurnal journey of
the sun. Therefore, it is logical to measure the interception or
absorption of solar radiation by the crop through a diurnal course.
The photosynthetic efficiency of a crop enhances with the diurnal
variation in interception of solar radiation. Utilisation of solar
radiation during morning and afternoon hours in peanut and
mustard were better than other time points in a diurnal course 5-7.
However, no such studies have been reported in rice crop so far.
The main rice-growing season (July-October) very often suffers
from cloudiness, which reduces the crop yield. With an objective
to indicate an ideal time-point for interception of PAR and its
relationship with the total biomass production and leaf area index
in rice crop, this experiment has been framed.
Materials and Methods
Experimental site: The experiment was conducted at the B.C.K.V
research farm (C-Block, 2256' N Latitude, 8832' E Longitude and
9.75 m above sea level), Kalyani, West Bengal.
285
where PAR(o) is the portion of the incident PAR above the canopy,
T PAR is transmitted portion of the PAR through the canopy to
the soil surface (incident PAR value at the bottom of the rice
canopy) and R PAR(c) is reflected PAR from crop (reflected PAR
value at the uppermost layer of the rice canopy).
Statistical analysis: The total dry matter and LAI were analysed
and the results were given separately for two years with a twoyear pooled mean values. The radiation data could not be
statistically analysed. Impact of PAR interception during different
hours of a day on dry matter accumulation was computed through
regression analysis. The statistical calculation was done by SPSS
version 7.5 (SPSS 7.5, 1997, copyright by SPSS Inc., USA Base 7.5
Application guide).
Results and Discussion
Interception: The mean interception of PAR in rice canopy ranged
from 71.8 to 72.4% at the tillering stage in the first year, whereas, in
the second year, it ranged from 69.8 to 83.7% (Table 1). Interception
increased with the progress of growth because of increased LAI.
Flowering stage recorded maximum interception under all dates of
transplanting. Among the five different transplanting dates, the
8 th July planted crop recorded the maximum interception.
Interception reduced with the delay in transplanting, which might
be due to the low LAI under delayed planted crop.
Total dry matter production: The total dry matter accumulation
was maximum under D1 planting irrespective of phenophase and
year of experimentation. The two-year pooled mean values recorded
the similar trend. Dry matter accumulation significantly reduced
with the delay in transplanting. The reduction in dry matter
accumulations were 6.9, 9.0, 25.9 and 1.7%, respectively, for each
seven days delay during the span of 1st July and 29th July (Table
2). The interception at different time points significantly affected
the total biomass in rice crop. The interception at 7.30, 9.30 and
13.30 h significantly affected the biomass production. The
relationship was highly significant at 9.30 and 13.30 h under D1
planting (Fig. 1). Under D2 planting, the interception at 13.30 and
15.30 h was found to be highly significant. About 92% variation in
total biomass could be explained through the variation in
intercepted PAR at these two time points (Fig. 2). In case of D3
Table 1. Mean interception (%) of PAR by rice at the different phenophases under different dates of transplanting.
Mean interception of PAR (%)
Treatments
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
286
Tillering
PI
72.4
77.6
71.8
73.1
73.4
83.7
86.2
78.7
81.0
76.7
2007
Flower
emergence
86.4
88.0
86.0
85.3
85.6
100%
flowering
89.8
91.7
87.6
86.4
87.2
Mean
Tillering
PI
83.1
85.9
81.0
81.5
80.7
83.7
80.0
74.9
77.3
69.8
80.7
85.4
78.5
83.3
75.8
2008
Flower
emergence
85.0
88.9
84.3
87.8
87.4
100%
flowering
88.6
91.7
85.7
87.4
87.3
Mean
Year
mean
84.5
86.5
80.9
84.0
80.1
83.8
86.2
80.9
82.7
80.4
1500
1000
500
0
0
(7:30)
10
D1
2000
20
30
40
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
50
1500
1000
500
0
80
100
D1
2000
120
140
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
160
(9:30)
1500
1000
500
0
0
(11:30)
D1
2000
60
D1
2000
20
D1
2000
40
(13:30)
60
80
100 120
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
140
160
1500
1000
180
500
0
40
60
80
100
120
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
140
160
(15:30)
1500
1000
500
0
20
40
60
80
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
100
Figure 1. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points in D1 (1st July) transplanted crop
(averaged over phenophases and year).
2007
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
2008
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
Pooled
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
Tillering
Panicle
initiation
Flower
emergence
100%
Flowering
333.6
300.7
240.9
195.1
161.0
8.0
23.8
652.5
504.1
427.8
486.4
354.0
8.1
24.2
1329.6
1091.0
981.7
893.0
636.1
17.2
51.5
1557.3
1376.7
1131.6
784.9
852.3
14.4
43.2
283.3
249.2
227.1
217.1
209.6
8.9
26.8
671.7
713.8
617.2
492.8
303.7
17.9
53.8
1336.3
1138.6
1387.7
1002.3
783.1
13.8
41.4
1473.1
1443.4
1433.7
1116.7
1016.5
17.5
52.6
308.5
274.9
234.0
206.1
185.3
6.7
20.1
662.1
608.9
522.5
489.6
328.8
9.3
28.0
1332.9
1114.8
1184.7
947.6
709.6
10.6
31.8
1515.2
1410.0
1282.7
950.8
934.4
11.6
34.7
287
1500
1000
500
0
20
40
D2
2000
60
80
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
100
1000
500
0
120
D2
2000
140
160
180
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
200
2000
D2
220
(9:30)
1500
1000
500
0
20
(11:30)
1500
100
(7:30)
D2
2000
2000
40
D2
60
(13:30)
1500
140
80
100 120
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
160
180
1000
500
0
20
40
60
100
120
80
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
140
160
(15:30)
1000
0
40
60
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
20
80
100
D3
2000
(7:30)
Figure 2. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points in D2 (8th July) transplanted crop
(averaged over phenophases and year).
1500
1000
500
0
20
40
D3
2000
(9:30)
1500
1000
500
0
60
20
40
60
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
D3
1500
1000
500
0
100
(11:30)
2000
120
D3
2000
140
160
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
180
200
2000
D3
(13:30)
1500
80
1000
500
0
20
40
60
80
100
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
120
140
(15:30)
1500
1000
500
0
0
20
40
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
60
80
Figure 3. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points in D3 (15th July) transplanted
crop (averaged over phenophases and year).
288
(7:30)
200
0
1200
1000
800
600
400
20
40
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
D4
200
0
120
140
160
180
D4
(9:30)
200
0
0
(11:30)
100
1200
1000
800
600
400
60
D4
1200
1000
800
600
400
1200
20
D4
1000
800
600
400
60
100
40
80
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
D4
140
140
160
(13:30)
200
0
0
200
20
40
1500
120
60
80
100
120
(15:30)
1000
500
0
20
40
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
60
80
D5
800
600
(7:30)
400
200
0
20
40
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
D5
1500
(11:30)
500
0
100
D5
1500
(15:30)
120
140
160
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
180
D5
200
0
1500
60
40
80
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
20
D5
1000
100
120
(13:30)
500
0
40
200
(9:30)
1000
1200
1000
800
600
400
60
80
1200
1000
Figure 4. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points in D4 (22nd July) transplanted
crop (averaged over phenophases and year).
60
80
100
120
1000
500
0
0
40
20
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
60
Figure 5. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points in D5 (29th July) transplanted
crop (averaged over phenophases and year).
289
1500
1000
500
0
0
20
40
60
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
500
0
15:30
2000
1500
1000
500
0
50
150
100
200
1000
100
150
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
9:30
1500
50
2000
100
80
11:30
2000
7:30
2000
200
250
13:30
2000
1500
1000
500
0
50
100
150
200
1500
1000
500
0
0
20
40
60
Intercepted PAR (W m-2)
100
80
Figure 6. Impact of PAR interception on dry matter accumulation in rice at different time points (averaged over phenophases, dates
of transplanting and year).
2007
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
2008
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
Pooled
D1 (1st July)
D2 (8th July)
D3 (15th July)
D4 (22nd July)
D5 (29th July)
S.Em ()
LSD at 5%
290
Tillering
Panicle
initiation
Flower
emergence
100%
Flowering
4.2
3.7
3.2
3.3
2.9
0.11
0.33
6.5
6.1
5.6
5.2
4.8
0.10
0.31
7.8
6.7
6.9
6.8
5.6
0.19
0.58
8.7
8.0
8.0
7.7
7.6
0.13
0.39
6.8
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.2
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.9
3.4
0.11
0.34
6.3
5.9
6.2
5.2
5.1
0.51
1.53
8.6
8.6
8.2
7.9
7.9
0.22
0.65
8.0
8.0
8.1
7.8
7.9
0.15
0.46
6.7
6.5
6.5
6.2
6.1
4.0
3.6
3.3
3.6
3.1
0.09
0.26
6.4
6.0
5.9
5.2
4.9
0.24
0.73
8.2
7.7
7.5
7.3
6.8
0.17
0.52
8.4
8.0
8.1
7.8
7.7
0.09
0.26
6.8
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.6
Mean
92
90
88
86
84
82
80
D1
D2
95
10
10
90
85
80
0
4
6
Leaf area index (LAI)
95
D3
4
6
Leaf area index (LAI)
y = 0.1171x2 + 0.3806x + 77.673
R2 = 0.8529**
90
85
80
75
D4
84
4
6
Leaf area index (LAI)
10
82
80
78
76
0
100
4
6
Leaf area index (LAI)
10
D5
50
0
0
4
6
Leaf area index (LAI)
10
Acknowledgements
The first author acknowledges the financial help to the
Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for
providing INSPIRE Fellowship.
References
Mukhopadhya, D. and Sanyal, S. K. 2004. Complexation and release
isotherm of arsenic in arsenic-humic/fulvic equilibrium study. Aust. J.
Soil. Res. 42:815-824.
2
Das, D. K., Garai, T. K., Sarkar, S. and Sur, P. 2005. Interaction of
arsenic with zinc and organics in a rice cultivated field in India. The Sci.
World J. 5:449-456.
3
Yang, C. M. 1994. Response of rice yield in relation to solar radiation
and air temperature under soil water deficits. Chinese J. Agromet.
1(1):27-34.
4
Maruyama, A., Kuwagata, T., Ohba, K. and Maki, T. 2007. Dependence
of solar radiation transport in rice canopies on developmental stage. J.
Agric. Res. Quart. 41(1):39-45.
1
291
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Growth and visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in young Mentha piperita plants
Diocla Almeida Seabra Silva 1*, Mrio Lopes da Silva Jnior 1, Ismael de Jesus Matos Vigas 2*,
Allan Klynger da Silva Lobato 3, Vnia Silva de Melo 1, Snia Maria Arajo Botelho 1, George Rodrigues da
Silva 1, Joze Melisa Nunes de Freitas 1, Cndido Ferreira de Oliveira Neto 1, Milton Leite Alves da Cunha 4
and Ana Regina da Rocha Araujo 1
Instituto de Cincias Agrrias, Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia, Avenida Tancredo Neves, n 2501, Bairro: Montese, CEP.
66.077-830, Belm, Par, Brasil. Campus de Capanema, Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia, Par, Brasil. Ncleo de Pesquisa
Vegetal Bsica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia, Paragominas, Brasil. 4 Ministrio da Agricultura Pecuria e
Abastecimento, Par, Brasil. e-mail: dioclea@ibest.com.br, ismael.viegas@ufra.edu.br
Received 10 February 2014, accepted 21 September 2014.
Abstract
The characterization of the deficiency symptoms of macronutrients and micronutrients on the growth of young plants of Mentha piperita were
evaluated by the missing element technique. The experiment was carried out under greenhouse conditions at Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia.
The experimental design was completely randomized blocks with 12 treatments and four replicates and a total of 48 plots. The following treatments
were tested: (C) Complete (macro-and micro-nutrients) and omissions of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B ,Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn. The variables analyzed were:
height, stem diameter, leaf area, and dry matter production. The omissions of nutrients induced morphological changes translated into deficiency
symptoms. The omission of N and Ca showed the first visual symptoms of deficiency, followed by P, K, Mg, S, B, Cu, Fe and Mn=Zn; omissions
of N, P, K, Mg, S, B, Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn = compromise the plant growth. The most limiting nutrients for the plant growth based on the total dry
matter and foliar area was N, followed by Ca; boron is the micronutrient that most affects the plant growth.
Key words: Mentha piperita, mineral nutrition, nutritional deficiency.
Introduction
Mentha piperita L., a native plant to tropical regions, belongs to
the family Lamiaceae, perfectly adapted to the climatic conditions
of Amazon region. This plant has been used for decades by
industries in the manufacture of perfumes, essences and cosmetics.
It is common tourists visit the state of Para in search for those
fragrances to introduce it in other countries, making the demand
for mint great attraction, moving the trade and allowing opening
of new markets.
Despite having high economic importance because of the role
it plays in the manufacture of perfumes, peppermint plants also
have medicinal, antiseptic, cardiotonic, bleaching hair, collagen,
digestive, skin stiffener, stimulant and purgative properties 1, 2.
The availability of raw materials is not sufficient to meet local
demand so the products from the peppermint are made by artisans
to increase family income. M. piperita plays an important role in
the economy of the State of Para, precisely in the perfume and
cosmetic industries 3, which had increases of about 66.5% due to
a demand for aromatic products, and a strong industrial demand
of about 2,065 tons.
Despite the intense search for M. piperita, there is little
information about the nutritional limitations that the plant may
show. Blank et al. 4 report that there is little information in the
literature, with no specific work related to the best nutrient solution
that provides the best plant growth. As it is not known which are
the most nutrients that could limit M. piperita production, it has
been used hydroponics to obtain a better response in a short
292
Table 1. Chemical composition of nutrient solutions (mL-1) used in the experiment, according
to Hoagland and Arnon 8, modified.
Stock solution
NH4H2PO4
KNO3
Ca(NO3)2
MgSO4
KH2PO4
KCl
CaCl2
NH4NO3
NaNO3
K2SO4
MgCl2
Solution a*
Solution a - B
Solution a - Cu
Solution - Fe
Solution - Mn
Solution - Zn
Solution de -Fe EDTA**
Conc.
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
1M
C
2
6
4
1
1
1
-N
1
2
4
4
-
-P
8
4
1
2
-
-K
2
4
1
6
-
-Ca
2
6
1
4
-
-Mg
2
6
4
1
-
-S
2
6
4
1
-
-B
1
-
-Cu
1
-
-Fe
1
-
-Mn
1
-
-Zn
1
-
*Composition of solution: 2.86 g of H3BO3; 1.81 g of MnCl2.4H2O and 0.22 g of ZnSO4.7H2O; 0.88 g CuSO4.5H2O; 0.02 g of H2MO3;
**Composition of solution of Fe-EDTA, 26.1 g of Fe-EDTA; 286 ml of 1N KOH and 24.9 g of FeSO4.7H2O, per litre of solution.
Note: The omission of micronutrient treatments had similar composition to the full treatment and solution, with the exception of solutions -B (B omitted),
the -Cu (Cu omitted); a -Mn (Mn omitted) a -zinc (Zn omitted) and in the treatment- Fe omitted solution of Fe-EDTA.
from leaf dry weight and nutrient contents were calculated results
of accumulation of nutrients. Low concentration of nutrient
induced deficiency symptoms in peppermint tissues were
compared to control treatment (C) which contains appropriate
amount of nutrients to promote optimal plant growth.
Data analysis: Data were analyzed by computer software Stat for
analysis of variance and F-test, and Tukey test at 5% probability,
comparing means between treatments on each variable.
Results and Discussion
Visual symptoms and consequences of macronutrient
deficiencies:
Nitrogen: The first symptoms of nitrogen deficiency appeared 12
days after initiation of treatment. Initially, peppermint plants showed
intense purple colour in old leaves, turning light purple (Fig. 1). It
was also observed that the plants had reduced height (34.95 cm)
and foliage with small leaf area (113.13 cm2), and thin stem (0.30 cm
diameter), as compared to control treatment. Root system showed
long and fine roots. According to Taiz et al. 10, symptoms of nitrogen
deficiency first appear because it is the most important element
293
Table 2. Production of dry matter (g) in different organs of Mentha piperita plants in different treatments.
Treatment
Control (C)
N restriction
P restriction
K restriction
Ca restriction
Mg restriction
S restriction
B restriction
Cu restriction
Fe restriction
Mn restriction
Zn restriction
Root (g)
14.29 b
10.26 c
7.27 e
8.67 d
8.80 d
8.59 d
16.22 a
9.58 d
12.75 b
10.63 c
12.50 b
12.69 b
Means followed by the same letters in columns are not significantly different at 5% probability by Tukey test.
294
reduced foliage with small leaf area (130.74 cm2) thick stem (0.63
cm diameter), as compared to the complete treatment (Table 2).
These plants have been subject to bend, with fissures. There
were bending and cracking of the plant stems. Zinc deficiency
caused morphological changes in young leaves, characterized by
small and narrow leaves, sometimes distorted with short internodes
and chlorotic areas in between veins 23, which were observed in
this study with peppermint.
Deficiency effects on plant growth and dry matter production:
The largest reductions in plant growth were observed in plants
grown under omission of nitrogen, calcium, boron and manganese
as compared with the full treatment (Table 2). The omission of
manganese and zinc caused an increase in stem diameter compared
to the control treatment diameter was (0.43 cm). Batista et al. 11
and Lange et al. 26 observed a reduction in growth of soursop and
castor bean, with the omission of zinc and manganese. The smaller
leaf area were observed in plants under omission of copper, iron
and zinc. Leaf area was the most affected with the omission of
potassium, nitrogen and calcium with values of 59 cm2, 113.13 cm2
and 116.11 cm2. Similar results were shown by Fasabi 27 with
mallow plants, variety BR-01.
The values of total dry matter present in different organs of M.
piperita according to the treatments in Table 2 show that the total
dry matter regarding the omission of sulphur in young leaves
(12.40 g kg-1 of plant) and roots (16.22 g kg-1 of plant) was superior
to control treatment, except nitrogen and calcium that limited more
the production of dry matter in the plant, consistent with the results
of Silva Jnior et al. 25 and Freitas et al. 18.
Conclusions
Nitrogen and calcium are the first to express nutrient deficiency
symptoms, followed by phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
sulphur, boron, copper, iron and manganese = zinc. For omission
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulphur, boron,
copper, iron, manganese and zinc compromise the growth of M.
piperita inducing morphological changes with characteristic visual
symptoms of deficiencies of these nutrients. The most limiting
nutrient for growth of M. piperita based on total dry matter and
leaf area is nitrogen, followed by calcium, as well as the nutrient
that most affects the growth of M. piperita is boron. In relation to
stem, aerial part and total dry matter the omissions of nitrogen,
calcium, boron and copper were most limiting, and in the root the
omission of phosphorus and boron was the most outstanding.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to CAPES by the offered opportunity, to
Universidade Federal Rural da Amaznia and Embrapa Amaznia
Oriental for supports during the research.
References
David, E. F. S., Boaro, C. S. F. and Marques, M. O. M. 2006. Yield and
composition of essential oil of Mentha piperita L. grown in nutrient
solution with different levels of phosphorus. Revista Brasileira de
Plantas Medicinais, Botucatu, Brazil 5:163-188.
2
Valmorbida, J., Boaro C. S. F., Scavroni, J. and David, E. F. S. 2007.
Growth of Mentha piperita L., grown in nutrient solution with different
taxas of potassium. Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais. Botucatu
9(4):27-31.
1
295
296
Technology of Biodiesel, Braslia, DF. Brasilia: ABIPTI, 2007, p.16. Available in: http: //www.biodiesel.gov.br/docs/congresso2007/
coproduto/22.pdf.
23
Neves, O. S. C., S, J. R. and Chapman, J. G. 2004. Growth of visual
symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies umbuzeiros. Revista Brasileira
de Fruticultura 26(2):306-309.
24
Camargo, S. L., Muraoka, T., Fernandes, S. A. P. and Salvador, J. O.
2002. Nutritional diagnoses in Bertholletia excelsa plants. Revista
Agricultura Tropical 6(1):81-96.
25
Silva Jnior, M. L., Seabra, D.A., Melo, V. S., Santos, M. M. L. S. and
Santos, P. C. T. C. 2007. Growth, mineral composition and symptoms
of deficiencies in pariri grown under omission of macronutrients. Revista
de Cincias Agrrias 48:85-97.
26
Lange, A., Martinez, A. M., Singh, M. A. C. , Sorreano, M. C. M.,
Cabral, C. P. and Malavolta, E. 2005. Effect of micronutrient deficiency
in the nutritional status of castor bean cultivar Iris. Pesquisa
Agropecuria Brasileira 40(1):61-67.
27
Fasabi, J. A. V. 1996. Deficiencies of macro and micronutrients in plants
mallow (Urena lobata), BR-01 variety. Dissertation (MSc in Soils and
Plant Nutrition) - Faculdade de Cincias Agrrias do Par, Belm,
p.90.
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Abstract
This research aimed to (i) evaluate the interference of the water supply on photosynthetic pigments and to (ii) determine if there are changes in carbon
compounds of young Euterpe oleracea plants subjected to progressive water deficit. The experimental design was in factorial randomized entirely with
two water conditions (water deficit and control) and four evaluation points (0, 6, 12 and 18 days). The parameters evaluated were leaf relative water
content and hydrogen peroxide, chlorophylls and carotenoids, as well as total soluble carbohydrates, reducing carbohydrates, starch and sucrose. The
water deficit caused reduction in leaf relative water content and increase in levels of hydrogen peroxide, and it also provoked decrease in all
photosynthetic pigments, being the changes more intense and significant after 18 days. In relation to carbon metabolism, the water deficit induced
oscillation in levels of total soluble carbohydrates and reducing carbohydrates, as well as significant increases in starch during all evaluated points and
in sucrose until the 12th day. Therefore, this study reveals that progressive water deficit provoked reductions in chlorophylls and carotenoids, and
these modifications induced negative consequences on translocation and utilization of carbon compounds in young Euterpe oleracea plants.
Key words: Euterpe oleracea, water deficit, chlorophylls, sucrose, starch, carbon metabolism.
Introduction
Euterpe oleracea (Mart.) is a palm that grows in the Amazon
forest, and this plant has nutritional and economical significance
due to the commercialisation of energy drinks and the heart of
the palm, which is produced from the fruit and stem 1, 2. Regarding
its nutritional properties, the fruit contains higher amounts of
lipids and minerals such potassium, calcium, and magnesium 3, 4.
Additionally, a study conducted by Bobbio et al. 5 revealed that
the fruit is a source of anthocyanins. Brazil is the main producer
of E. oleracea and is a significant consumer and exporter of
products derived from this palm 6.
Water deficiency represents an abiotic stress and is considered
as one of the most important agricultural limitations due to its
negative effects on growth and development 7 and the
corresponding yield losses 8. Water supplies are essential in
several metabolic and physiological processes such as the
assimilation of nutrients 9, gas exchange 10, and translocation of
organic solutes 11.
The photosynthetic pigments are substances responsible for
the light absorption necessary for carrying out the
photosynthesis12, and the concentration can be modified by
several factors such as water deficit, light intensity and temperature
variation, in which combination or isolation can affect the molecule
integrity 13. The severe water deficiency normally promotes the
overproduction and consequently accumulation of reactive
oxygen species 14, which will cause damages in structures due to
oxidation of photosynthetic pigments, promoting decrease in
chlorophyll levels 15.
297
100
80
60
40
20
Control
Water deficit
Hydrogen peroxide
(nmol g-1 FM)
99
8
7
a
a
a
a
a
B
3
0
12
18
Time (days)
Chlorophyll b
(mg g-1 FM)
Chlorophyll a
(mg g-1 FM)
Total chlorophyll
(mg g-1 FM)
299
33
Control
Water deficit
30
27
27
24
21
18
15
24
18
15
a
a
12
12
a
9
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
21
C
b
b
a
a
a
a
9
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Reducing carbohydrates
(mg g-1 DM)
30
Sucrose
(mg g-1 DM)
33
0
0
12
18
12
18
Time (days)
Figure 3. Total soluble carbohydrates (A), reducing carbohydrates (B), starch (C), and sucrose
(D) in young Euterpe oleracea plants subjected to water deficit.
Same letters do not show significant differences at F test (P < 0.05) to each time. Squares represent the mean values of 5 repetitions, and
bars represent the standard deviations.
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33
301
302
WFL Publisher
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1, 3
Applied & Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology,
University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa. 2 Department of Chemistry, Ekiti State University, AdoEkiti, Ekiti State, PMB 5363, Nigeria. 3 Department of Microbiology, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State,
PMB 001, 23434, Nigeria. *e-mail: AAjayi@ufh.ac.za
1
Abstract
This study shows some nutritional values and metal components of health concern in fish sources such as mackerel (Titus) Scomber scombrus, shawa
Sardinella eba and kotwe Carangoides armatus meant for public consumption in Nigeria. The moisture content, ash content, crude fat, crude protein,
crude fibre, vitamin A and vitamin C were determined. Titus Scomber scombrus showed highest value of vitamin A (96.7 i.u), while kotwe recorded
relatively high value of vitamin C (0.60 mg/100 g) compared with other fish sources. Variations in the levels of some metal components can serve as
measure of pollution, especially the amount of lead (P) (1.09%) and iron (Fe) (2.0%) in Titus Scomber scombrus could be an indication of pollution
for this fish sources or possibly result of biomagnifications. The moisture and ash content of the sampled fish sources during the study ranged from
66.7% to 77.5% and 3.79% to 4.03%, respectively. Total bacterial count estimated for fish samples studied were 113 x 104 cfu/mL for Titus, 40 x 104
cfu/mL for Sardinella eba (shawa) while coliform count gave value of 9.5 x 103 cfu/mL and 9.65 x 104 cfu/mL for both fish sources, respectively.
Generally, this study shows that mackerel (Titus) Scomber scombrus has more nutritional quality than other two fish sources analyzed, that is,
shawa Sardinella eba and kotwe Carangoides armatus. Complementary to this, the level of microbial and chemical contaminants including heavy
metals such as lead and chromium that could be inimical to human health from these sources were determined. Thus, the data obtained during the
study, can serve as benchmark for environmental monitoring and aquaculture protection services in the country, Nigeria, and other parts of the world.
Key words: Aquaculture, assessment, environment, fishes, health benefits, microbiological quality, mineral composition, Nigeria, proximate analysis,
protection, public.
Introduction
Many aquatic organisms served as major food sources for people
in different parts of the world. Fish is an aquatic organism that
serves as a good protein and nutrient source for people in both
rural and urban areas of the world. Fish feed on nearly all types of
marine organisms from bacteria to crustaceans, whereby the
organisms reside in fishes as their home before other animals feed
on them in the food chain systems 1. In the context or this study
mackerel (Titus) Scomber scombrus, shawa (Sardinella eba) and
kotwe Carangoides armatus which is a longfin trevally 2, are three
major species of fish that are widely consumed in Nigeria. Naturally,
these sources of food supplement vary in their expenses based
on their nutritional quality assumed by people. Fishes need food
for growth, body maintenance and survival. The food supplies
available for fishes determine such important matters as
distribution, abundance, rate of growth, condition, movement,
fertility and even the taste of fish 3. Fishes play vital role as sources
of protein and some vitamins food supplements to human beings.
Thus it helps to protect the body immune system.
The microbiota of marine fish from temperate waters is usually
composed of Gram-negative psychrotrophic bacteria, whose
growth is possible at 0C and optimal at around 25C. The majority
belongs to the class of proteobacteria: Pseudomonas, Shewanella,
Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Vibrio, Moraxella, Psychrobacter,
303
mL). End point is the appearance of pink colour which persists for
a few min. The amount of dye consumed is equivalent to the
amount of ascorbic acid. The sample was extracted (2 g) in 4%
oxalic acid, made up to known volume (100 mL) and centrifuged.
Consequently, 5 mL of this supernant was obtained using a pipette
and 10 mL of 4% oxalic acid was added. It was then titrated against
the dye (v 2 mL) 15. Vitamin C was estimated as follows:
Vitamin A (I.U)
Vitamin C
(mg) content
0.40
0.60
0.50
96.7
65.0
56.1
Fish samples
A - Titus
B - Kotwe
C - Sardinella eba
Zn
0.48
0.35
0.5
Fe
1.09
1.07
0.65
Cu
0.02
0.25
0.19
Mn
0.13
0.15
0.22
Table 1. Moisture content, ash content, crude fat, crude protein and crude fibre values.
Sample
A- TitusB- Kotwe
C- Sardinella
eba
Wt of
crucible (g)
19.4832
19.2766
W1
Wt of crucible
+ sample (g)
21.6537
21.3117
W
Wt of
sample (g)
2.1705
2.0351
W2
crucible + sample
after drying (g)
20.2059
19.8440
W1-W2
Loss in
wt (g)
1.4478
1.4677
moisture
(%)
66.7
72.1
Ash content
(%)
3.79
4.35
18.4614
20.6265
2.1615
18.9475
1.6790
77.5
4.03
Crude
fat
16.2
13.4
6.5
Crude
protein (%)
18.90
16.63
Crude
fibre
0
0
14.88
305
Table 4. Total bacterial count of fish samples on solid culture medium (cfu/mL).
Sample
Titus - Scomber scombrus
Sardinella eba
Coliform count
9.5 x 103
9.65 x 104
Anaerobic count
17 x 103
1.07 x 104
306
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics, Federal University of Technology, P. M. B. 704, Akure, Nigeria.
2
Department of Economics, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria. 3Ekiti State
College of Education, Directorate of External Degree Programme, Ikere, Ekiti, Nigeria. *e-mail: akinrinola01@yahoo.com
1
Abstract
This study analyses the impact of micro-credit and training on efficiency of small-scale entrepreneurs, using the National Directorate of Employment
(NDE) programme as a case study. National Directorate of Employment (NDE) has been found to be functioning effectively in its training services.
However, in the area of credit provision and utilization, there is no empirical evidence to support its efficiency. In order to evaluate the link between
the loan/training programmes of the Directorate and the level of efficiency of micro-entrepreneurs in the state, we estimate technical efficiencies and
identify significant policy variables influencing efficiency of selected micro enterprises, using the stochastic frontier production function. Results
indicate that there are intra and inter group variations in the efficiency of bakers, furniture makers and burnt-brick makers, showing that there is
possibility of improving the level efficiency of these entrepreneurs. The most significant determinants of technical efficiencies of bakers, furniture
makers and burnt-brick makers are the level of education, business experience, age of operators, credit access, training experience and level of working
capital and initial capital outlay.
Key words: Micro credit, small scale, entrepreneurs, employment, loan.
Introduction
The dynamic role of small and micro enterprises as an engine for
industrial growth and development of any nation cannot be over
stressed. These enterprises create employments and contribute
significantly to output growth of any nation of the world, of which
Nigeria is a part. Any nation that neglects the small/micro enterprise
sector will always have unemployment problem, together with its
attendant vices and remain a dependent economy. It is in
recognition of this that successive governments have evolved
policies, programmes to develop the small and micro enterprises.
Employment generation in the small/micro-business is hinged
on adequacy of investment outlay and working capital. Such
capital is difficult to raise in a low-income and poverty stricken
society. Hence, loan advancement in such circumstance can assist
micro entrepreneur to invest in income and employment generating
activities 7.
The formal credit institutions have not been supportive in
meeting credit need of self-employed persons due to their stringent
loan terms and conditions, and cumbersome loan application
procedures. These formal institutional arrangements have
constituted a major barrier to the growth of small scale and since
they cannot meet the knife-edge conditions, they are often
considered not credit-worthy 1. Cooperative societies have helped
in meeting the credit need of the small/micro business owner in
Nigeria, but the extent of their support cannot satisfy the credit
demand of the small-scale entrepreneur due to their limited
307
(1)
(2)
= u / (u + v )
2
(3)
Bakers
0.2009*
(0.0494)
0.2311*
(0.0321)
0.1757
(0.2751)
5.3432*
(2.0532)
0.3724*
(0.0545)
0.0773
-2.8694
1.75*
Furniture
makers
0.3691
(0.1143)
0.2098*
(0.0795)
0.3455**
(0.1345)
23.543*
(4.2412)
0.4042*
(0.1678)
123.032
-27.52
9.34*
Bunt-brick
makers
0.2179**
(0.0974)
0.8485**
(0.4012)
0.2179
(0.1556)
-28.1342*
(7.0052)
0.4348*
(0.1321)
85.345
31.75
11.34*
309
Bakers
No of firms
2
5
7
8
11
24
65
Mean
S.D.
Min
Max
(%)
3
8
11
12
17
37
100
62.37%
10.25
23.45%
86.28%
Furniture
No of firms
1
2
15
19
13
11
1
65
Mean
S.D.
Min
Max
(%)
2
3
23
29
20
17
2
100
78.2%
14.11
2.18%
88.34%
Burnt-brick makers
No of firms
10
10
15
17
13
65
Mean
S.D.
Min
Max
Bakers
-0.1123*
(0.0351)
0.2846*
(0.1124)
0.0312
(0.1712)
0.5816*
(0.1326)
0.0528*
(0.1999)
0.4872**
(0.0041)
0.0077***
(0.0041)
0.7723
(0.2467)
79.3%
83.31*
Funiture
makers
-0.3215*
(0.0542)
0.1111*
(0.0296)
0.3769**
(0.1896)
0.4215
(0.5896)
0.0746*
(0.0245)
0.6734**
(0.0091)
0.0162***
(0.0091)
0.5539
(0.2356)
82.3%
77.5*
15
15
23
26
20
100
73.23%
9.24%
44.15%
87.45%
Conclusions
In the study, we have estimated the technical efficiency and
significant policy variables influencing the technical efficiencies
of bakers, furniture makers and burnt-brick makers in Ondo state.
Our findings show that there exist some level of inter and intra
group variations of technical efficiencies. This signals that there
is room for improvement of technical efficiencies of bakers, furniture
makers and burnt-brick makers in Ondo state. The significant
determinants of technical efficiencies of bakers, furniture makers
and burnt-brick makers were identified as age of operator, business
experience, level of education, training experience, credit access,
working capital and initial capital outlay. Implicit in these findings
is that well structured entrepreneurship training programmes
complemented with easy credit access can facilitate the desired
improvement in the efficiencies of small-scale business people in
the state.
Burnt-brick
makers
-0.2114*
(0.0475)
0.0159*
(0.0045)
0.4012*
(0.1996)
0.0115
(0.1150)
0.0356*
(0.0102)
0.1678**
(0.2848)
0.1884
(0.2848)
0.4972
(0.1896)
69.4%
25.7*
Notes: The figures in paretheses are the standard errors, b. * means that statistic are significant
at 1% level of significance, c. ** means that statistic are significance at 5% level of
significance, d. *** means that statistic are significance at 10% level of significance.
(%)
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank the management of National Directorate of
Employment for making their data available for this study, Also,
on record is the unalloyed cooperation of our enumerators and
their undaunted spirit in spite of numerous challenges during
data collection. We cannot but appreciate the spirited efforts of
chairperson of trade associations who provided us with list of
their members and guided us on the operation of their union. We
say a big thank you all.
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Sustainable Technology 4(2):75-96.
5
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and access for the poor. The World Bank Annual Conference on
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1
311
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Abstract
Plant adaptation, in response to biotic/abiotic stress, may take place by adjusting nutrient requirements, metabolic enzymes, cellular membrane
composition or an increase/decrease of metabolites such as amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc. The present study focused on the adjustment of
antioxidant defenses in Conocarpus lancifolius, subjected to four abiotic oxidative stresses including temperature shock, salinity, water deficit and
polyethylene glycol - 800. C. lancifolius exposure to elevated temperature at 40C significantly increased the antioxidant defenses while the plant
resistance to oxidative stress decreased by other abiotic stressors. This was confirmed by measuring the antioxidant capacity of C. lancifolius by
employing four different assays with two distinctive mechanisms. These assays confirmed that C. lancifolius developed thermo tolerance on
exposure to increased temperature by generating antioxidant defenses against free radicals. This may be an important factor that contributes to
adaptation of C. lancifolius to harsh desert environment. In addition, C. lancifolius showed high accumulation of potassium and boron ions to keep
its osmotic balance that could help it survive under severe abiotic stress.
Key words: Abiotic stress, Conocarpus lancifolius, heat-shock, oxidative stress.
Introduction
Drought, temperature and salinity are common modifiers that
introduce stress tolerance in plants 1-3. These abiotic pressures
cause oxidative stress (OS) generated through reactive oxygen
species (ROS) 4. It is recognized that radical damaging species are
generated within minutes in response to salt stress 5 initiating
ROS in mitochondria or chloroplast affecting multiple signaling
pathways in plants 6. Thus, formation of ROS may initiate a chain
reaction challenging membrane integrity and making them leaky
with pathological consequences 7-10. The rapid generation of ROS
such as a damaging hydroxyl radical (HO) and others may be a
result of salt stress imposed by K+ ion efflux 11-13. The resulting
ion imbalance and the subsequent oxidative burst may adversely
affect growth and photosynthetic apparatus in plants by
compromising potassium channels that are sensitive to ROS thus
affecting cellular transport and energy metabolism 13-15. In plants,
ROS may also be provoked with a variety of stressors including
heat shock 16, 17 and the damage caused by ROS may be alleviated
by a subtle balance and accumulation of natural antioxidants 18.
Many preventive antioxidant defenses such as phenols,
flavonoids, tocopherols, ascorbate, reduced glutathione etc. are
naturally present or may be induced in plants protecting
biosystems from ROS 19, 20. In addition, antioxidant enzymes such
as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR) and
ascorbate peroxidase (APX) play an important role in plant
defenses against ROS 21.
Numerous methods have been described for the measurement
of antioxidant activity in plants 22, 23. Diverse types of free radicals
are generated by different methods of measurement with a range
of end-points. This dictates to accumulate and compare data
generated by idiosyncratic methods to reach a consistent
312
0.20
0.18
0.16
AU
0.14
16
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
15
12
0.04
78
33 4
0.02
10 11 12
14
13
0.00
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Minutes
Figure 1. HPLC separation of free amino acids in Conocarpus lancifolius on WATERS - PicoTag Column.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
313
0.60
0.55
0.50
10
20
40
30
56
6.2
53
6.0
5.8
50
5.6
47
5.4
44
5.2
0
60
50
10
20
EC50 Day-2
18
EC50
40
10
20
0
50
50
50
-6
10
l
6
2
4
0
t r o E C 50 ay- E C 50 ay- E C 50 ay- E C 5
on
D
D
D
Day-6
EC50 Day-4
30
16
14
20
12
10
10
6
10
EC
20
10
60
EC 50 Day-6
50
50
30
00
EC50
20
Reduction ABTS %
60
-4
40
Day-4
Day-2
30
80
-2
30
40
50
20
PEG %
PEG %
ol
30
6.4
20
30
40
EC50
EC50 Day-6
Day-6
Reduction ABTS %
Day-4
Day-4
EC50 Day-4
Day-6
Day-2
Day-2
Reduction DPPH %
0.65
Reduction DPPH %
Day-6
Day-6
Day-4
EC50 Day-2
EC50
Day-2
Day-4
Day-2
50 60
PEG %
(E) Effect of PEG on % Reduction of ABTS
Co
nt
ro
l
%
10
PE
G
%
30
PE
G
%
60
PE
G
Dr
ou
gh
PEG %
(F) Effect pf PEG on Cuparac value
AsAE
RSA Inhibition
EC50
%Increase %Decrease
%Decrease
16.0
15.30
17.7
35.0
25.80
39.0
47.0
55.00
52.0
64.0
61.00
71.7
24.4
22.44
25.7
59.3
55.75
65.7
19.0
17.50
20.6
18.0
12.80
17.3
QrE
%Decrease
32.20
60.70
50.00
69.00
48.00
63.00
35.00
16.70
315
Day-4
EC 50 Day-2
Day-2
Day-6
EC 50 Day-4
EC 50 Day-6
Day-6
65
0.62
6.0
0.58
0.56
60
5.5
EC50
Reduction DPPH %
0.60
55
5.0
50
0.54
4.5
4
6
8
NaCl %
(A) Effect of salt on reduction potential
2
Day-2
Day-4
EC 50 Day-2
10
10
Day-6
45
40
30
10
EC50
35
15
25
20
15
4
10
NaCl %
(C) Effect of salt on % reduction of ABTS and EC50 values
20
Reduction ABTS %
6
NaCl %
EC 50 Day-4
25
EC 50 Day-6
Cl
Cl
Cl
Na
Na
Na
%
%
%
2
6
10
Salt concentration
(D) Effect of salt on Cuprac values
Co
nt
ro
Day-4
EC 50 Day-2
Day-4
Day-6
0.68
0.66
0.64
70
5.0
65
EC50
0.70
4.5
60
0.62
55
20
30
Temperature C
4.0
40
20
EC 50 Day-2
10
21
19
22
18
20
17
18
16
30
35
Temperature C
(B) ABTS % reduction Vs temperature
40
EC50
20
25
40
Day-6
24
20
30
35
Temperature C
EC 50 Day-4
EC 50 Day-6
26
25
Day-2
Reduction ABTS %
5.5
EC 50 Day-6
0.72
Reduction DPPH %
Day-2
Day-6
EC 50 Day-4
6
4
2
0
Co
nt
ro
C
C
20
30
Temperature
40
317
318
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37
319
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Abstract
In recent years, phytoremediation of polluted soil and water resource have gained growing interest. This study address the issue of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn,
Cd and Pb metals accumulation in Fagonia indica and Cenchrus ciliaris native plant species in the context of their possible use for the sanitation of
wastewater of Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia. Represented soil and plant samples were analysed for their total heavy metal concentrations. The results
indicated that, Cr and Zn are the most abundant heavy metals in soil samples and the total concentrations of Cd and Pb in soil exceed the average values
proposed for common soil. The concentrations of Cr, Zn and Pb metals increased with soil depth, while Ni, Cu and Cd concentrations did not show
a systematic pattern. The results indicated that enrichment factor values ranged from 1 to 5. The enrichment factor values for Cr, Ni and Cu elements
fall into the normal range while medium enrichments of soil with Zn, Pb and Cd. The accumulation coefficients of the studied heavy metals in the
roots of Fagonia indica and Cenchrus ciliaris plants ranged from 0.71-7.50 and 0.31-2.30, respectively. The order of accumulation coefficients in the
roots of of Fagonia indica and Cenchrus ciliaris as follows: Ni > Cu > Zn > Cr > Cd > Fe and Cd > Ni > Cu > Zn > Fe > Cr, respectively. The
translocation factors varied between the two plant species and highest for Ni and Cu in both Fagonia indica and Cenchrus ciliaris plants. The highest
concentrations were found in roots of Fagonia indica, with 75 mg kg-1 Ni and 65 mg kg-1 Cr.
Key words: Heavy metals, accumulation capacity, Fagonia indica, Cenchrus ciliaris.
Introduction
Industrialized activities in recent decades resulted in aggravation
of a lot of environmental problems, especially contamination with
heavy metals. The problem is that these heavy metals when
available in higher concentrations will be toxic to humans and
other organisms 1. In addition, metals may seep into the
groundwater and surface water, making them absorbed by the
plant, and thus enters the food chain in a manner directly or
indirectly. Heavy metals are becoming increasingly prevalent in
soil environments as a result of wastewater irrigation, sludge
application, solid waste disposal, automobiles exhaust and
industrial activities 2, 3. Heavy metals are highly toxic elements
that can concentrate and accumulate in live tissues. Lead, Cu and
especially Cd can become a sanitary and ecological threat to
drinking water resources, even at very low concentrations. Also,
Cd and Zn are common industrial pollutants. Both Cd and Zn are
harmful to plant at relatively low concentrations 4. Thus, clean
alternatives must be developed in order to remove heavy metals
from effluents 5.
In Saudi Arabia, which is facing freshwater shortage, sewage
water and industrial effluents are useful water sources that are
commonly used for agricultural production. The domestic
wastewater and industrial effluents are biologically treated and
subsequently used for irrigation, however, the wastewater contains
substantial amount of nutrients and organic and inorganic
pollutants, which are creating problems for the farming sector 6.
Phytoremediation is a method of environmental treatment that
320
TF =
Metal
AC =
Metal
Metal
shoot
roots
shoot
soil
Table 1. Soil characteristics of the surrounding area of industrial wastewater of Riyadh city (n = 4).
CaCO3%
15.2
EC
dS m-1
6.30
CO30
pH
7.70
Table 2. Evolution of total heavy metal concentrations and enrichment factors for Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd and
Pb in soil.
Metal
type
Cr
Ni
Cu
Zn
Cd
Pb
Enrichment
factor (EF)
1
1
1
2
4
3
321
KSA Standard
0.02
0.01
0.20
2.0
1.00
-
USEPA 22
5.0
0.01
0.10
0.20
5.0
2.00
0.05
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Fagonia indica
Roots
Shoots
Cr
Ni
Cu
Heavy metal
Zn
Cd
Cenchrus ciliaris
30
Heavy metal concentrations
(mg kg-1) dry weight
Roots
25
Shoots
20
15
10
5
0
Cr
Ni
Cu
Zn
Cd
Heavy metal
AF = Heavy metals in plant tissues (mg kg-1)/total heavy metal content in soil (mg kg-1); All data
are means of 4 replications. ND = not detected.
Conclusions
This study was conducted to screen Fagonia indica and Cenchrus
ciliaris plant species growing on a contaminated site for their
potential for heavy metal accumulation. In plant species, heavy
metal translocation into shoots appears to be very restricted.
Therefore harvesting plants will not be an effective source of
metals removal in this site. However, plants with low shoot
accumulation should be used in order to stabilize the heavy metals
and reducing the metals dispersion through grazing animals.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank College of Food and Agricultural Research
Center and Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia, for supporting this work.
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Al-Farraj, A., Al-Sewailem, M., Aly, A., Al-Wabel, M. and El-Maghraby,
3
323
324
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UFPR, Department of Engineering and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Paran (Palotina Sector), Pioneiro R. Street,
2153, Jd Dallas, Palotina (85950-000), Pr, Brazil. 2UNIOESTE University of Western Paran, 3 Agricultural Engineer,
4
Environmental Engineer. e-mail: jdieter@ufpr.br, silvio.sampaio@unioeste.br, vogelgisa@hotmail.com,
marcio.vilasboas@unioeste.br, epfrigo@gmail.com, professor.alvaro.mari@gmail.com
Abstract
This trial aimed at evaluating the performance of a lateral move type sprinkler irrigation system. Data collection was obtained according to ABNT and
the precipitation assay was carried out at relay speeds of 100, 80, 60 and 40%, collectors were distributed in 4.5 m distance and arranged in three rows
separated by 10 m between rows. It was verified that the mobile showed good performance at all speeds. The best uniformity coefficients, CUC
(88.54%) and CUD (80.79%) were for 60% speed, however, the irrigation suitability was lowest (26.34%).
Key words: Water resources, uniformity, efficiency.
Introduction
Farmers have sought several techniques of yield management in
order to find a high yield; including irrigation systems, which
were chosen in accordance with the characteristics of soil, climate,
topography and crops to be irrigated 12, 19, availability, energy
cost 15 and economic feasibility of each irrigation system 10.
Irrigation is not only to apply water without control or planning,
but it aims at applying the correct water amount at the right time,
especially with uniformity during the irrigation process 12, 13, 26.
Thus, in order to achieve water optimization in agriculture, it is
important to frequently evaluate the performance of installed
irrigation system, using some parameters that express and quantify
the operation quality. The water distribution uniformity coefficient
is often used as an indicator of problems concerning irrigation
distribution 4.
Christiansen 7 was the first researcher to study the uniformity
of spray distribution and to quantify it by using a statistical index
called as Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUC), which uses
the average absolute deviation to express water depth dispersion.
Criddle et al. 8 have already proposed a distribution uniformity
coefficient (CUD), which relates the fourth part of the total irrigated
area that receives less water, with the applied average depth. In
this case, the whole area receives at least the required real water
depth and the CUD low value indicates excessive loss by leaching.
In high economic yield crops, besides the fact that water makes
part of yield cost, the sprinkler irrigation should show high
distribution uniformity.
According to Merriam and Keller 17, in crops with shallow root
systems, the CUD should be greater than 80%, while CUC should
be above 88%. In crops with an average root system, CUD should
range from 70 to 80%, while CUC ranges from 80 to 88%. In crops
with a deep root system, the distribution uniformity may vary
from 50 to 70% and CUC from 70 to 80%.
325
Vi VMA
CUC = 100 1 i =1 n
Vi
i =1
(1)
VMA =
V
i =1
(2)
lq
(3)
Lm
CUD (%)
<70
70-74
75-81
>82
Classification
Bad
Regular
Good
Very good
Parameters
DP
WDE
WDD
A
0
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0
0
6
5
4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Distance between the collectors (m)
DP
WDE
WDD
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Distance between the collectors (m)
4
3
DP
WDE
WDD
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Distance between the collectors (m)
25
100
2
3
4
IS
WDE
WDD
25
B
Irrigated area (%)
50
75
100
1
2
3
4
IS
WDE
WDD
5
6
IS
WDE
WDD
100
DP
WDE
WDD
25
1
2
25
IS
WDE
WDD
C
Irrigated area (%)
50
75
100
D
3
4
5
6
The best CUC ratings and values were found for speeds at 60%
(CUC = 88.54%) and 40% (CUC = 85.30%), so they were rated as
good. CUD values for the three speeds that were less than
100% showed a good (<70%) rating. At 100% speed, CUD was
rated as bad, so, it did not meet the minimum acceptable levels
by ABNT 2. Sandri et al. 24 have worked with sixteen central pivots
and observed that four of them showed CUD answers lower than
70%. Cainelli et al. 5 recorded that average CUD answers were
greater than 80%, while, Folegatti et al. 12 studied the performance
of a large central pivot with low pressure and obtained 85.9%
values for CUD.
If it is considered the use of the moving side
Table 3. Wind speed (Ws), water depth variation of the experiment in relation to
in crops of high commercial value, the results at
water depth design (WDD), Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUC),
all speeds are not feasible because all CUC
coefficient uniformity distribution (CUD) and classification according to
values were lower than 90% 4. In extensive crops
NBR 14244 2.
and average root system, the relay speeds at
Speeds (%) Ws (m s-1) DP (%) CUC (%) Classification CUD (%) Classification
60% and 40% showed an appropriate CUC (85%
100
1.80
6.06
78.57
Bad
65.08
Bad
to 90%). During the application of deep root
80
0.80
8.96
84.32
Regular
76.23
Good
crop system, the relay speed at 80% showed
60
0.90
-7.01
88.54
Good
80.79
Good
appropriate levels (80% to 85%). The
40
1.30
5.78
85.30
Good
75.66
Good
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
327
328
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan. 2 Faculty of Agriculture,
Tottori University, Tottori 680-8553, Japan. 3 Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, 1060
Nishikawatsu, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan. 4 National Water Research Center (WMRI), Delta Barrage NWRC Building,
13621/5, Egypt. e-mail: abdo_khatter@yahoo.com, yoshikita1949@gmail.com, shimizu@muses.tottori-u.ac.jp,
som-hiroaki@life.shimane-u.ac.jp, waleed-hassan@live.com
1
Abstract
In Egypt, the reuse of agricultural drainage water provides an integral supplement to the fresh water supply. Government pumping stations (official)
and farmers small diesel pumps (unofficial) lift water up from drainage canals and direct it back into the irrigation canals for reuse in agriculture,
thereby increasing the countrys available water resources by 12.6%. However, as water passes through the soil and drainage network, it sorbs salts,
agricultural chemicals and other pollutants, leading to differences in the quality of drainage and irrigation water. Therefore, mixing the two water types
deteriorates the overall quality. The common practice in Egypt is to mix drainage into fresh water up to the point, where the salinity of the mixed water
approach 1000 mg L-1. Some canals in the Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate have deficits of fresh water in some months. Therefore, agricultural drainage
channeled back in culverts connect the canal ends with the main drain (Bhr Nashrat) to provide supplemental water. However, this return is not
controlled and the flows are based only on differences in the hydraulic head. Current study evaluated the efficiency of using backflow to supplement
the fresh water. Water supply ratio (WSR) indicator was employed in the analysis within two water supply conditions: (1) Fresh water supply only
and (2) Fresh water supply plus backflow. During the summer 2008, WSR showed an average value of 0.93 and adding the backflow increased it to
1.27. During the following winter, WSR showed an average value of 1.50 and adding the backflow increased it to 1.82. Salinity measurements of water
were taken during the study period at four locations - head, middle, tail and drain. Salinity significantly increased toward the end of the canals.
Excessive backflow is the most serious constraint. The effect of backflow on the salinity was calculated and improved salinity values were obtained
by regulating the backflow. During the summer, backflow significantly deteriorated water quality, but only part of this backflow was actually required
in June and July, just to make up the shortage and not to exceed the requirements. During the following winter, fresh water availability was generally
sufficient. However, backflow still occurred, leading to unnecessary deterioration of the water quality. If backflow is controlled according to the actual
requirements, the water quality would be improved. An improvement in water salinity of over 30% was realised in June and July and by 100% in
May, August, September and all winter months.
Key words: Agricultural drainage reuse, water quality, non-conventional water, irrigation management, water supply indicator, Nile Delta.
Introduction
Egypt water resources: Egypt has a negative water balance. This
negative water balance arises from the use of non-conventional
water resources, which represent 21.3% more water than is
available as fresh water. Annual fresh water amounts to 59.6 billion
cubic metres (bcm) and is derived from Nile river (56.8 bcm), rainfall
along the Mediterranean coast (1.8 bcm) and the non-renewable
Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (1 bcm) 1. Egyptians use 72.3 bcm each
year, where 12.7 bcm represents the negative water balance arising
from agricultural drainage reuse (7.5 bcm), municipal wastewater
reuse (2.9 bcm) and renewable groundwater extraction (2.3 bcm) 2.
Current study focused on reuse of agricultural drainage water,
which represents 12.6% of Egypts annual supply. Egyptians use
Nile water multiple times on its journey through the country
towards the tail end of the system. The main drains discharge a
total of approximately 12.7 bcm of water per year, either directly
into the Mediterranean Sea or into the coastal lakes of Mariut,
Edku, Burullus and Manzala 3. Egyptians do not consider drainage
water as waste, but as a resource in the face of water scarcity.
329
Lake Burullus
Mediterranean Sea
Kafr
El-Sheikh
Gaza
Meet
Yazeed
Cairo
El-Masharka canal
r
ive
eR
Nil
Libya
M
ee
tY
az
ee
d
Eliwa Canal
Red
Sea
Aswan
High
Dam
Ca
na
l
100
200
N
Sudan
Road
Saafan Canal
Drain
0
N
km
Culverts
Head regulatiors
Culvert
10
Canal
331
Season
Summer
Saafan
Winter
Summer
Eliwa
Winter
Summer
El-Masharka
Winter
Flow status
Submerged
Submerged
Submerged
Submerged
Free flow
Free flow
Equation
y=0.91 GO+0.449
y=2.2143 GO0.441
y=3.1676 GO+0.1074
y=1.4768 GO+0.3322
y=0.0863e1.521GO
y=0.0228e2.3607GO
R2
0.72*
0.79*
0.73*
0.83*
0.76*
0.78*
HL = hen + hf + hex
(1)
y=Q h1, where Q=Discharge (m3/s), h=Difference in the hydraulic head (m), e = 2.72, GO=Gate
opening (m) and R2=Coefficient of determination (*: Significant at P<0.05).
hf = L
Qn
AR2/3
(2)
2.5
Qh-0.5
2
1.5
1
+ 0.1074
yy=3.1676*GO
= 3.1676*
GO + 0.1074
R =0.7347
R = 0.7347
2
0.5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Gate opening (m)
0.8
(3)
Summer
2008
Winter
2008-2009
Crops
(%)
Rice
Cotton
Maize
Other
Total
Area (ha)
Wheat
Alfalfa
Sugar beet
Other
Total
Area (ha)
Saafan
Canal
55
33
5
7
100
661.5
38
32
23
7
100
661.5
Eliwa
Canal
57
36
6
1
100
656.5
37
28
29
6
100
656.5
El-Masharka
Canal
58
35
5
2
100
628.7
34
32
26
8
100
628.7
QD
QR
(4)
where fws is the fresh water supply (m3) and QR is the total irrigation
water requirements for the area served (m3). A value of Percent of
unutilised backflow = 100% shows that enough water is being
supplied to meet requirement, a value of Percent of unutilized
backflow>100% shows that backflow exceeds the shortage
occurring.
When 100% of the backflow was unutilised, we considered the
improved salinity values along the canal are equal to the first
salinity value measured at the entrance of the canal. When no
backflow occurred, we considered the improved salinity values
exactly the same as the actual measurements. When part of the
backflow were utilised, we calculated improved salinity values
based on the utilised backflow using the following equation:
Improved salinity = Actual salinity % Percent of unutilised backflow (6)
The accuracy of these estimates is a matter of debate among
international water experts, but they provide at least some
indication of the improved salinity values.
Salinity: Salinity is a measure of the concentration of salts in
water. Excessive salinity adversely affects crop production and
yields specially for a number of crops such as most vegetables,
maize, alfalfa, flax and a number of fruit trees 1. Therefore, Egypt
must reuse agriculture drainage more sensitively and accurately.
Salinity measurement data was obtained during the study period
from the WMRI of the NWRC. As mentioned before, these
measurements were made once a month at four locations (head,
middle, tail and drain) and are shown in Fig. 3. These values were
evaluated against the performance standards proposed in
guidelines by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
Salinity of up to 450 mg L-1 in irrigation water will not cause any
problems, 450-2,000 mg L-1 may cause slight to moderate problems
and over 2,000 mg L-1 will cause severe problems for use in irrigation 27.
Aug. 2008
1714
2290
1648
1928
1690
464
252
591
conservation measure due to high water
Nov. 2008
663
387
344
598
consumption by paddy rice 28). Stricter monitoring
Dec. 2008
370
204
294
365
of farmers and more effective crop management
Jan. 2009
441
379
498
416
Feb. 2009
561
633
683
866
1017
1011
1117
902
494
sugar
beet, collectively accounting for 94% of the
Total
8511
10 394 4930
8195
4482
3522
3576
1970
Unutilised backflow and improved salinity values: Unutilised
backflow was used to calculate the improved salinity values and
to check the effect of regulating the backflow on improving the
salinity. Unutilised backflow was calculated by the following
equation:
333
Table 4. Fresh water supply, backflow and requirements during the summer 2008 and the following winter.
Season
Summer
2008
Winter
20082009
Month
Fresh
water
supply
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Total
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
Total
1681
1538
1654
1766
1068
7707
870
1199
1086
1086
919
942
1051
7155
Saafan Canal
Fresh
water
Water
supply +
requirement
Backflow
(m3 ha-1)
2209
1602
2180
1970
2354
2035
1766
1804
1068
973
9577
8384
1162
551
1546
583
1119
277
1296
417
1162
564
1394
830
1132
774
8811
3996
El-Mashaka
1546
1394
1564
1693
1255
7451
809
890
803
838
641
735
1038
5755
Eliwa Canal
Fresh
Water
water
requirement
supply +
Backflow
(m3 ha-1)
2443
1492
2173
1863
2544
1913
1669
1932
907
1328
10 419
7843
521
828
906
363
268
803
419
905
575
641
892
893
825
1290
3862
6265
Fresh
water
supply
1499
1324
1491
1737
1175
7225
706
722
603
576
627
754
580
4568
El-Masharka Canal
Fresh
water
Water
supply +
requirement
Backflow
(m3 ha-1)
2340
1520
2136
1853
2224
1900
2121
1656
1486
768
10 306
7697
734
486
840
340
989
254
929
381
832
580
1032
901
811
817
6167
3759
1500
1000
500
0
1500
Eliwa
EC (mg L-1)
Fresh
water
supply
1000
500
0
Saafan
1500
1000
500
Nov-08
Dec-08
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Oct-08
Jan-09
Feb-09
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Sep-08
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Aug-08
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
July-08
Summer 2008
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Jun-08
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
May-08
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Head
Mid
Tail
Drain
Mar-09
Apr-09
Winter 2008
Figure 3. Actual water salinity and those based on utilised backflow (mg L-1) during the summer of 2008 and the winter of 20082009.
summer months, when pressure on water supplies Table 5. WSR values during the summer of 2008 and the following winter.
is most intense 32. Rice was considered the most
Saafan Canal
Eliwa Canal
El-Masharka Canal
Month
WSR
WSR
WSR
WSR
WSR
WSR
water-intensive crop in the study area and the Season
(cond.
1)
(cond.
2)
(cond.
1)
(cond.
2)
(cond.
1)
(cond.
2)
higher water requirements occurred in June and
1.04
1.64
0.99
1.54
May
1.05
1.38
July as shown in Table 3.
June
0.78
1.11
0.75
1.17
0.71
1.15
During the summer season, if only the fresh Summer
July
0.81
1.16
0.82
1.33
0.78
1.17
water supply was used, water excess occurred 2008
Aug.
0.98
0.98
1.01
1.16
1.05
1.28
Sept.
1.10
1.10
1.38
1.46
1.53
1.93
in September and deficiency occurred in June
Average
0.92
1.14
0.95
1.33
0.94
1.34
and July. The additional water supplied by
1.55
1.59
1.45
1.51
Oct.
1.58
2.11
backflow, occurring at all months, boosted the
Nov.
2.06
2.65
2.45
2.50
2.13
2.47
water supply but was required to augment the
Dec.
3.92
4.04
3.00
3.00
2.37
3.89
shortage of fresh water supply only in June and Winter
Jan.
2.60
3.11
2.00
2.16
1.51
2.44
Feb.
1.63
2.06
1.11
1.11
1.08
1.43
July. The fresh water supply in June and July 2008-2009
Mar.
1.13
1.68
0.82
1.00
0.84
1.15
for the three branch canals was less than that in
Apr.
1.36
1.46
1.26
1.56
0.71
0.99
May and August, while requirements for
Average
1.79
2.20
1.49
1.62
1.22
1.64
irrigation water was higher (Table 4). The
shortage was due to an ineffective water
delivery plan and intensive water use by upstream users to meet June and July. The second is that fresh water contamination by
the high water consumption at these months. The total fresh water agricultural drainage water occurred to a significant degree in the
supply for each of the three branch canals was somewhat lower system, as backflow was mixed with the fresh water supply and
than the requirements. However, backflow was more than sufficient channeled out again in the culvert to the drainage canal. During
to counteract the shortage of fresh water supply.
the winter season, when only the fresh water supply was used,
During the winter season, an excess of fresh water was supplied the WSR values were greater than 1 (1.79, 1.49 and 1.22) for the
to the three branch canals at most times, this was to secure a three branch canals, while additional water supplied by backflow
hydraulic head required for gravity irrigation for winter crops under raised the values (2.2, 1.62 and 1.64). These values indicate that
canal systems with large conveyance capacity designed to provide backflow increased water supply by more than 100%, even though
maximum water requirements of the water-consuming summer there was no need of the backflow. Also, fresh water waste occurred
crops in the extremely flat topography. This indicates a lack of to a significant degree in the system, as the fresh water supply
utility of any backflow supply except for the Eliwa canal during was mixed with backflow and channeled out again unused into
March and for the El-Masharka canal during March and April. the pipe to the drainage canal.
However, backflow occurred in most months. The total fresh water
supply for each of the three branch canals was approximately Impact on salinity: Salinity measurements of water are shown in
60% greater than the requirements and backflow raised the water Fig. 3 for the three branch canals during the summer season of
supply to approximately twice of the requirements. This situation 2008 and the following winter season. This figure shows two
deteriorates water quality.
salinity values along the studied canals: One curve shows salinity
Farmers channel the vast majority of Nile water (90%) to cultivate values as measured at the field representing the use of the fresh
their fields and any water not taken up by growing crops infiltrates water supply and the total backflow. The second curve shows
the soil and passes into the drainage system. A recent assessment calculated salinity values representing the use of the fresh water
at the main canal level showed that 53% of the annual irrigation supply and the actual utilized backflow (Fig. 3). Due to the actual
water supply entered drainage systems and saline groundwater field conditions and existing culverts connecting the canal end
sinks, indicating an oversupply 14. This waste of water can only with the drainage canal, water salinity is increasing towards the
be reduced if farmers are motivated not to demand more water end of the canal. The most fortunate farmers are those, who have
than necessary 33. In the study area, 27% of water was channeled no need for drainage water in the first place, as they have enough
out in the culvert to the drainage canal during the summer and good quality irrigation water. However, those at the end of the
82% during the winter. Water excess over water requirements canals have access to enough water, but of bad quality caused by
means that backflow channeled in the pipe as a supplement is mixing of drainage water, as drainage water is different in quality
simply drained back again into the drainage canal after mixing to irrigation water. When water passes through the soil and
with the canal fresh water, leading to an unnecessary loss of the drainage network, it picks up salts, agricultural chemicals and
fresh water and deterioration of the canal water quality.
other pollutants. Drainage water is not only a substandard source
but a symbol of marginality 10.
Water supply ratio: Calculated values for the water supply ratio
During the summer season, backflow occurred during all summer
(WSR) are listed in Table 5. During the summer season, when only months and exceeded the requirements. Based on the actual field
the fresh water supply was used, the average WSR values were measurements the salinity level increased from 400 to 1,000 mg
less than 1 (0.92, 0.95 and 0.94) for the three branch canals, while L-1 that could affect plants with moderate and high salinity
additional water supplied by backflow raised values to greater sensitivity, such as maize and vegetables. Backflow deteriorated
than 1 (1.14, 1.33 and 1.34), respectively. These values indicate the quality unnecessarily. Control of the backflow according to
two important points: The first is that backflow increased the the actual requirements would improve the water quality. We
water supply by 40% while only 9% was required and backflow calculated the amount of unutilised backflow, as shown in Table
accrued during all summer months while it was required only in 6. During May, August and September, 100% of the backflow was
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
335
Summer
2008
Winter
2008-2009
Saafan Canal
Unutilised
Month
backflow
(%)
May
100
June
33
July
46
Aug.
0
Sept.
0
Average
64
Oct.
100
Nov.
100
Dec.
100
Jan.
100
Feb.
100
Mar.
100
Apr.
100
Average
100
Eliwa Canal
Unutilised
backflow
(%)
100
40
64
100
100
87
100
100
100
100
100
0
100
100
El-Masharka Canal
Unutilised
backflow
(%)
100
35
44
100
100
85
100
100
100
100
100
47
0
100
unutilised, while in June and July, some of the backflow was still
unutilised. We calculated the salinity values based on the utilised
backflow while omitting any effect of unutilized flows, as shown
in Fig. 3. Water salinity values compared to actual measurements
at the end of the canal showed an improvement in salinity by 30%
in June and July and 100% in May, August and September.
During the winter season, backflow was not required for any
winter months. However, it still occurred. Based on the actual
field measurements, the salinity deteriorated from 400 mg L-1 and
reached values of 1,000 mg L-1 that could cause slight to moderate
problems to crops, especially the sensitive ones like alfalfa and
most vegetables. Backflow, therefore, also deteriorated the quality
unnecessarily in the winter season. Again, control of the backflow
would improve the water quality. Unutilised backflow was
calculated, as shown on in Table 6. During all winter months,
100% of the backflow was unutilised, except in March for the ElMasharka canal, where only some of the actual backflow was
unutilised (Table 6). We calculated the salinity values based on
utilised backflow while omitting any effect of unutilised flows, as
shown in Fig. 3. Salinity values compared to actual measurements
at the end of the canal reduced by 100%. Using utilised backflow
decreased the water salinity to values under 500 mg L-1, except at
June and July were little more than 500 mg L-1. The recycling of the
saline and often polluted drainage water impacts the quality of
water flowing through Egypts irrigation network. A farmer, who
can access a better quality of water for irrigation will achieve
higher yields and profits. Irrigation with saline water is possible
while still maintaining good levels of production (so-called
biosaline agriculture), but this requires careful land management
practices, which although already piloted have yet to become
widespread throughout the country 34, 35.
Conclusions
Current study investigated the efficiency of using agricultural
drainage backflow to supplement the fresh water of the Nile Delta
irrigation network and its effect on the water quality in Kafr ElSheikh Governorate. We calculated the water supply ratio (WSR)
as an indicator to compare the results based on fresh water use
with those based on fresh water plus backflow. During the summer
season (May-September) of 2008, backflow significantly
336
337
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
In this study, the effects of the microclimatic changes around the grapes on quality parameters in Shiraz berries were investigated. Variations in
microclimate condition of grapes were created by the four different shading treatments: fully exposed (Exp), natural shading (Nsh), 40% of shading
(V40), and 60% of shading (V60). During the experiment, illuminance (lux), ultraviolet light (W/cm2), temperature (C), and relative humidity (%) of
each microclimate was continuously recorded by data loggers placed in adjacent grapes perceiving the same microclimate conditions. Shading
treatments were set from the initial stage of ripening, and maintained to harvest. Subsequently, influence of the shading treatments on berry quality
characteristics was measured by determining physicochemical composition, phenolic accumulation, and antioxidant potential of berries at harvest. A
quantitative increase in berry weight (g), pH, and titratable acidity (%) of its juice were observed in shaded grapes, but they decreased in Exp grapes,
particularly for total soluble solids (24.3 0.5 Brix). Similarly, total phenolic (1795.5 40.1 mg GAE/kg fwt), and flavonoid (310.9 8.7 mg CE/
kg fwt) contents of berries exposed to solar radiation were higher than grapes grown under shading (V40, V60) conditions. The response of total
antioxidant potential to shading treatments was variable and depended on shading level. Fully exposed grapes may not be desirable for some reasons
including low anthocyanin accumulation, fast ripening process, berry desiccation, and crop loss due to sunburn. Even if exposed berries reached the
highest phytochemical content and antioxidant potential, they are not enough for grape berry quality standards normally accepted. Under the study
conditions, 40% of shading may meet the expected grape berry quality. Microclimatic changes in fruit zone of grapevines significantly affected berry
quality characteristics, secondary metabolite content and antioxidant potential of grape tissues. Therefore, modifications in microclimate conditions
of fruit zone may receive considerable research interest in the future studies under harsh climate conditions.
Key words: Vitis vinifera L., solar UV radiation, shading, phytochemical content, antioxidant potential.
Introduction
Sunlight and temperature at ambient levels are essential for the
process of photosynthesis. However, high light, high temperature,
and high ultraviolet (UV) radiation have been regarded as elements
of environmental stress variables caused to solar injury in plants
or fruits 1. To cope with adverse effects of these environmental
stresses, plants have evolved morphological, physiological, and
biochemically adaptive responses such as thicker epidermal cell
layers, excessive biosynthesis of phenolics and flavonoids. These
natural bioactive compounds are important because of their
contribution to the grape quality characteristics and ultimately to
human health 2, 3. Epidemiological studies have shown a positive
correlation between fruit and vegetable consumption and reduced
incidence of chronic and degenerative diseases 4, 5. These
antioxidants have scavenging properties against oxygen free
radicals, offering protection to lipids, proteins and nucleic acids 6.
Therefore, beneficial human health effects of grape natural
bioactive compounds have provided incentive to many
researchers to study composition of active components and their
contents in grape.
In the past two decades, there had been significant advances in
analytical chemistry and secondary metabolites of grapes that are
affected by variety, climatic conditions, agricultural and
environmental factors. Researchers began to understand the
importance of grapevine or grape shading 7. It was reported that
anthocyanin accumulation was more depended on temperature
338
rather than light exposure 8-10. Up to now, many studies have been
reported related to microclimate of grapes affected the degree of
exposure to solar radiation. It has been concluded that changing
in the light and temperature of the microclimate around grapes
caused differences in quality, quantity, and content of secondary
metabolites of berries. Relatively, low light intensity and moderate
daytime grape temperature gave full berry color and best
anthocyanin accumulation 11-14. Although we have now better
understanding of the impact of fully sun exposure on grape quality,
little is known about influence of microclimate changes in fruit
zone of grapevine on grape berry quality characteristics, secondary
metabolite accumulation, and antioxidant activities.
This study was undertaken to determine how shading treatments
affect physicochemical composition, secondary metabolite
accumulation as bioactive compounds, and antioxidant potential
of grapes growing in hot and sunny climate of Turkey. When
quality characteristics of berries was determined by measuring
berry weight, total soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, and hue
angle, total bioactive content of samples was detected with total
phenolics, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. In addition, antioxidant
potential of berry extracts was assessed by the 2, 2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity, the ferric
reducing capacity (FRAP) and phosphomolybdenum reducing
capacity.
Data collection of microclimates: Measurements of the microclimate data were made from the beginning of the experiment until
to the harvest continuously. Data loggers (TR-74Ui Data Loggers,
Japan) were programmed to simultaneously measure and record
of illuminance (lux), solar UV radiation (W/cm2), temperature (C)
and relative humidity (%) of each microclimate condition at fruit
zone. Readings were made in a 30 - minute interval and the hourly
average was calculated. To do that, the probes of the data loggers
were fastened and positioned vertically on the trellising wires
next to the clusters to measure microclimate conditions around
the grapes. Hourly average readings of the daytime during the
experiment are given in Fig. 1. Each data point represents the
mean of forty independent readings in a forty day of experimental
shading period.
Grape sampling and extraction: When berries of Nsh grapes
reached at commercial maturity level, grapes grown under different
microclimate conditions were harvested on the same day. Prior to
analysis, whole grape clusters or 100 - berry weight of the samples
representing shading treatments were determined. Subsequently,
about 10 g of berry tissue homogenized in 50 ml of ddH2O and the
liquid level was adjusted to 100 ml for measuring pH and titratable
acidity. Total soluble solids (Brix) was measured by using a digital
Nsh
Exp
A
A
40
Temperature (C)
V60
38
36
34
32
30
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
V40
42
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10
12
14
16
Local standard time (h)
18
20
339
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of grape berries from different fruit zone microclimates.
Shading
Treatments
Exp
Nsh
V40
V60
Cluster
weight (g)
113.0 7.3d
183.1 10.2c
251.4 7.7a
227.5 6.4b
100-Berry
weight (g)
120.0 5.8d
137.0 5.5c
159.5 2.1a
141.1 5.6b
Soluble
Solids (oBrix)
24.3 0.5a
22.1 0.5b
20.8 0.4c
18.8 0.5d
pH
3.80 0.02a
3.89 0.02a
3.83 0.01a
3.70 0.04b
Ti tra table
Acidity (%)
0.33 0.03c
0.37 0.02c
0.51 0.05b
0.59 0.01a
Hue angle
( h o)
21.98 0.2c
23.47 0.2b
20.55 0.2d
24.95 0.2a
Values representing means SE (n = 3) with lowercase letters on the same row indicate significant differences (P 0.05).
340
berries exhibited the highest anthocyanin (1261.9 mg malvidin-3O-glucoside/kg fwt), phenolic (1795.5 mg GAE/kg fwt), and
flavonoid (310.9 mg KE/kg fwt) contents among the assayed
samples (Table 1). On the contrary, grapes grown under V60
treatment comprised the least amount of phytochemicals among
the samples tested (Table 2). Total anthocyanin, phenolic, and
flavonoid concentrations of berries shaded with V60 were 903.3,
1297.7 and 250.1 mg/kg, respectively. Although natural shaded
berries had the second highest anthocyanin (1352.7 mg/kg),
phenolic (1636.8 mg/kg), and flavonoid (235.3 mg/kg) contents,
V40-shaded berries contained relatively lower amounts of
anthocyanin, phenolic, and flavonoid as 1064.5, 1182.3 and 211.8
mg/kg, respectively (Table 2).
Grape berries of the shaded vines (V40 - V60) tended to have
lower phytochemical content than natural shaded or sun-exposed
berries. Artificial shading treatments (V40, V60) caused a reduction
in polyphenol synthesis particularly in total anthocyanin content
of berries grown under V60 treatment. However, grapes exposed
to direct sunlight would suffer from some type of degradation;
desiccation or sunburn caused the loss of yield as shown at Fig.
2A. Except for the total anthocyanins, total amounts of phenolics,
and flavonoids were clearly lower in the berries of shaded grapes
(V40, 460) than in exposed berries (Exp) (Table 2). Total anthocyanin
concentration decreased significantly in berries exposed to direct
sunlight in comparison with naturally shaded berries. As it was
reported in literature, high degree of grape exposure caused to
high berry temperatures in hot and sunny climates. Due to inhibition
of anthocyanin metabolism, this type of harsh environmental
condition was not conducive to optimal anthocyanin
accumulation25.
Depending on density of shading, concentrations of bioactive
compounds decreased in artificially shaded grape berries 25-27.
Especially, V60-shaded grapes had significantly lower amount of
bioactive compounds than V40-shaded grapes. It is clearly stated
in the literature that some enzymes of the shikimic acid pathway
being mostly responsible for synthesizing of phenolic compounds
were light-stimulated. That might be one of the reasons of low
phytochemical accumulation in grape berries grown under artificial
shading conditions 27. Secondly low light intensity might cause
the reduction in photosynthetic rates, leading to less sugar
accumulation and possibly delayed ripening. In our climatic region
pressurized by highly stressful solar radiation, shading of
grapevines might be beneficial because the photosynthesis is
more efficient under diffuse light conditions 28. In our case, the
question arisen was how much shading is really necessary for
good berry quality characteristics rather than be concerned about
a lack of light intensity. The data set obtained implicates a 40% of
grapevine shading may meet the grape berry quality expectations
without negative influences of excessive grape exposure under
hot and sunny climates.
Shading
Treatments
Exp
Nsh
V40
V60
Total Anthocyanins
(mg Malvidin-3-Oglucoside/kg fwt)
1261.9 28.0a
1352.7 18.9b
1064.5 38.0c
903.3 20.0d
Total Phenolics
(mg GAE/kg
fwt)
1795.5 40.1a
1636.8 25.1b
1182.3 44.9d
1297.7 14.9c
Total Flavonoids
(mg CE/kg
fwt)
310.9 8.7a
235.3 5.2b
211.8 4.0c
250.1 3.0d
Values representing meansSE (n=3) with lowercase letters on the same row indicate significant differences at P 0.05.
60
Nsh
Exp
V40
V60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
IC50 (mg/ml)
80
BB
a
b
c
70
d
60
50
40
30
20
Nsh
Exp
V40
Shading treatment
200
550
180
AA
Antioxidant capacity by
FRAP assay
160
c
d
140
120
100
80
60
250
Concentration (mg/ml)
90
70
V60
500
BB
a
b
Antioxidant capacity by
phosphomolibdenum assay
450
c
400
d
350
300
250
h
Nsh
40
Exp
V40
Shading treatment
60
V60
Figure 4. Antioxidant capacity of Shiraz berry extracts. AFerric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of ethanolic berry
extracts (mg BHT/ml extract) of grapes grown under Nsh,
Exp, V40, and V60 treatments. B- Phosphomolybdenum
reducing antioxidant power of samples (mg AE/ml extract)
taken from different shading conditions. Data presented here
are means of three replicates with SE. The letters on the top
of the bars, which are the same, indicate that there is no
statistically significant difference at P 0.05.
342
Table 3. Correlations (R) between antioxidant potential determined by the DPPH, FRAP,
phosphomolybdenum assays and total bioactive compounds of grapes grown
under different microclimatic conditions.
DPPH inhibition
(mg/ml extract)
0.55
0.70*
0.76**
343
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Abstract
Tourists give support to the tourism places, local economy and conservation programs by their spending, entrance fees and voluntary donations.
These initiatives can affect local economic structures as well as tourist perception towards local economy. Terengganu state is well endowed with
natural and mineral resources, unspools beauties, islands, beaches, Islamic heritages and cultural attractions. Lake Kenyir and Sekayu Recreational
Forest have seen identified as prospective ecotourism sites in Terengganu for their natural beauties, recreational facilities and tourism activities. The
present study examined the tourists intention for enhancing local economy in Lake Kenyir and Sekayu Recreational Forest from their perception.
The study follows non-probability convenience sampling design and purposive sampling technique to collect the primary data from the respondents.
A structured questionnaire has been used to collect the data. This study uses descriptive analysis to measure the domestic and foreign tourists
intention towards local economy according to their opinions. Most of respondents from domestic tourists (>87%) agreed to help the local economy
by accommodations, shopping, buying food and spending more income. Moreover, highest number of respondents from foreign tourists (>81%)
agreed to help the local economy by accommodations, shopping, buying food, boat service and spending more income. The study shows that foreign
tourists have less positive intention towards local economy compared to domestic tourists. The destination authorities can motivate the tourists to
buy local food and products, shopping from local stores, stay in local accommodation and enjoy local tourism products. Moreover, local products
and service qualities also improved according to the demand of tourists.
Key words: Intention, Kenyir, local economy, Sekayu, tourist, Terengganu.
Introduction
Tourist exploitation in a destination depends on social, cultural,
economic and environmental factors. From this point of view,
tourist destinations change their initiatives connecting with
natural attractions and tourism activities to ensure tourist
satisfaction. These initiatives can affect local economic structures
as well as tourist intention towards local economy 1. Visitors also
give support to the tourism places, local economy and
conservation programs by their entrance fees and voluntary
donations 2.
In the 21st century, tourists are interested to alternative forms of
tourism, such as ecotourism and nature-based tourism due to
change their tastes. They give focus on local customs, cultural
diversity and history for searching a destination. Moreover,
tourism is linked to natural and cultural resources, productive and
social activities of local communities 1. Accommodation facilities
are one of the main components for tourist satisfaction towards a
destination. Krippendorf 3 found that environment friendly
facilities are influencing tourist to choice their accommodation in
a destination. In ecotourism destinations of rural areas, tourists
like alternative accommodations, which are different from traditional
hotels, hostels and boarding houses 4. Hearne and Salinas 5 pointed
that tourist preferences and perceptions towards ecotourism
destination promote nature conservation, rural development and
economic potential. Taiwan Ecotourism Association 6 defines that
tourist behaviour and perception can influence culture and lifestyle of local communities, improve communities welfare,
conserving natural resources and environment.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&42), April 2014
local stores, using boat service (for Lake Kenyir), spending more
income for local people and creating employment opportunities.
This section used 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 =
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither disagree nor agree, 4 =
agree and 5 = strongly agree. Barogh 9 used descriptive analysis
to measure contribution of tourists towards local economy in
Taman Negara. This section uses descriptive analysis to measure
the domestic and foreign tourists intention towards local economy
according to their opinions.
Tourism in Terengganu: The main tourism resources of this state
are beaches, islands, highlands, hills, mountains, lakes and
waterfalls, parks, forest reserves, arts, crafts, culture and heritage 13.
Some beaches and islands are world-class and not crowded, which
are appropriate for tourist attraction. This state has lush tropical
landscape and nature, marine parks and wide variety of tree and
food crops. This state has good mix of royal, religious, historic
and cultural heritage. The people of this state are friendly and
welcoming hosts. All of these are suitable for potential tourism
development in this state 12.
Results and Discussion
Most of the respondents of the two study sites came from
Terengganu, are of Malay ethnicity and students. Maximum
respondents were female, single and with college/diploma and
university level education. This demographic characteristic shows
that these two destinations are favorites to the local tourists,
especially to the students. These two sites have good facilities
for group visits and for female tourists (Table 1).
Most of the respondents to the two ecotourism destinations
came from three neighboring countries (Thailand, Indonesia and
Singapore) of Malaysia, whereas Kenyir also attracts tourists from
Europe. That means Kenyir is well known to the foreign tourists
as an ecotourism destination. Most of respondents were job
holders, male, married and educated (College and university level).
This indicates that they come to visit these ecotourism destinations
during their vacation period (Table 2).
Table 1. Demographic profile of domestic tourists.
Variable
State
Ethnicity
Occupation
Sex
Marital status
Education
Source: Survey data
Item
Terengganu
Pahang
Kelantan
Johor
Melaka
Selangor
Kedah
Perak
Negri Sembilan
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Student
Job (govt. and non-govt.)
Business
Male
Female
Single
Married
Primary
Secondary
College/Diploma
University
14, 15.
Item
Thailand
Indonesia
Singapore
Europe
Student
Job
Business
Male
Female
Married
Single
Secondary
College/Diploma
University
Country
Occupation
Sex
Marital status
Education
Source: Survey data
14, 15
14, 15
Agreed
90%
87.2%
95.6%
97%
96.1%
97.3%
Disagreed
10%
12.8%
4.4%
3%
3.3%
2.8%
Neutral
0.6%
14, 15
Agreed
82%
86%
83.3%
88%
86%
Disagreed
8%
6%
10%
6%
6%
Neutral
10%
8%
6.7%
6%
8%
347
14, 15
Domestic tourist
Mean
S.D.
3.86
0.671
3.82
0.748
4.22
3.02
4.14
0.546
4.02
0.483
4.05
0.464
Foreign tourist
Mean
S.D.
3.76
0.796
3.84
0.710
3.88
0.627
3.83
0.746
3.88
0.593
3.86
0.606
Acknowledgements
Financial assistance provided from the Research Grants (ERGS/1/
2013/SS07/UKM/01/1 & FRGS/1/2013/STWN01/UKM/03/1),
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) are gratefully acknowledged.
References
Lopez-Guzman, T., Sanchez-Canizares, S. and Pavon, V. 2011.
Community-based tourism in developing countries: A case study.
Tourismos 6(1):69-84.
2
Carrier, J. G. and Maclead, V. L. 2005. Bursting the buble: The sociocultural context of ecotourism. Royal Anthropology Institute 11:315334.
3
Krippendorf, J. 1987. The Holiday Markers. Heinemann Professional
Publishing, Oxford, pp. 27-29.
4
Albacete-Saez, C. A., Fuentes-Fuentes, M. M. and Llorens-Montes, F.
J. 2007. Service quality measurement in rural accommodation. Annals
of Tourism Research 34(1):45-65.
5
Hearne, R. R. and Salinas, Z. M. 2002. The use of choice experiments in
the analysis of tourist preferences for ecotourism development in
Costa Rica. Journal of Environmental Management 65(2):153-163.
6
Tao, C.H., Eagles, P. F. J. and Smith, S. L. J. 2004. Profiling Taiwanese
ecotourists using a self-definition approach. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 12(2):149-168.
7
Thrane, C. 2002. Jazz festival visitors and their expenditures: Linking
spending patterns to musical interest. Journal of Travel Research
40:281-286.
8
Yusof, N. A., Jamil, M. F. C., Said, I. and Ali, A. N. O. 2012.
Organizational culture and tourist satisfaction in a lake-based tourism
area. American Journal of Applied Sciences 9(3):417-424.
9
Barogh, A. B. 2009. Ecotourism in Taman Negara, Malaysia: An
Evaluation of Its Current Status and Practice. PhD. thesis, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, pp. 226-227.
10
Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Siwar, C. and Ismail, S. M. 2013. Tourism
development in Malaysia from the perspective of development plans.
Asian Social Science 9(9):11-18.
11
ECER 2009. Annual Report, 2009. East Coast Economic Region
1
348
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College of Geographic Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, Fujian, China. 2 College of Geography and Tourism,
Qufu Normal University, Rizhao 276826, Shandong, China. 3 College of Resource and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and
Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian, China. 4 Fuzhou Academy of Environmental Sciences, Fuzhou 350001, Fujian,
China. *e-mail: xiehongbin933@sina.com
Abstract
Based on the definition of brownfield, this article proposes a methodology for identifying and classifying contaminated brownfields in the Chinese
situation. The methodology developed consists of a two-stage procedure: 1) selecting the sites suspected to be contaminated by environmental
information for the site collected from existing data sources and 2) inspecting the suspected contaminated sites by the use of sampling and testing. A
case study of 37 land sites in Fuzhou, capital of Fujian Province in southeast of China, is used to illustrate the application and the suitability of this
methodology. Following this two-stage procedure, 37 sites have been subdivided into the following three categories: 27 sites found to be without
suspected contaminants are identified as type I; another 8 sites exhibiting contaminants concentration less than the soil clean-up standards are
classified as type II; and the remaining 2 sites with higher contaminants concentration than the soil clean-up standards were identified as type III. The
above described identification procedure is designed to be beneficial to the local Chinese government in particular because it reduces the time it takes
to identify brownfields and thus the associated costs.
Key words: Brownfields, contaminated sites, identification, classification, China.
Introduction
Since the second half of the 20th century, due to fierce international
competition and technological progress, traditional industries in
urban areas have been in decline and some factories have been
shut down or relocated out of the central parts of urban areas. As
a result, this industrial transformation has left some land sites
unused. These abandoned land sites, which might bring about
environmental risks, are named brownfield sites or simply
brownfields 1-3. As brownfields redevelopment can promote the
intensive use of urban land, such development has come under
close scrutiny by many countries, local governments, enterprises
and non-government organizations (NGOs). Similarly, with the
acceleration of industrialization and economic reforms in China
since the 1990s, many state-owned traditional industrial
enterprises, which previously occupied inner-city sites, have been
relocated to the urban periphery. Accordingly, obsolete industrial
sites, which might potentially also be contaminated sites, have
been replaced by non-industrial purposes such as high-density
residential or commercial areas. This land transformation is a wellknown part of Chinas industrial policy of suppressing secondary
industries and developing tertiary industries 1. However, these
obsolete or derelict industrial sites exhibiting soil contamination
have the capability to inflict an ecological shadow on sustainable
urban development 4, with clearly serious consequences. As a
result of this, the redevelopment of these contaminated sites has
received increasingly close attention in China. However, a method
for identifying what is brownfield and how to define it are initial
bases.
349
No
Brownfield type I
Yes
Further screening
Soil assessment
Groundwater assessment
Second stage
No
Brownfield type I
No
Brownfield type II
Yes
Is contaminant over environmental
standard?
Yes
Brownfiled type I
Brownfiled type II
Brownfiled type III
351
Business&Service,Residence,
Warehouse, Public green space
Wood industry
Wood industry
Electro-mechanical industry
Electro-mechanical industry
Electro-mechanical industry
Beer production
Electronics industry
Printing industry
01
Chemical production
25
Chemical production
Area
(hm2)
306.6
14.3
2.8
3.1
4.3
2.2
7.0
4.6
2.2
14.3
16.8
No
02
Yes
06-1
Yes
16
Yes
15
Yes
18
Yes
14
Yes
06-2
Yes
06-3
Yes
01*
Yes
25*
Yes
Do the sites
contaminants exceed
the standard values?
Brownfield
type
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
II
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
III
Yes
*These two sites were cleaned up by soil excavation, solidification and stabilization for heavy metals and thermal desorption for organic compounds before they were developed and approved for residential use.
353
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Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh-11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
2
Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, S102TN, UK. *e-mail: sharbi@ksu.edu.sa
Abstract
The quality of water from artesian wells used for irrigation was analysed. Water samples were collected from 12 wells from different farms along a
8.5 km transect of the Hayer, which is an area located approximately 35 km south of ArRiyadh. The major parameters for assessment of the
groundwater quality used here were analysis of the major cations (K+, Na+ and NH4 +) and the major anions (Cl-, SO42-, NO3- and PO43-). A total
dissolved solid (TDS) is a summation of all major constituents. The pH, temperature and electrical conductivity (EC) were also measured as
important indicators of groundwater quality. The samples were also tested for the presence of total and fecal coliform bacteria. All the samples were
free from contamination by coliforms; the physicochemical parameters of all the samples were not, however, within the acceptable limits prescribed
by WHO and FAO.
Key words: Physicochemical quality, artesian well water quality, irrigation, coliforms, cations.
Introduction
Water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater aquifers is an
essential human resource and is needed for direct consumption as
well as for recreational purposes 1. Groundwater is a vital source for
fresh water in Saudi Arabia and the surrounding Gulf states 2;
groundwater being the major source of both potable and irrigation
waters in Saudi Arabia. As the population of Saudi continues to
increase, especially in the big cities such as ArRiyadh, the demand
for adequate and high-quality groundwater resources continues to
increase. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (about 2.25 million km2) is
one of the hottest and most arid countries in the world, with an
average summer temperatures of 46C and an average rainfall of 120
mm per year over most of the country 2. The available surface water
and groundwater resources are limited, precipitation rates are low,
and evaporation is high. With increasing population and agricultural
use, there is an increasing need for high quality water in Saudi
Arabia 3.
The total population of Saudi Arabia has increased from about
7.7 million in 1970 to 11.8 million in 1990 and is expected to reach 19
million in 2010, if the present growth rate of 3% per annum continues.
Consequently, domestic water demand has increased from about
446 MCM in 1980 to about 1,563 MCM in 1997, and is expected to
reach 2,800 MCM in 2010 4, 5. Agriculture accounts for some 88% of
water use, while industry consumes only around 3% 6. Saudi Arabia
faces severe water problems and as a result, is in need of new water
policies to achieve sustainable development in its harsh environment.
Problems include balancing supply and demand while facing aridity
and water scarcity, non-renewable supplies, poor quality of ground
water, poor distribution of supplies, salt water intrusion, and the
overuse and contamination of aquifers 7.
355
irrigation systems may also affect the surface of a crop for varying
periods of time, and the risk is increased when the irrigated crop is
consumed raw and sometimes unwashed 15.
Pathogen contamination of fresh, ready-to-eat fruits and
vegetables is a significant issue in agriculture. In many cases,
fecal-oral pathogens such as toxin-producing E. coli, Salmonella
spp., and norovirus are the causative agents 16. Fecally
contaminated irrigation water is frequently a possible or likely
source of contamination of fresh, ready-to-eat fruits and
vegetables 17. According to the Centre for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) 18, at least 12% of food-borne outbreaks during
the 1990s were attributable to fresh produce, and the economic
cost of food-borne illnesses is estimated at around $10 to $83
billion per year 19.
Water is subject to varying degrees of fecal pollution, and
consequently fresh waters are a transmission vector of many
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Fecal pollution can
reach water resources as the result of human activities, such as
sewage treatment plants and communities where sewage treatment
is not available. Many diseases are related to fecal polluted water,
but the majority is caused by enteropathogenic microorganisms,
and not surprisingly therefore, the presence of enteric pathogens
in waters is of considerable concern. For this reason, maintaining
the microbiological safety of water is very important issue relating
to the protection of public health 1. Washing and disinfection
practices are less effective against pathogens which penetrate
the plant interior 20, and for this reason the prevention of water
borne contamination is considered to be an important primary
means of controlling health risk associated with food-borne
pathogens 19.
The quality and safety of farm irrigation water determines the
quality and safety of the resultant crop, and the safety of water
depends on its source. Human pathogens can be introduced into
irrigation water via run-off of manure from animal production
facilities, from domestic/urban sewage systems or directly from
wildlife. Extreme rainfalls (which lead to storm overflows), spills of
manure, or human waste can all increase the probability of the
occurrence of contamination 21. The quality of water needed for
various uses is determined by its physical characteristics, chemical
composition, biological parameters and the conditions of use and
all surface or sub-surface waters contain varying amounts of salts
which increase in irrigated soil due to evaporation.
The aim of the work reported here was to determine the
microbiological and physicochemical quality of waters obtained
from artesian wells used for irrigation near the city of Riyadh.
Materials and Methods
Description of the artesian wells: The samples were taken from
wells of depth ranging from (60-100 m); some wells were open
while others were closed.
Sampling collection: All groundwater samplings (chemical or
microbial) were conducted with the existing well pumps, which
were run for a sufficient time (10-15 min) in order to replace the old
water in the pipes with fresh water and thereby obtaining reliably
stable readings of pH, specific conductance and temperature. Well
water depths were measured with a graduated (l/l00th foot) steel
tape.
A total of three water samples were collected from 12 different
356
Usual range in
irrigation water
Symbol
Unit
ECw
dS/m
03
dS/m
TDS
mg/l
0 2000
mg/l
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
CO--3
HCO3ClSO4--
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
0 20
05
0 40
0 0.1
0 10
0 30
0 20
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
me/l
NO3-N
NH4-N
PO4-P
K+
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
0 10
05
02
02
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
B
pH
SAR
mg/l
114
(me/l) 1, 2
02
6.0 8.5
0 15
mg/l
Temperature
(Degree Celsius)
25.0
25.5
24.5
25.5
23.5
24.5
28.0
25.0
26.5
26.0
27.0
27.0
pH
8.15
8.13
8.17
7.98
8.19
8.05
8.02
7.84
8.29
8.07
8.06
8.11
Parameters
E.C*
T.D.S**
(mS/cm)
(mg/l)
3.87
2476
8.89
5689
4.48
2867
3.74
2393
5.49
3513
9.41
6022
9.19
5881
10.78
6899
9.41
6022
10.29
6585
11.13
7123
10.16
6502
Turbidity
(NTU)
11.30
28.70
20.50
18.00
6.24
2.98
0.73
21.90
0.94
5.78
12.30
5.63
Total hardness
(mg/l as CaCO3)
1800
3000
1200
1400
1000
2600
2800
3600
3200
3200
3800
3600
Sodium
Na (mg/l)
500
1375
750
500
750
1500
1375
1375
1125
1375
1375
1125
Potassium
K (mg/l)
17.0
28.0
15.0
15.0
23.0
27.0
26.0
27.0
30.0
27.0
31.0
30.0
Phosphorus
P (mg/l)
0.53
0.37
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.00
0.33
0.25
0.81
0.00
0.00
0.25
Parameters
Sulphate
SO4 (mg/l)
1437
3275
1302
1380
1607
3675
3275
2587
1737
2987
3075
1595
Ammonia
NH3 (mg/l)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Nitrate
NO3 (mg/l)
2.0
10.0
5.5
2.0
4.0
3.5
13.5
49.5
138.0
35.0
142.0
158.0
Chloride
Cl (mg/l)
1250
2500
1500
1250
1500
2850
2500
3000
2750
2750
3250
3000
357
the quality of the irrigation water. The two most common water
quality factors, which influence the normal infiltration rate, are
water salinity (total quantity of salts in the water) and sodium
content relative to the content of calcium and magnesium. Water
which is highly saline will increase infiltration, while a low salinity
water, or a sample with high sodium to calcium ratio will decrease
infiltration; both of these factors may operate simultaneously.
One serious side effect of an infiltration problem is the potential
to develop plant disease and vector (mosquito) problems.
An infiltration problem related to water quality in most cases
occurs in the surface few centimetres of soil and is linked to the
structural stability of this surface soil and its low calcium content
relative to that of sodium. When a soil is irrigated with sodiumrich water, a high sodium surface soil develops which weakens
soil structure. The surface soil aggregates disperse into much
smaller particles which clog soil pores. The problem may also be
caused by an extremely low calcium content of the surface soil. In
some cases, water low in salt can cause a similar problem but this
is related to the corrosive nature of the low salt water and not to
the sodium content of the water or soil. In the case of the low salt
water, the water dissolves and leaches most of the soluble minerals,
including calcium, from the surface soil. Analyses of the
groundwater samples tested here shows that all have sodium
ranges over 500 (mg/l); sodium contents greater than 500 mg/l are
normally considered unacceptable for irrigation according to water
quality standards used by the FAO 11for agricultural use.
Nitrate: The nitrate content of the analysed groundwater samples
ranges between 2 mg/l in well A and D and reaches a maximum of
158 mg/l in well L. Many of the sampled groundwater wells contain
nitrate exceeding the guideline values for irrigation water prescribed
by FAO (0-10 mg/l), with most of the nitrogen present being
probably derived from the biosphere. The nitrogen originally fixed
from the atmosphere, is mineralized by soil bacteria into ammonium,
which is converted into nitrate by nitrifying bacteria under aerobic
conditions 24.
The main sources of nitrate result from either natural or
anthropogenic activities - rainfall and dry fall out, soil nitrogen,
nitrate deposit, sewage, septic tank and animal waste, manure or
compost, green manure and plant residues, atmospheric nitrogen
fixation, fertilizer nitrogen from irrigated overflow water outlets
and industrial effluent 25. Nitrate is the end product of the oxidation
of nitrogen in the environment. Particularly high nitrate
concentrations indicate pollution from either sewage or agricultural
fertilizer waste. Nitrate is without doubt an essential plant nutrient,
but is equally a potential threat to human health when present in
excess concentrations in the drinking water 26. The data obtained
from the samples tested here shows that the groundwaters
examined contain high level of nitrate, concentrations which exceed
the permissible limits for drinking purposes (Table 3).
Ammonia: The term ammonia includes the non-ionized (NH3) and
ionized (NH4+) species. Ammonia originates in the environment
from metabolic, agricultural and industrial processes and from
disinfection with chloramines. Natural levels in groundwater and
surface water are usually below 0.2 mg/l 27. Anaerobic groundwaters
may contain up to 3 mg/l. Intensive rearing of farm animals can
give rise to much higher levels in surface water. Ammonia
contamination can also arise from cement mortar pipe linings.
358
359
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Science and Technology
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
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X-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of ancient bricks from
Sungai Batu Temple (site SB1), Bujang Valley, Kedah
Zuliskandar Ramli 1*, Nik Hassan Shuhami Nik Abdul Rahman 1, Abdul Latif Samian 1, Muhammad Rizal
Razman 2, Sharifah Zarina Syed Zakaria 3 and Hossein Sarhaddi Dadian 4
Institute of the Malay World and Civilisation (ATMA), 2 Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governance (SGK),
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), 3 Research Centre for Environment, Social and Economics Sustainability
(KASES), Institute for Environment & Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia. 4 Department of Archaeology, University of Zabol, Iran. *e-mail: ziskandar2109@gmail.com
1
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine whether the ancient bricks from Sungai Batu Temple (SB1) are made from local materials or not.
Chronometric and relative dating have given different results, the absolute dating gave the date between 2nd to 3rd century AD while the relative dating
gave the date between 6th to 7th century AD. The structure which was fully built using bricks is a relatively large stupa structure and not a structure
associated with animism practised. In order to determine whether the bricks that were used to build the structure of Site SB1 used local raw materials
or otherwise, thus material composition analysis needs to be carried out which involves X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
analysis. Analysis shows that the mineral content present in the ancient brick samples consists of quartz, muscovite, microcline, mullite and albite.
The mullite mineral shows that some of the bricks were baked at sufficient temperature of more than 550C. This shows that the open burning
technique was used in the production of the temples bricks because some of the bricks have an indication of low firing burning. The dry weight
percentage graph of silica and aluminium, and magnesium and titanium, as well as the lead and copper concentration graph indicate that the raw
materials used to produce the ancient bricks are local raw materials and these raw materials were obtained from the surrounding area of Bujang
District.
Key words: Sungai Batu Temple, x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), Bujang Valley.
Introduction
Sungai Batu Temple was found by a group of archaeologists from
Science University of Malaysia in 2006 where a structure which is
believed to function as a stupa was discovered. The structure is
entirely made of bricks and its roof made of tiles. It is the first time
that a temple of this architecture (Photos 1 and 2) was found in
Bujang Valley. The rectangular shaped structure with an empty
circle was built on top of a circular floor structure that was also
built using bricks and it is proposed that this structure is a stupa
and not an animistic structure because there is no evidence to
show that the local people that practised animism built a structure
i The1main
h structure
i
f S BatuiTemple.
Photo 1.
of Sungai
360
Methodology
A total of 19 brick samples were taken from the excavation site of
Sungai Batu (Site SB1) and taken to the lab for cleaning and labelled
with the names SB1, SB2, SB3, SB4, SB5, SB6, SB7, SB8, KSGC9,
SB10, SB 11, SB 12, SB 13, SB 14, SB 15, SB 16, SB 17, SB 18 and SB
19. Samples weighing 0.4 g were refined and heated up for one
hour at a temperature of 105C and mixed until homogenous with
the flux powder of a type of Spectroflux 110 (product of Johnson
and Mathey). These mixtures were baked for one hour in a furnace
with a temperature of 1100C. The homogenous molten was
moulded in a container and cooled gradually into pieces of fused
glass with a thickness of 2 mm and a diameter of 32 mm. The
samples were of 1:10 dilution. Samples in the form of fused glass
were prepared for analysis of major elements such as Si, Ti, Fe, Al,
Mn, Ca, Mg, Na, K and P2O2. Pressed pallet samples were prepared
for analysis of trace elements such as As, Ba, Ce, La, Nb, Ni, Pb,
Rb, Th, V, Y, Zn, U, Cr, Sr, Ga, Cu, Hf, Co and Zr. These samples
were prepared by mixing 1.0 g of samples together with 6.0 g of
boric acid powder and then pressure of 20 psi was applied by
using hydraulic pressure equipment. The samples of fused pallets
and pressed pallets were analysed using Philips PW 1480
equipment. Samples in the form of very fine powder were put into
the pellets (sample holder) and analysed using the X-ray diffraction
instrument (D500 Diffractometer SIEMEN). A scatter plot diagram
of TiO2 and MgO; Zr and V was performed to demonstrate if there
were any differences among the samples and analysed using
Microsoft Excel software. The applicability of the analytical
methods for the multi elemental analysis by XRF of the votive
tablets is evaluated by the analysis of certified reference material,
315 Fire Brick (Calibration: G_FBVac 28 mm) for major elements
and certified reference material, SY-2 (Calibration: Trace Element
P_20) for trace elements. The CRM was also used as the quality
control material of the analytical procedure.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
Sample
SB (i)
SB (ii)
SB (iii)
SB (iv)
SB (v)
SB (vi)
SB (vii)
SB (viii)
SB (ix)
SB (x)
SB (xi)
SB (xii)
SB (xiii)
SB (xiv)
SB (xv)
SB (xvi)
SB (xvii)
SB (xviii)
SB (xix)
Mineral Content
SiO2Quartz
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
KAlSi3O8 Microcline
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O Muscovite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3A1O10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3A1O10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
Al3Si3K(OH)2O10 Muscovite 3T
Al5.65Si0.35O9.175Mullite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
KAlSi3O8 Microcline
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
Al2(Al2.8Si1.2)O9.6Mullite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
NaAISi3O8Albite
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 1M
SiO2Quartz
KAl2Si3AlO10(OH)2 Muscovite 2M1
(Al4SiO8)1.2Mullite
361
q,m
q,m
q
m
SB7
mq
SB13
q,m
q,m
q
m
SB11
SB6
q,m
m
q,m
q
m
mc SB4
q,m
SB3
ml
q
ml ml
q,m
q
m
SB11
SB5
Intensity(arbitrary
(Arbitraryunits)
Units)
Intensity
Intensity
(arbitrary
units)
Intensity
(Arbitrary
Units)
SB12
mc
SB10
ml ml
SB8
q,m
q,m
SB9
SB2
q
m
ml
q,m
SB1
20
40
60
q
m
2
20
40
2
Legend: q = Quartz, m = muscovite, mc = microcline, ml = mullite.
60
362
q,m
Element
(ppm)
As
Ba
Ce
Co
Cr
Cu
Ga
Hf
La
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
U
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr
SB19
q
ml ml
q,m
Intensity
(arbitrary
units)
Intensity
(Arbitrary
Units)
SB18 q
SB17
SB16
SB15
q,m
q
q,m
SB 1
10
712
596
8
74
12
24
8
30
36
29
44
63
16
9
18
90
5
52
320
SB 2
10
689
602
10
83
10
22
7
29
36
26
41
51
16
9
18
98
0
45
246
Sample
SB 3 SB 4
11
13
837
694
633
570
8
8
79
89
12
9
24
28
8
8
31
29
40
35
30
29
49
50
58
46
10
6
9
9
27
26
112
127
8
12
48
53
388
500
SB 5
16
685
567
21
103
12
28
7
29
33
28
45
109
31
9
24
111
13
61
231
SB 6
14
769
618
10
88
13
24
8
30
38
28
49
54
11
9
22
115
2
68
317
q,m
q
m
q,m
SB14
2
20
2
Legend: q = Quartz, m = muscovite, ml = mullite.
40
60
Al2O3 (%)
25
20
15
Sg. Batu
10
Lempung
5
0
20
40
60
SiO2 (%)
80
100
120
Figure 4. Dry weight percentage (%) of SiO2 and Al2O3 element for
the brick samples of Sungai Batu Temple and clay in Bujang Valley.
1.2
1
TiO2 (%)
0.8
0.6
Sg. Batu
0.4
Lempung
0.2
0
0.5
1
MgO (%)
1.5
Figure 5. Dry weight percentage (%) of MgO and TiO2 element for
the brick samples of Sungai Batu Temple and clay in Bujang Valley.
Element
(ppm)
As
Ba
Ce
Co
Cr
Cu
Ga
Hf
La
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sr
U
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr
SB 7
13
729
600
7
80
11
27
7
28
40
27
48
68
7
8
23
102
4
46
353
SB 8
14
684
544
10
104
10
32
8
29
33
29
45
52
15
9
29
129
10
56
397
Sample
SB 9 SB 10
16
11
710
733
590
602
118
77
9
8
12
12
39
25
8
8
30
30
34
37
32
30
47
47
88
56
31
7
9
9
38
16
133
99
19
1
50
55
344
276
SB 11
13
725
590
14
98
10
23
6
27
40
21
43
83
21
8
20
102
6
60
280
SB 12
8
770
603
7
66
9
20
8
31
38
26
45
32
6
9
15
98
1
54
447
363
SB 13
16
777
583
9
103
12
32
8
30
38
31
52
113
19
9
30
127
19
47
320
SB 14
14
715
586
6
93
10
28
9
32
38
28
50
82
10
7
24
110
3
50
282
SB 15
10
744
616
7
79
13
27
8
30
37
33
46
46
14
9
18
104
4
53
312
Sample
SB 16 SB 17
12
14
733
730
589
572
8
7
83
96
12
10
25
26
8
4
30
26
38
28
31
30
48
48
55
72
9
14
9
7
26
28
116
124
6
11
50
51
425
380
SB 18
9
753
607
7
75
11
22
8
30
40
29
47
53
7
9
16
105
2
42
307
SB 19
12
773
60
8
95
10
26
4
28
25
29
50
71
13
20
22
121
13
52
314
25
Cu (ppm)
20
15
Sg. Batu
10
Lempung
5
0
50
100
Pb (ppm)
150
200
364
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Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
Protected areas (PAs) provide some important goods and services, thus making them an important contributor to social well-being. They are widely
regarded as the cornerstones of biodiversity conservation strategies worlwide, providing the main foundation for in situ conservation of flora and
fauna, being an important element of any sustainable development. The double impacts of climate change and biodiversity loss are major threats to
achieving the Millennium Development Goals, especially those relating to environmental sustainability, poverty alleviation and food and water
security. Protected undeveloped areas are an important tool for land conservation in developing nations. Efficient land allocation decisions and
resource management requires knowledge of non-market benefits. The contingent valuation method is a stated preference method of non-market
valuation where respondents are asked to state their preferences for an environmental good or service that is not bought and sold in traditional
markets. This study used contingent valuation method (CVM) to derive estimates of economic value for recreational benefits use of Albanian part of
Prespa Park (AL-Prespa), in southeastern Albania. The contingent valuation survey used a dichotomous choice (DC) format followed by an openended question asking for their maximum WTP for restoration. Park visitors were surveyed regarding their willingness-to-pay (WTP) for ecological
restoration and recreational benefits of area. The WTP responses were analysed using a probit procedure. The results of the study indicated that
visitors are willing to pay increased entrance fees to finance ecological restoration and recreational benefits of areas damaged by human activities.
Consumer surplus for ecological restoration and recreational benefits of the AL-Prespa elicited through the close-ended DC exercise was found to be
1.4 per person, and elicited through the open-ended exercise was found to be about 1.6. The factors and personal characteristics of the visitors that
affect respondents WTP for ecological restoration and recreational benefits damaged by human activities in AL-Prespa could be important inputs in
order to ensure successful environment protection. The results of this study also should be helpful to assist the authority for the fee system and how
much they can increase the new entrance fee charged to the visitors.
Key words: AL-Prespa, contingent valuation, willing to pay, non-market value, protected area, ecological restoration, recreational benefits.
Introduction
Protected Areas (PAs) are widely regarded as the cornerstones of
biodiversity conservation strategies worldwide, providing the main
foundation for in situ conservation of flora and fauna, and being
an important element of any sustainable development plan.
Furthermore, national parks and other PAs contribute to human
well-being in a variety of ways 26. However, economically efficient
resource management requires knowledge of the flow of park
benefits and costs, including non-market benefits 25. Public
benefits derived from a national park in the form of environmental
amenities and ecosystem services implies that the park contributes
to public welfare, and loss of the park or decline in park quality
could result in a loss in welfare 33. Information on the welfare
contribution or economic value of protected areas in developing
countries, however, is scarce.
Non-market valuation techniques, such as the Contingent
Valuation method (CVM) can be used to measure the economic
value of recreation in PAs. The CVM applications in the literature
range from examining WTP for public projects in urban areas 5 to
the protection of vast and isolated areas of tropical forest 19.
Recently, the use of CVM for improving PA management or
developing sustainable ecotourism in national parks has received
considerable attention 32, 34, 36. When it comes to the question of
restoration of ecological goods or services, the majority of previous
365
LEGEND
Political borders
Park borders
Kilometers
0 10 20 30
Data collection: Data used for the analysis were obtained from
personal interviews conducted at the AL-Prespa during July 2013.
A total of 134 visitors were interviewed. The contingent valuation
of the interview began by asking respondents how familiar, if at
all, they were with the human activities which damage the
environmental quality. Then, they were informed about the
magnitude and location of these activities and were confronted
by a scenario in which the park authorities are considering an
increase in the park admission fee to cover restoration expenses.
A card with the proposed fee increase (one of four values) was
then shown to the respondent, followed by the question: Please
consider how much you spend on recreation each year, including
the cost of this trip. Would you have been willing to pay this
extra amount per person during this visit?
The four price levels were 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% increases
of the existing entrance fee of 1. Regardless of their response,
respondents were then asked to identify their maximum willingness
to pay an increased fee as an open-ended question.
The contingent valuation method: The contingent valuation
method (CVM) is a stated preference approach to the measurement
of the value of changes in the allocation of non-market
environmental and natural resources 27. The development of CMV
as a survey method over the last four decades has been one of the
major theoretical innovations in the field of resource and
environmental economics 1, 15, 16. The CMV is widely applied to the
problem of estimating economic values of goods and services
that are not traded in markets and for which no economic behaviour
is observable. These non-market characteristics are present when
366
367
Description
1 if WTP specified fee,
0 otherwise
Max_WTP
Maximum WTP
Ln (Max_WTP)
Price
Ln (Price)
Interaction
FirstVis
RVisit
PrimPurpose
TourBus
FireAware
EcoAware
Version
Child
Older
Income
Member
Gender
Min.
Max.
30.0
10.3
2.0
8.0
7.6
9.0
Parameter
Estimate p-value
Marginal Effect
(dy/dx)
p-value
Variable
0.375
-2.397**
0.671
1.352**
1.008*
0.861*
0.709
-1.307**
0.508
-0.485
0.657
0.381
0.803
-0.962
0.981
0.048
0.347
0.031
0.074
0.074
0.307
0.026
0.345
0.534
0.342
0.266
0.435
0.205
-0.041**
0.1108
0.254**
0.257
0.085
0.093
-0.217**
0.0891
-0.0789
0.164
0.075
0.089
-0.134*
0.034
0.456
0.024
0.169
0.087
0.209
0.033
0.317
0.561
0.187
0.364
0.208
0.078
4.853
0.682
0.604
0.982
0.307
0.295
0.605
0.601
0.576
0.463
3.671
0.165
0.652
6.974*
-0.987**
0.658
1.265**
0.965*
0.907*
0.587
-1.165**
0.4074
-0.425
0.678
0.212
0.682
-1.018**
0.078
0.048
0.402
0.028
0.056
0.078
0.207
0.031
0.277
0.643
0.334
0.264
0.408
0.043
-0.187**
0.123
0.0253**
0.321
0.132*
0.056
-0.1945**
0.084
-0.045
0.056
0.023
0.083
-0.153**
0.038
0.487
0.028
0.231
0.075
0.172
0.046
0.321
0.582
0.201
0.321
0.252
0.047
7.899
0.789
0.602
0.768
0.341
0.234
0.342
0.444
0.488
0.405
3.758
0.132
0.652
Intercept
WTP_Yes
Price
Interaction
FirstVis
RVisit
PrimPurp
TourBus
FireAware
EcoAware
Version
Child
Older
Income
**, * statistical significance at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10 level, respectively.
Member
Gender
Model Statistics:
R2
Adj. R2
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Parameter Estimate (p-value)
-4.632*
-3.656
-5.4362*
(0.087)
(0.228)
(0.072)
N/A
N/A
2.7641
N/A
N/A
(0.196)
N/A
-0.4224
N/A
N/A
(0.142)
N/A
0.9665***
1.8087***
0.8157***
(< 0.0001)
(< 0.0001)
(0.005)
2.1467*
2.0789*
1.8761
(0.087)
(0.077)
(0.207)
-0.7451
-1.0543
-1.0876
(0.654)
(0.432)
(0.409)
0.3025
-0.0357
-0.1987
(0.866)
(0.879)
(0.988)
0.3087
0.3098
0.4351
(0.833)
(0.843)
(0.841)
-0.0352
-0.0609
-0.1277
(0.895)
(0.619)
(0.944)
0.1873
0.3421
0.3832
(0.823)
(0.796)
(0.765)
2.7863**
2.7654**
2.4953**
(0.021)
(0.033)
(0.046)
2.0423**
1.8533
1.9874*
(0.047)
(0.143)
(0.082)
-2.9156**
-2.9398**
-2.9235**
(0.034)
(0.033)
(0.031)
1.3877***
1.4532***
1.3654***
(0.008)
(0.005)
(0.007)
3.9087**
3.8765**
3.7926**
(0.024)
(0.032)
(0.027)
-0.3856
-0.2059
-0.2065
(0.666)
(0.694)
(0.588)
0.68
0.56
0.69
0.57
0.66
0.55
***, **, * statistical significance at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10 level, respectively.
369
370
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Jatropha cake as a fertilizer for the growth of Blc. Amy Wakasugi Yamanashi orchid
Roberto A. Ribeiro *, Maria Flvia R. Starling and Luiza A. R. Rossi-Barbosa
State University of Montes Claros, Bocaiuva Campus, Professora Augusta Ribeiro Drumond Street, 441 39390-000,
Bocaiuva/MG, Brazil. *e-mail: roberto.ribeiro@unimontes.br, flapth@hotmail.com, luiza.rossi@unimontes.br
Received 7 July 2014, accepted 20 September 2014.
Abstract
Jatropha curcas is oil plant which has been used to obtain biodiesel once produces oil with potential as raw material to this application. Jatropha cake
is a waste product of the process of oil extraction from seeds that can be utilized as a fertilizer. The objective of this work was to investigate the
potential of Jatropha cake as a fertilizer for the growth of Blc. Amy Wakasugi Yamanashi orchid. Sixty seedlings were treated with Jatropha cake,
enriched castor cake, calcium nitrate, chemical fertilizer and their mixtures. Chemical analyses were done to verify nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium contents in these fertilizers. The length, the width and the largest part of the aerial unit were measured, and the number of leaves was
determined to evaluate the development of the orchids. Compositions (g kg -1) of Jatropha cake and enriched castor cake were, respectively, nitrogen
38.5 0.4 and 29.3 0.7, phosphorus 5.60 0.23 and 36.81 0.43, potassium 25.6 0.8 and 21.0 0.7. Slight differences in the length and width
were observed among the orchids subjected to the different treatments over nine months. For the number of leaves, the treatments with Jatropha cake
were found to exhibit the highest values over nine months, whereas the measurements of the largest part of the aerial unit revealed that the use of
enriched castor cake was slightly better than the use of the other fertilizers. The results indicated that Jatropha cake exhibits potential for application
as a fertilizer for this orchid.
Key words: Jatropha cake, fertilizer, orchids.
Introduction
Fossil fuel reserves are known to be decreasing around the world.
This fact has demanded research into the development of
alternative fuels, such as biodiesel, that can be produced through
the transesterification reaction of vegetable oils 1. Oil plants, such
as soybean, sunflower and rapeseed, have been used to
commercially produce biodiesels. Studies have demonstrated the
availability of using non-edible oil extracted from the feedstock,
for example, Jatropha curcas 2.
There are different possibilities of using the Jatropha plant in
addition to the production of oil for biodiesel production 3, 4. The
plant has been used as a living fence and for soil erosion control.
Biogas and fertilizers are produced from the seed cake, and soap
that exhibits biocidal and medicinal properties is prepared from
the oil. Toxic substances (phorbol esters and curcin) in Jatropha
seeds prohibit its use as food for animals and humans. However,
a non-toxic variety of the plant was identified in Mexico, and the
toxicity level can be reduced via chemical treatments.
After oil extraction, a high amount of Jatropha cake is obtained.
Economic and environmental issues have led researchers to
investigate the potential use of this waste in industrial applications.
Acid pre-treated Jatropha cake exhibited efficient Cr(VI) biosorption
from wastewater 5. The maximum adsorption capacity was 22.727
mg of Cr(VI)/g of biosorbent at 30C, and the thermodynamic
properties indicated that the Cr(VI) sorption process is
spontaneous and endothermic.
The extracted fibres from the Jatropha plant are used as
reinforcement materials in composites 6. Materials composed of
Jatropha cake combined with either glass fabric-epoxy 7 or styrene-
371
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.2
Concentrations
0
25 mL.pot-1
25 mL.pot-1
25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
8 g.pot-1 + 25 mL.pot-1
*1 g.L-1 concentrations for the calcium nitrate and chemical fertilizer solutions. The use of both in the same treatment, with
a 0.5 g.L-1 concentration used for each fertilizer.
372
0.6
0.8
Sieve size (mm)
1.0
0.4
Table 2. Macronutrients of the manures used in the growth of the Table 3. D values of the orchid leaves calculated for the cases of
orchids.
before the application of fertilizer (Di) and over 9 months
(Df) of treatment.
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Proportion
Fertilizer
g N.kg-1
29.30.7
38.50.4
250.98.7
g P.kg-1
36.810.43
5.600.23
39.416.56
g K.kg-1
21.00.7
25.60.8
133.44.6
N: P: K*
3:8:3
4:1:3
25:9:16
Treatments
T1
Initial After
After99months
months
Initial
16
T2
14
12
10
T3
8
6
4
T4*
2
0
2
6 7
8
Treatments
10 11 12
T5
T6
Df/ cm2
24.956
25.014
14.36805
25.86105
12.41625
43.66526
41.19311
23.07582
24.6756
20.1522
39.32
45.792
47.4
18.879
17.00475
105.77357
54.24725
96.22714
99.83122
72.8717
37.485
52.857
69.92
16.7167
33.2556
10.5493
15.9327
36.03597
34.13093
90.82368
Treatments
T7
T8*
T9
T10*
T11
T12
Di / cm2
24.905
57.13
21.144
23.2001
51.7762
41.4232
28.2576
20.46465
39.66405
28.43165
26.7618
40.62165
53.41245
33.47872
32.51395
37.8708
51.48
60.3603
22.4612
73.16588
55.5528
15.10604
15.5496
46.754
39.32195
42.661
11.79524
24.3903
7.35318
36.72
Df/ cm2
29.0719
103.00125
32.16975
46.9718
21.9773
42.53779
50.6482
20.76588
66.2642
79.86062
33.23852
18.8445
40.80113
21.243
15.50174
50.7585
51.3604
61.55095
5.3636
53.8593
57.96067
14.92302
15.62252
48.63098
39.82804
43.94039
10.86492
22.45456
6.842
37.87251
*Mean values of Df exhibited a significant difference at the level 0.05 using the Tukey test in relation to the
control treatment. T4: F = 41.77952 and p = 0.00020; T8: F = 8.94072 and p = 0.01733; T10: F = 5.33798
and p = 0.04966.
Initial After
After99months
months
Initial
amonginitial
inital and
and after
after 99months
months
Difference
Difference among
55
50
45
40
Leaf number
Di / cm2
29.6682
25.2925
15.74955
23.72055
16.276
11.3364
52.4667
22.81838
25.0355
21,27375
25.0355
46.276
45.98825
14.03825
17.2724
102.62763
52.8066
89.7974
91.2912
70.1807
37.7349
51.4402
71.8716
19.7736
32.984
11.09395
15.65078
33.7644
33.20488
83.752
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
6 7
8
Treatment
10 11 12
number was greater when the following fertilizer types were used:
10N: 13.1P: 16.6K and 15N: 8.7P: 20.8K. Parameters such as leaf
size, total leaf area, shoot and root fresh weight did not exhibit
significant differences among the fertilizer types studied.
Jatropha cake has demonstrated attractive properties for its
use as a fertilizer for various plants. Lycopercicum esculatum
(tomato) was grown in soil with different proportions of Jatropha
cake 15. The use of 3% cake in plants during 60 days of the stages
of growth enhanced the levels of total soluble solids, vitamin C,
proteins, reducing sugars and tomato fruit yield. Studies
performed by Srinophakun et al. 17 indicated that the application
of Jatropha cake associated with chemical fertilizer or farm manure
373
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
2
6
7
8
Treatment
10 11 12
Acknowledgements
We thank Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de Minas
Gerais (FAPEMIG) and Rede Mineira de Qumica and Biojan NNE
Minas Agroindstria Limitada for their support.
References
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2
Achten, W. M. J., Verchot, L., Franken, Y. J., Mathijs, E., Singh, V. P.,
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3
Kumar, A. and Sharma, S. 2008. An evaluation of multipurpose oil seed
crop for industrial uses (Jatropha curcas L.): A review. Ind. Crops
Prod. 28:110.
4
Contran, N., Chessa, L., Lubino, M., Bellavite, D., Roggero, P. P. and
Enne, G. 2013. State-of-the-art of the Jatropha curcas productive
1
374
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Abstract
Micropropagation through tissue culture technique offers an alternative to traditional vegetative propagation to mass propagate selected trees for largescale forest plantation. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a protocol for the micropropagation of A. crassicarpa. Nodal stem segment and leaf
obtained from 2 month-old aseptically germinated seedlings were used as explant in this study. Nodal stem segment was found to be the most appropriate
explant for shoot formation when cultured on a MS medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP). The highest mean number of shoots (5)
and the longest mean shoot elongation (8 mm) occurred on a medium supplemented with 0.5 mg l-1 BAP. The longest mean shoot length (8 mm) and the
highest mean number of explants per culture (7) were obtained on medium without any plant growth regulator. When cultured on a medium supplemented
with 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), nodal stem segment explant developed roots and callus (after 14 days). The highest mean number of roots
(8.3 = 8) and the longest mean root length (12.0 = 12 mm) were obtained from the medium supplemented with 10.0 and 2.0 mg l-1 2,4-D, respectively.
The highest mean number of roots (20.6 = 21) and the longest mean root length (10.4 = 10 mm) were obtained from the medium supplemented with 10.0
and 2.0 mgl-1 2,4-D, respectively, while the highest intensity of callus was produced on a medium supplemented with 8.0 and 10.0 mg l-1 2,4-D, and which
was only able to produce root without any shoot formation. The calli produced were compact, watery and white in colour. Survival rate of plantlets was
higher (100%) when transferred into the autoclaved mixture of soil, sand and peat (3:3:1) than those transplanted in an unautoclaved soil mixture (6.6%).
Survival percentages of the plantlets in the culture room and greenhouse condition were 85 and 100%, respectively.
Key words: A. crassicarpa, micropropagation, organogenesis, plant growth regulator, cytokinin, auxin, leaf segment, nodal segment, Murashige and
Skoogs medium (MS), in vitro rooting, in vitro shooting, acclimatisation.
Introduction
The planting of exotic tree species in Malaysia has started long
time ago since as early as 1893 in peninsular Malaysia with the
introduction of Eucalyptus species 1. The planting of these tree
species was actually aimed at rehabilitating vast areas that suffered
from shifting cultivation within the permanent forest estates/
reserve, as a fire-break and as boundary markers in the plantation
plots 2. One of the main species that has been chosen for these
purposes is Acacia with the introduction of Acacia auriculiformis
back in 1932 and Acacia mangium in 1966. The genus Acacia is
a member of the Leguminous family, sub family Mimosoidae. It
encompasses about 1100 species, in which over 850 occurs in
Australia and its neighbouring countries, i.e. Papua New Guinea
and Indonesia. The remainder are endemic largely to Africa and
Tropical America. Acacia species are fast growing multipurpose
trees, suitable for timber, pulp and paper production and various
end products such as furniture 3.
Since the introduction of A. mangium in Sabah back in 1966, it
has become an important plantation species in Malaysia, where
most of the forest plantation development was based mainly on
this species. Because of the successful introduction of A. mangium,
keen interest was generated to test the suitability of other related
Acacia species such as A. crassicarpa, A. aulococarpa and A.
auriculiformis. These species also provide alternative to
A.mangium when there is a need to alleviate the underlying
dangers of monoculture 4. Among these species, A.crassicarpa is
375
achieve maximum and faster genetic gain 11. There have been
reports stating that some Acacia species, such as A. mangium1214
, A. auriculiformis 15, 16, A. nilotica 17-19 and A. sinuata 20, 21, have
been successfully micropropagated via tissue culture techniques.
Apart from the callus induction using leaf and stem segments of
plant 22, regeneration using phyllode segment also has been
reported for A. crassicarpa 23, 24. The present study was undertaken
to determine suitable explants, appropriate plant growth regulators
and medium required for culture initiation and maintenance. In
this paper, we report regeneration of A. crassicarpa through
organogenesis in calli cultures from leaf and nodal segment of
aseptically germinated seedlings
Materials and Methods
Plant materials and disinfection of explants: Mature and healthy
seeds of A. crassicarpa were collected from a 5 year-old
provenance trial at Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang,
Malaysia. Prior to germination, the seeds were pre-treated by
soaking them in boiling water at 120C for 2 min to soften the seed
coat. Treated seeds were sterilized with 70% (v/v) ethanol for 2
min with three rinsing in sterile distilled water. Seeds were further
sterilized in 15% commercial Clorox (containing 5.25% sodium
hypochlorite) for 15 min and rinsed thoroughly three times with
sterile distilled water. The seeds were germinated in test tubes
containing half strength hormone-free MS medium. When the
seedlings were 2 months old, two types of explants were excised;
namely leaves and nodal stem segments. Leaf and nodal segment
explants were cut into 5.0 mm 5.0 mm and 3.0 - 5.0 mm long in
size, respectively.
Media preparation and culture conditions: Three types of media
tested in this study were Murashige and Skoogs basic medium
(MS) 25, B5 medium (B5) 26 and Woody Medium (WPM) 27. MS
and B5 media were obtained from FLOWLABTM (Sydney, Australia)
while the WPM was supplied by DUCEFA (Haarlem, the
Netherlands). MS, B5 and WPM media were prepared by weighing
their powder of 4.41, 3.75 and 2.46 g, respectively. The powder
was mixed together with other additives such as agar and plant
growth regulators and dissolved in ultra-pure water to make up to
1 litre. Amount of 30.0 g l-1 sucrose was also added during the
preparation of the medium. The pH of the medium was adjusted to
5.5-5.8 before dissolving Difco-Bacto agar (7.5 g) into the medium.
This medium was poured into borosilicate test tubes and the mouth
was closed with a plastic cap. They were autoclaved at 121C for
15 min. Plant growth regulators were filter sterilised with 0.02 m
membrane filter and added to the media after autoclaving under
sterile condition. All cultures were maintained under cool-white
fluorescent light with a 16-h photoperiod and incubated at 25
2C.
Effects of basal medium, plant growth regulators and their
interaction on morphogenesis of leaf and nodal stem segment
explants: Following surface disinfection and pre-treatment, each
explant was trimmed and placed individually in culture tubes
containing 15 ml of three types of medium (MS, B5 and WPM)
supplemented with various concentration (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0,
8.0 and 10.0 mg l-1) of cytokinins (BAP) and auxin (2,4-D). The
experiment, utilized a factorial design followed with 20 explants
per treatment. Initial morphogenesis was assessed weekly and
376
Mean
number of
shoots
4.0 (1.9a)
3.6 (1.9a)
1.7 (1.2b)
Mean shoot
length
(mm)
5.4 (2.2ab)
4.7 (2.1b)
5.1 (2.2a)
Mean shoot
elongation
(mm)
6.4 (2.5a)
6.5 (2.5a)
6.5 (2.5a)
Mean number of
explants obtained
per culture
3.4 (1.8a)
3.4 (1.8a)
3.5 (1.8a)
Values expressed in parenthesis indicate square root transformation. The values with same superscripts
are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on Duncans Multiple range test.
Table 2. Effects of BAP on the morphogenesis of nodal stem explant after 8 weeks in culture.
BAP
(mgl-1)
0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Percentage of
explants
producing shoots
41.7
60
71.7
46.7
55
50
50
48.3
Mean
number
of shoots
3.7 (1.8)bc
3.1 (1.7)c
4.1 (1.9)ab
4.5 (2.0)a
3.3 (1.8)bc
2.1 (1.5)d
2.3 (1.5)d
1.6 (1.3)e
Mean
shoot
length (mm)
8.5 (2.7)a
5.7 (2.3)b
5.5 (2.3)b
5.2 (2.2)bc
3.9 (2.0)d
3.2 (1.7)e
4.6 (2.1)cd
3.9 (2.0)d
Mean
elongation
of shoots (mm)
4.8 (2.2)d
8.1 (2.8)a
7.9 (2.8)a
6.8 (2.6)b
7.5 (2.7)ab
5.9 (2.4)c
5.2 (2.3)cd
5.4 (2.3)cd
Mean number
of explants
obtained per culture
6.7 (2.6)a
3.3 (1.8)c
3.2 (1.8)c
4.5 (2.1)b
2.0 (1.4)f
2.2 (1.5)ef
3.0 (1.7)cd
2.6 (1.6)de
Intensity
of callus
formation 1
+
+
++
++
Morphological
appearance
of shoot 2
+
+
+
++
++
++
++
Values expressed in parenthesis indicate square root transformation. The means with same superscripts are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on Duncan Multiple Range Test.
1: Number of (+) sign indicates the extent of callusing, single plus (+) represent minimum and four pluses (++++) indicates maximum amount of callusing. 2: The (-) sign indicates shoots
showing sign of necrosis, single plus (+) indicates less than 10% of the cultures producing curly leaves shoot with stunted growth, two pluses (++) indicates 11 to 30% of cultures producing
curly leaves shoot with stunted growth, three pluses (+++) indicates 31 to 50% of the cultures producing curly leaves and stunted growth and Four pluses (++++) indicates > 50% of
the culture producing curly leaves with stunted growth.
377
mature explants (72 month old) required only 0.1 mg l-1 BAP in
combination with 0.1 mg l-1 kinetin to produce the highest shoot
regeneration (50%) with much shorter mean shoot length (2.0 mm).
These differences might be mediated by the differences in the
endogenous levels of growth hormones in the species 39.
There is a tendency for shoot growth with increased BAP
concentration in term of mean number of shoot produced.
However, further increase in BAP concentration (exceeding 2.0
mg l-1) has resulted in a decrease in the number of shoots produced
per explant, and also formation of more abnormal shoots (Fig. 1B).
The abnormal dwarf like shoots had shorter internodes and
thicker leaves and they formed compact clumps, which were
difficult to separate. Shoots of this type tend to remain stunted
and produced more bud-like structures around the base of the
explants. Based on the fact that BAP acts on nucleus-based events
or on membranes in the cytoplasm, it is expected to produce toxic
effects beyond a certain levels. So far, no information whether
cytokinins possess inhibitory effects as most of these negative
results with other species was undoubtedly been left unreported 34.
Apical necrosis was observed to occur on the shoots produced
378
Leaf
Mean number
Mean root
of roots
length (mm)
6.5 (2.2b)
4.6 (2.2a)
6.9 (2.4a)
3.9 (2.0b)
8.0 (2.1a)
8.0 (2.2b)
Values expressed in parenthesis indicate square root transformation. The means with same superscripts
are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on Duncans Multiple Range Test.
The highest mean number of roots for leaf (20.6) and nodal stem
segment explants (8.3) were both achieved in the medium
supplemented with 10.0 mg l-1 2,4-D while the longest mean root
for leaf explants (10.4) and nodal stem segment (12.0 mm) were
achieved in the medium supplemented with 2.0 mg l-1 2,4-D (Table
4). Callus started to develop from the cut end for leaf segment
after one week in culture incubation and produced compact white
and watery callus in all concentration tested. Callus turned
yellowish and started to produce roots after 5 weeks. The highest
intensity of callus produced (+++), from both leaf and nodal stem
segment explants were obtained in the medium supplemented with
10.0 mg l-1 2,4-D.
The pattern of rhizogenesis in this study was similar to that
Table 4. Effects of various concentration of 2,4-D on the morphogenesis of leaf and nodal segment explants
after 30 days in culture incubation.
2, 4-D
(mgl-1)
0
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Mean number
of roots
0.2 (0.5e)
1.4 (0.3e)
1.2 (0.3e)
2.6 (1.1d)
2.9 (2.2c)
9.3 (3.8b)
18.7 (4.2a)
20.6 (4.4a)
Leaf segment
Mean length
Intensity of
of roots (mm)
callus formation 1
0.4 (1.5d)
+
5.0 (2.0bc)
+
9.5 (2.9a)
+
10.4 (3.1a)
++
2.7 (2.1b)
++
2.0 (1.5d)
++
3.4 (1.5d)
+++
4.1 (1.7cd)
+++
Mean number
of roots
0.8 (1.3d)
1.3 (0.9e)
1.4 (1.0e)
2.0 (1.4d)
3.3 (2.1c)
3.7 (2.3c)
6.6 (2.6b)
8.3 (4.0a)
Values having the same superscripts are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on Duncans Multiple range Test. Values expressed in parenthesis indicate square root
transformation. 1: Number of (+) sign indicates the extent of callusing, single plus (+) represent minimum and four pluses (++++) indicates maximum amount of callusing.
379
A.mernsii 28. Rajadurai et al. 36 reported that both IBA and NAA
when added at 0.02 - 2.0 mg l-1 gave the best result for root formation
in A.mangium while the rooting of shoots in A. koa 10 and A.
mearnsii 28 were reported to be successful on medium containing
0.2 and 1.0 mg l-1 IBA, respectively. Other forest species like
Eucalyptus citriodora 50 and A. heterophyllus 51 have been
reported to require similar concentrations of auxin, 2.0 mg l-1 NAA
and 2.0 - 5.0 mg l-1 IBA, respectively, for optimal adventitious root
formation.
The highest percentage of rooting (30%) and the highest mean
number of shoots (3.3) occurred on the MS medium supplemented
with 5.0 mg l-1 NAA. The longest mean root length of 25.5 mm was
obtained from those cultured on MS medium supplemented with
1.0 mg l-1 NAA (Table 6, Fig. 1D). Shoots cultured on B5 medium
failed to develop any root and died after 20 days in incubation in
all concentrations. Shoot from fourth subculture responded better
in IBA compared to NAA where the highest percentage of roots
produced (70%) was achieved in medium supplemented with 1.0
and 5.0 mg l-1, respectively (Table 7, Fig. 1C). Better performance
of rooting was observed on the shoots obtained from the fourth
culture where 60% of the shoots formed roots, compared to those
obtained from the initial culture with only 21% of the shoots rooted.
Juddy 32 also reported similar finding on A. excelsa where shoots
from the fourth subculture rooted better (100%) than those
obtained from the initial culture (70%). This could be due to the
rejuvenation process that took place during each subculture.
According to Harry and Thorpe 52, rejuvenation of shoots can be
achieved by repeated subculture on a cytokinin supplemented
medium, which is believed to increase the auxin:abscisic acid ratio
and subsequently improve the rooting ability of shoots.
Table 6. Effects of concentration of NAA on the
formation of roots after 30 days in MS medium
(shoots from first sub-culture).
NAA
(mgl-1)
0
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
Percentage of
rooted shoots (%)
10
20
20
21
30
Mean number
of roots
1.8b
1.3bc
1.0c
2.8a
3.3a
Mean length
of roots
23.3a
24.0a
25.5a
24.5a
18.0b
Values having the same superscripts are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on
Duncans Multiple Rank Test.
IBA
NAA
Concentration
(mgl-1)
0.0
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
Percentage
of rooted
shoots (%)
25
55
70
65
70
10
40
20
60
30
Mean
number of
roots
2.6c
3.4bc
3.3c
9.2b
10.5a
1.8b
1.6b
2.0ab
2.4a
1.7b
Mean
length of
roots
23.2a
19.1b
18.0b
13.8c
12.0d
23.3b
21.4c
31.1a
16.5d
15.3d
Values having the same superscripts are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on Duncans
Multiple Rank Test.
381
382
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e-mail: info@world-food.net
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Abstract
Continued unplanned and unscientific exploitation of land resources could result in land degradation. Mis-management regarding land and land use
practices are aggravated by over-exploitation of water and land resources, over cultivation of marginal lands, and the use of inappropriate technologies.
Identification of land degradation is essential to check the problem and to implement the remedial measures needed. The study area falls under parts
of Al-Qassim province, Saudi Arabia, that is an arid region in climate. In recent years, the region has witnessed an intensive agriculture and unplanned
utilization of natural resources, which may result in land degradation. This study was carried out in 2006-2007 as part of a project aimed to study
features and causes of land degradation in Al-Qassim area, Saudi Arabia. Satellite imagery in addition to the field and laboratory studies to identify
salinity-induced soil degradation was adopted in this study. Identification of different land degradation types revealed that calcareous and saltaffected area covers about 4335.86 km2. The major degradation process is chemical degradation, particularly by salinization, which affects vast area
of the cultivated soils in the region. Morphological, chemical and physical characteristics of soils in salinity-induced degraded sites in Al-Qassim,
Saudi Arabia, were depicted. The main results of a thorough evaluation of salinity-induced soil degradation in Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia, are presented.
The data revealed that extent of salinity-induced degradation was generally related to some physical properties of soil, quality of irrigation water and
previous soil management practices. These results are useful as the basis for designing soil conservation and restoration programs, as a base line for
evaluating the performance of conservation programs and for assessing the impact of other soil-related activities (e.g. agriculture and livestock rising).
Key words: Soil degradation, S-induced land degradation, remote sensing.
Introduction
Land degradation is a great threat to the world, not merely as an
environmental issue, but also a social and economic problem.
Land degradation can be defined as a decrease in either or both
the biological productivity and usefulness of a particular place,
due to human interference 1. Salt-prone land degradation is a major
environmental constraint with severe negative impacts on
agricultural productivity and sustainability, particularly in arid and
semi-arid regions of the world 2. Salt-affected soils exist in more
than 100 countries, extending to 76 million hectare 3. It is reported
recently that about 10% of presently arable lands of the world are
affected by salinity 4. Salinity and sodicity affect an estimated 952
M ha-1 of land 5. In several large-scale irrigation schemes, salinityinduced soil degradation has increased steadily over the last few
decades with concurrent reductions in agricultural productivity
and sustainability.
In studying areas expected to face desertification in Saudi
Arabia 5, it was concluded that about 97% of Saudi Arabia is
extremely arid while the remaining 3%, which is located in the
elevated areas of the Southwestern corner of the country, is subject
to desertification. Desertification indicators that can be used in
monitoring desertification are changes in both groundwater and
surface water as resources and the consequence changes in natural
vegetation density and extend of agricultural areas. Classification,
evaluation, and mapping of degraded land are a major issue
383
field work and previous work in the region. This approach can be
summarized in the following steps:
Sensor
TM
300'0"N
300'0"N
270'0"N
180'0"N
180'0"N
210'0"N
210'0"N
240'0"N
240'0"N
270'0"N
360'0"E
390'0"E
420'0"E
450'0"E
480'0"E
510'0"E
540'0"E
Technical specifications
The coverage frequency: every 16 days.
The area coverage was: 185 185 km
IFOV: 28.5 meters.
Radiation accuracy: 8 bit
The degree of gray scale: 0-255
The number of TM bands: (7)
Bands range is:
Range 1 (0.45- 0.52 m) Blue
Range 2 (0.52- 0.60 m) Green
Range 3 (0.63- 0.69 m) Red
Range 4 (0.76- 0.90 m) Reflective infrared
Range 5 (1.55- 1.75 m) Mid-infrared
Range 6 (10.40- 12.5 m) Thermal-infrared
Range 7 (2.08- 2.35 m) Mid-infrared
Sensor
XS
Pan
Technical specifications
Coverage frequency: every 26 days.
Area of coverage: 60 60 km
IFOV: XS 28.5 meters. Pan = 10 meters
Radiation accuracy: 8 bit
The degree of gray scale: 0-255
The number of XS bands:
Seven spectral bands and a range is:
Range 1 (0.50- 0.59 m) Green
Range 2 (0.61- 0.68 m) Red
Range 3 (0.79- 0.89 m) Reflective infrared
The number of Pan bands:
Range 1 (0.51- 0.73 m)
167
168
168
167
168
168
167
168
168
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
296
297
296
138
138
139
1
2
3
technique. As for the images from Spot-4 was carried out by the
radiometric correction of simple type. Geometric correction for the
Orthro rectification of spot image was generated by using image
technique. Digital processing of the images was carried after
making primary corrections in accordance with the primary
objective of the research as follows:
1. Mosaic work of the selected images covering the study area.
2. The identification of the study areas.
3. Colour enhancement of the images of the bands 7, 4, 2 (RGB) of
Landsat-5, bands 3, 2, 1 (RGB) in Spot-4 by using non-linear
extension.
To identify the characteristics of ground features, and how it
spread through the analysis of satellite images principal component
analysis and unsupervised classification have been made. Several
attempts were made for the classification and the latest satellite
images used for the study area in a way that helps to identify
areas with degraded soils, which can show features of specific
type of degradation such as surface salinity.
Fourth step (field investigations): The ground truth was done
through several field trips to the study area, which identified a
number of sites experienced a decline in productivity. The total
number of these sites amounted to 49 locations representing all
surface features related to land degradation. Nine sites were
chosen to represent salinity induced land degradation. In these
sites, profiles were dug, described and sampled according to Soil
Survey Staff 11.
Analysis of soil samples: A representative soil samples collected
during fieldwork were air-dried, sieved using 2 mm sieve and used
for analysis. The pH and EC values of soil samples were measured
using 1:5 ratio of w/v with distilled water by pH-meter and the
electrical conductivity meter, respectively. Particle size distribution
and soil organic matter was determined according to Gee and
Bauder 12 and Klute 13, respectively.
Results and Discussion
Previous research: Al-Mashhady et al. 10 conducted reconnaissance soil survey in Al-Qassim area. Their results revealed
that soils of the area under investigation were highly variable in
topography and surface cover with poor to moderate drainage.
Dominant part of the area is composed of shallow to moderately
deep soils. The land suitability map based on the degrees of land
4330'0"E
440'0"E
270'0"N
42
41
42
42
41
42
42
41
42
2630'0"N
Number
260'0"N
Path
270'0"N
March-May 2004
Row
2630'0"N
Dates
Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper
22-03-1993
13-03-1993
130-3-1993
02-04-1997
09-04-1997
09-04-1997
31-05-2001
06-05-2001
06-05-2001
Spot-4
260'0"N
4330'0"E
20
10
km
440'0"E
40
Figure 2. Satellite image map Spot-4, RGB 3, 2, 1 band for year 2004.
Red colour shows cultivated areas.
385
430'0"E
270'0"N
PCA image
430'0"E
440'0"E
430'0"E
20
10
km
440'0"E
40
440'0"E
270'0"N
270'0"N
4330'0"E
2630'0"N
Legend
260'0"N
4330'0"E
386
2630'0"N
40
2630'0"N
20
km
260'0"N
4330'0"E
10
260'0"N
260'0"N
430'0"E
440'0"E
2630'0"N
270'0"N
2630'0"N
2630'0"N
260'0"N
4330'0"E
270'0"N
440'0"E
260'0"N
4330'0"E
270'0"N
430'0"E
???
Classified image
430'0"E
4330'0"E
10
20
km
40
440'0"E
Depth / cm
0 20
20 40
2Cz
40 75
Cz
75 95
95+
Description
Reddish yellow (7.5YR 6/6, dry), brown (7.5YR 5/4, moist);
loamy sand; single grain; loose, slightly sticky, non-plastic;
very few fine roots; few very fine salt crystals; abrupt smooth
boundary.
Very pale brown (10YR 7/4, dry), yellowish brown (10YR
5/6, moist); loamy sand; single grain; loose, slightly sticky,
non-plastic; few fine roots; few very fine salt crystals; very
few fine soft decomposed organic matter; clear smooth
boundary.
Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4, dry), yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6, moist); sand; single grain; loose, non-sticky, nonplastic; few very fine salt crystals; very few fine soft
decomposed organic matter; clear wavy boundary.
White (10YR 8/2, dry), yellowish brown (10YR 5/6, moist);
sandy loam; massive; slightly hard, slightly sticky, slightly
plastic; few very fine salt crystals; some fine soft distinct
yellow (2.5Y 7/8) mottles.
Water table
Texture class
Loamy sandy
Loamy sandy
Sand
Sandy loam
O.M
%
1.20
0.50
ND
ND
pH
8.91
8.76
8.62
8.39
EC
dS m-1
100.7
38.5
34.4
45.0
CaCO3
%
35.5
39.4
23.9
23.3
Conclusions
Repeated coverage of satellite imageries could
provide an efficient tool for monitoring land
degradation in Saudi Arabia. Implementation of
remote sensing technology in desertification
monitoring can be done through various means:
the direct approach is by measuring the area of
reduction in plant cover. However, social and
economic factors may also have an effect. The
indirect mean is by studying indicators of
desertification that can be measured on satellite
imageries. Monitoring saline degraded lands
has always been a primary issue for efficient
irrigation systems management and
rehabilitation policies. The solutions to reduce
salinization in the study area could be one of
the following: reduce irrigation, switch to salttolerant crops, use humic acids to fix anions
and cations and eliminate them from the root
region of the plants. It is suggested that, the
salinization in Al-Qassim region occurred by
one of the following: high level of salts in the
soils, over cultivation, irrigation
mismanagement and climate trends that favour
accumulation of salts. Salinization
consequences in Al-Qassim region resulted in
387
stunts crop growth, lowers crop yields, decreased soil and fertility,
damage to infrastructure and reduction of water quality.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank College of Food and Agricultural Research
Center and Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia, for supporting this work. The authors extend their
thanks to King AbduIaziz City for Science and Technology
(KACST) for financial support of project # AT-25 43 under the title
Assessment of land degradation in some irrigated soils (Causes
and Features) in Saudi Arabia.
References
Oldeman, L. R., Hakkeling, R. T. and Sombroek, W. G. 1991. World map
of the status of human-induced soil degradation: An explanatory note.
2nd rev. edn. International Soil Reference and Information Centre, United
Nations, pp. 1-41.
2
Jorenush, M. H. and Sepaskhah, A. R. 2003. Modeling capillary rise
and soil salinity for shallow saline water table under irrigated and nonirrigated conditions. Agricultural Water Management 61(2):125-141.
3
Jamshid, F. and Abbas, F. 2002. Remote sensing and modeling of topsoil
properties, a clue for assessing land degradation. 17th WCSS, Thailand,
pp. 1-11.
4
Tabet, D. A., Vidal, D., Zimmer, S. Asif, M., Kuper, M. and Strosser, P.
1997. Soil salinity characterization in SOPT images: A case study in
one irrigation system of the Punjab, Pakistan. Physical Measurement
and Signatures in Remote Sensing. Guyot and Phulpin Eds-Balkema,
pp. 795-800.
5
Zoghet, M. F. and Akabawi, K. A. 1986. Life zones of Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Biological Society Proceedings 9:3-48.
6
Qi, S. Z. and Cai, Y. M. 2007. Mapping and assessment of degraded
land in the Heihe river basin, Arid Northwestern China. Sensors 7:25652578.
7
Adams, J. B., Smith, O. M. and Gillespie, A. R. 1989. Simple model for
complex natural surfaces: Astrategy for the hyperspectral era of remote
sensing. Proceedings of IEEE International Geoscience and Remote
Sensing Symposium, IGARSS89, Vancouver, Canada. British
Columbia 1, IEEE Press, Piscataway.
8
Karale, R. L., Seshagiri Rao, K. V. and Singh, A. N. 1978. Evaluation of
Landsat imagery for reconnaissance soil mapping. Andhra Pradesh
Appreciation Seminar, New Delhi.
9
Margate, E. and Shrestha, D. P. 2001. The use of hyper spectral data in
identifying desert-like soil surface features in Tabernas area, Southeast
Spain. The 22nd Asian Conference on Remote Sensing, 5-9 November
2001, Singapore CRISP, SISV, AARS.
10
Al-Mashhady, A. S., Hamad, M. A. and Reda, M. 1986. Soil recourses
and land potential for Al-Al Qassim region. Saudi Arabia Agric.
Research Center Coll. Agric. King Saud Univ., pp. 1-95.
11
Soil Survey Staff 1993. Soil Survey Manual. USDA Agric., Handbook.
18. U. S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, DC, pp. 1-88.
12
Gee, G. W. and Bauder, J. W. 1996. Particle size analysis. In Klute, A.
(ed.). Methods of soil Analysis. Part 1: Physical and Mineralogical
Methods. 3rd edn.S.S.S.A. and American Society of Agronomy,
Madison, WI, pp. 377-382.
13
Klute, A. (ed.). 1996. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3. Chemical
Methods. Am. Soc. of Agron., Inc. Madison, WI, Agronomy
Monograph 5:961-1010..
14
Uchida, S. 1995. Diagnosis of land degradation in the semi-arid area of
Asia and Pacific region 10-/ Using Remote Sensing Data -JIRCASs
Case Study. Available on http://www.a-a-r-s.org/aars/proceeding/
ACRS1995/Papers/LD95-1.htm.
15
Ministry of Agriculture and Water 1995. The Land Resources. Ministry
of Agriculture and Water, Land Management Department, pp. 1-33.
1
388
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
1, 3*
, Arifin Abdu
4, 5
Department of Microbiology, 2 Department of Soil Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong - 4331, Bangladesh.
Department of Bioprocessing Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Science, 4 Faculty of Forestry,
5
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
6
Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong - 4331, Bangladesh.
*e-mail: wahhida_shumi@hotmail.com, aktar_forestry@hotmail.com
1
Abstract
Fish is the main source of animal protein for the common people of Bangladesh. About 37% of the inland fishes are obtained from the closed water
fish culture where ponds play vital roles in the production system. The present study was carried out to determine the water quality (physicochemical and biological factors) of five uncultivated or under cultivated ponds in the Chittagong University campus, Bangladesh, for aquaculture and
ecosystem management. Temperature, pH, EC, BOD, COD, TSS, turbidity, NO2-, PO4-, free CO2, CO3 -, HCO3-, Cl-, total viable bacterial count and
total coliform were determined. Isolation and identification of Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. from the water samples were performed to
investigate the antibiotic sensitivity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) against ciprofloxacin
was also investigated. The findings reveal that there was no significant difference in temperature (19C to 20C), pH (6.7 to 7.4), electrical
conductivity and Cl- values in the water among the ponds and that was within the range of the requirements for the fish cultivation. Both turbidity
and total dissolved solids was highest in the uncultivated botanical garden pond 2 (BGP2). BOD, COD, NO2-, PO4-2, HCO3-, and free CO2
concentration was beyond the permissible limits for aquaculture. Total viable count and total coliform ranged from 1.3 10 4 to 6.6 10 5 cfu ml-1 and
from 0.020510 2 to 1.1010 2 ml-1 respectively, among the ponds where both these parameters were highest in the naturally polluted BGP2. Most
of the isolated E. coli and Salmonella sp. were sensitive but few showed resistance against the antibiotics, especially in BGP1, where fishes were
cultivated commercially.
Key words: Aquaculture, ecosystem management, water quality, physico-chemical property, total bacterial count.
Introduction
Water is essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems and socioeconomic development. Properly managed water resources are
the critical component of growth, poverty alleviation and equity.
Livelihoods of the people are intimately associated with the access
to water services. Managing water resources using integrated
approach will be critical to mitigate social, economic and
environmental impacts. Rice and fish constitute the principle diet
where fish is the main source of animal protein for the common
people of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is one of the leading inland
fisheries producer in the world with an estimated production of
1,646,819 tons out of 9,14,752 tons from aquaculture and 2.1 million
tons in the country during the year 2003 - 2004 1. Aquaculture
accounted for about 43.5 percent of the total fish production in
the country where inland open and closed water fisheries
contributed 34.8 and 37 percent, respectively 1. Among the closed
water culture fisheries, pond fish culture plays vital roles in the
production system.
The estimated number of ponds in the country is 1.3 million,
covering an area of 0.151 million ha, of which 55.3 percent is
cultured, 28.52 percent is culturable and 16.18 percent is unused.
The percentage of fish produced from these three types of ponds
was 72.09, 20.01 and 7.90, respectively, in 2002 2. The size of these
ponds varied from 0.020 ha to 20 ha with an average of 0.30 ha. In
389
Sites
Botanical garden pond 1
Botanical garden pond 2
Science faculty pond
South campus pond
Biological science faculty
Temperature
20C*
19C
20C*
19C
19C
pH
6.88
6.84
7.40*
7.05
6.72
Turbidity
0.094
0.203*
0.050
0.067
0.088
EC (S L-1)
653.3
1033.3
7933.3*
1286.7
7866.7
391
COD
(mg L-1)
387.2
401.28*
264
119.68
281.6
BOD
(mg L-1)
92.4
122.6*
40.2
48.6
80.6
392
BGP1
Rod
1.54
0.98
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Salmonella sp.
BGP2 SFC SCP
Rod
Rod Rod
1.14
0.82
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0.98
0.7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1.26
1.12
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
BSF
Rod
BGP1
Rod
BGP2
Rod
0.84
0.42
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1.26
0.7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1.12
0.74
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
E. coli
SFC
Rod
SCP
Rod
BSF
Rod
1.4
0.84
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1.54
0.98
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1.12
0.98
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 5. Antibiotic sensitivity of E.coli and Salmonella sp. isolated from different
ponds against various antibiotics.
Pond
BGP1
BGP2
SFC
SCP
BSF
Antibiotics
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
Cefixime
Amoxicillin
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
Cefixime
Amoxicillin
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
Cefixime
Amoxicillin
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
Cefixime
Amoxicillin
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
Cefixime
Amoxicillin
Antibiotic
g disc-1
15
30
5
30
15
30
5
30
15
30
5
30
15
30
5
30
15
30
5
30
Zone of inhibition(cm)
E. coli Salmonella sp.
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
1.7
2.3
2.4
1.7
Nil
Nil
1.8
1.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Nil
Nil
1.5
1.7
3
2
1.7
1.5
Nil
Nil
1.7
1.5
3.1
1.7
1.7
1. 3
Nil
Nil
1.5
1.7
2.9
2.5
1.5
1.5
Comment
E. coli
Salmonella sp.
Resistance Resistence
Resistance Resistence
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Resistance Resistence
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
sensitive
Sensitive
Resistance Resistence
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
sensitive
Sensitive
Resistance Resistence
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
sensitive
Sensitive
Resistance Resistence
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
Sensitive
sensitive
Sensitive
393
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2, 3
3, 4
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, P. O. Box 273, Chittagong - 4000, Bangladesh. Institute of Forestry and Environmental
Sciences, Chittagong University, Chittagong - 4331, Bangladesh. 3 Faculty of Forestry, 4 Institute of Tropical Forestry and
Forest Products, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*e-mail: haider_bfri@yahoo.com, aktar_forestry@hotmail.com
2
Abstract
The paper describes the germination behaviour of Calamus longisetus Griff. seeds under three different pre-sowing treatments and seedlings growth
performance in nursery and field condition. Whole fruits, seeds with pulp and cleaned seeds were sown in germination trays filled with soils mixed with
decomposed cowdung at a ratio of 3:1. The growth performance of the seedlings were determined by transferring the young seedlings (having 2 - 3 leaves)
from germination bed to the polybags filled with soil mix followed by outplanting (at 1-year old) in the field. Germination percentage was significantly
(p 0.001) enhanced by the pre-sowing treatment where the highest germination percentage was in cleaned seeds followed by the seeds with pulp and
lowest in whole fruits. The survival percentage was over 91% in the field after one year and the average height 126.2 cm after two years of planting. Clean
seeds for nursery raising and one-year old seedlings for outplanting were found suitable for raising successful plantations for the species.
Key words: Calamus longisetus, cleaned seeds, germination potential, survival percentage, pre-sowing treatment, seedling growth.
Introduction
Rattan is a climbing spiny palm belonging to the family Arecaceae
(Palmeae) and constitutes an integral part of the tropical forest
ecosystem 1. Rattans are the most important non timber forest
products (after bamboo) in the tropical and sub-tropical counties
of Asia and Africa. It has gained additional interest among the
people because of increased awareness as well as their vital roles
in socioeconomic development and socio-ecological research
issues 2. Rattans are important sources of income and employment
for millions of people all over the world directly or indirectly. In
India, rattan industries alone provides jobs for 200,000 people 3 and
its contribution is about 25 - 35% of the total household income of
the tribal communities in North Eastern India. Rattan furnitures
are much valued in many countries, and are being exported abroad
from the producing countries 4.
Six hundred species of rattans under 13 genera were recorded in
the world in early nineties 4 but recent report shows that only 558
species exist 5. Of these, 15 species were recorded in Bangladesh 6-11
but currently there are only 10 species of rattans under two genera
growing in the country 12, 13. These rattan resources have depleted
fast in recent years due to over exploitations and poor
management 14 including almost complete removal of stems from
the forest during harvesting. Consequently, steady loss of forest
habitat due to urbanization and industrialization is also posing a
serious threat to rattan supply. High demand for these resources,
coupled with uncontrolled harvesting and deforestation, has led
the resources towards the exhaustion in many rattan-producing
areas 15. To cope with the increasing global demand for rattan,
there is an urgent need for sustainable management of rattan
resources. There are two different approaches to achieve the goals,
by establishing rattan plantations and managing existing rattans
395
(A)
Fi
B)
2 Wh l f it (A)
d l
(B)
d (B) f C l
i t
d f
Figure 2. Whole fruits (A) and cleaned seeds (B) of C. longisetus are
ready for sowing in the germination trials.
under full shade for one week and then placed under direct sunlight
where they were allowed to grow. When the seedlings were about
one-year old, 1000 seedlings were out planted in five plots in the
field at the beginning of the monsoon, e.g. June. Rest of the
seedlings (1000), were allowed to grow in the nursery for one
more year. Data on shoot and root length and leaf number of
these seedlings were also recorded at three, six, twelve and twenty
four months after transferring them in polybags. Seedlings in the
field were planted at 2 m 2 m spacing at the foot hills of Hinguli
Research Station, Chittagong, Bangladesh. The soil was sandyloam with a pH 5.7 - 6.0. Average rainfall of the area was about
3200 mm and average maximum and minimum temperature was
34.7C and 20.7C, respectively, indicating the ecophysiological
conditions of the planting site were ideal for the rattan plantations34.
Weeding was done at every six months in the field but no fertilizer
or water was added after planting. One hundred seedlings from
each of the five selected plots were measured to determine the
height growth of the species in the field. Data on the height of
each plant were recorded at six, twelve and twenty four months
after planting. Survival percentage of the planted seedling in the
field was determined one year after planting the seedlings. All
data were analyzed with computer software IBM SPSS ver. 21 to
determine the significant (p 0.001) variations among the
treatments.
400
200
00
Whole
fruit
80
80
800
600
Cummulative
germination(%)(%)
Cummulative germination
Germination percentage
(A)
60
60
Whole fruit
(B)
Seed with
pulp
Cleaned seeds
12.53 1.6 a
6.7 0.87 a
2.1 0.52 a
1409.56 a
20
20
00
Note: The same different letter(s) in each row are significantly different at p 0.05, according to
Duncans Multiple Range Test (DMRT). indicates the standard error of mean.
40
40
Whole fruits
9.1 1.03 b
4.62 0.42 b
1.3 0.3 a
489.80 b
Figure 3. Germination percentage (A) and the germination pattern (B) of C. longisetus for
whole fruits, seeds with pulp and cleaned seeds over time.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
Average height
(cm)
17.5 2.5
22.8 2.8
30.2 3.7
82.7 6.2
Average length of
Roots (cm)
10.1 2.2
13.4 2.8
16.6 1.7
27.2 3.8
The figure in each column mean followed by standard error (SE) of means.
No. of leaves
Per seedlings
3.1 0.9
5.0 1.2
7.6 1.4
11.3 2.1
significantly higher than those in the other treatments (Table 1). We,
therefore, sowed only the cleaned seeds in the seed beds for
assessing the seedling growth performances in the nursery and
the field. Three thousand cleaned seeds were sown in three blocks
(considered as replications) of the nursery bed for the purpose.
The germination percentage (71.6 2.3) was almost similar of the
previous experiment (Fig. 3). Two-months old (after germination)
seedlings having 2 - 3 leaves were transferred in to the polybags
filled with soil mixed with cowdung and allowed them for growing
there. After one year of transferring the seedlings in the
polybags, 1000 seedlings were outplanted in the field. Rest of
the seedlings (1000) were grown in the nursery for one more year.
The seedling mortality in the nursery bed (less than three percent)
and during and after transplanting the seedlings to the polybags
(around 1%) was very negligible. Growth performance of seedlings
in the nursery determined at different age is shown in Table 2.
The seedlings attained 17.5 cm height (above ground) with
average length of root 10.1 cm and 3.1 leaves in three months. The
seedlings became quite tough and attained a height of 22.8 cm
with 13.4 cm root and 5.0 leaves at six months. The average height
30.2 cm with 16.6 cm root and 7.6 leaves was recorded at twelve
months. The seedlings attained a height of 82.7 cm with 27.2 cm
long root and 11.3 leaves at twenty four month (Table 3 and Fig.
3).
Survival (%) at
12 months
90.0
88.5
92.5
91.0
94.5
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p 0.05, according to Duncans
Multiple Range Test (DMRT). indicates the standard error of the mean.
(A)A)
(B)
B)
Seedling survival and growth performance in the field: One year old seedlings of C. longisetus developed from cleaned seeds
grown in polybags were planted in the field. Survival and seedlings
growth performances were determined at 6, 12 and 24 months
after planting in the field (Table 3). Survival percentage varied
from 88.5 to 94.5 with an average of 91.3 among the plots. The
seedling height varied from 52.8 to 67.6 cm at six months, from
69.4 to 88.6 cm in one year and from 117.3 to 134.0 cm in two years
of planting (Figs 4 and 5).
(C)
C)
Conclusions
Germination behaviour of C. longisetus is similar to
other members of the family Palmeae and needs longer
time to germinate. C. longisetus seeds start germination
after 56 days of sowing and complete within 106 days.
Maximum seed germination and highest initial growth
performance of the seedlings was observed in clean
seeds which was much higher than those in the other
two treatments. Delayed pricking at 100 - 120 days after
sowing the seeds from nursery bed to polybags
ensures least or no mortality of the seedling. Survival
of seedlings (91%) and growth performance in the field
was satisfactory when one year old seedlings were
outplanted. Therefore, clean seeds for the nursery
399
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Trophic State Index (TSI) applied in the assessment of anthropic impacts on the
surface water of a watershed
Adir Otto Schmidt *, Slvio Cesar Sampaio, Ralpho Rinaldo dos Reis, Camila Jussara Schmidt,
Edison Barbosa da Cunha and Lisdefferson Hamann Andrade
Western Paran State University, UNIOESTE/CCET/PGEAGRI /RHESA, Rua Universitria, 2069 CEP 85819-110, Cascavel,
PR, Brazil. *e-mail: adir.schmidt@unioeste.br
Received 18 July 2014, accepted 28 September 2014.
Abstract
The consolidation of the urbanization process in the cities and the intensification of agriculture and breeding in rural areas have caused impacts on
water resources, particularly the eutrophication of rivers. In order to contribute to the monitoring and preservation of water quality, this study aimed
to employ the Trophic State Index (TSI) to assess impacts of human actions on the surface water of a watershed of So Francisco Verdadeiro river.
In the period from 2011 to 2013, 52 monitoring campaigns were performed at intervals of 15 days. Water samples were collected from nine strategic
locations of the watershed and from a control location. The collection sites were defined by taking into account the possibility of different impacts
from each activity developed along the watershed. Discharge readings and analyses of total phosphorus and chlorophyll-a concentrations were
performed in order to calculate the TSI. Based on the results obtained, the trophic classification was mesotrophic in six locations, and eutrophic,
supereutrophic and hypereutrophic in one location each. It was concluded that different forms of use and occupation cause impact on the eutrophication
process, which varied in space and time. The highest concentrations of total phosphorus for sites with influence of urban activities occurred during
periods of low discharge, whereas for places with influence of agricultural activities they occurred in high discharge events. Sites with influence of
urban activities presented higher trophic classification than those influenced by agricultural activities. TSI, TSI(Chl), and TSI(TP) classifications may
vary for a same location, depending on environmental conditions and activities developed on site.
Key words: Water pollution, eutrophication, monitoring of water quality.
Introduction
Human activities are developed from natural resources and exert
influence on these resources by modifying the environment, which
affects such activities in a way that in some cases it is not possible
for people to inhabit those locations anymore. In China, the
eutrophication threatens water quality with indirect impact on
economic development and social stability 1.
The occupation and land use for agricultural activities and the
process of urbanization alter the physical, chemical and biological
processes of natural ecosystems with direct impact on water
quality 2-5. Chemical parameters of water bodies are modified due
to the supply of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen,
which induce the process of eutrophication in rivers and lakes
and a consequent inadequate utilization for domestic, industrial,
agriculture and livestock consumption. The eutrophication of
rivers and lakes is worsening in tropical regions, which offer more
favourable environmental conditions for the growth of algae and
macrophytes. Apart from natural factors, the introduction of
elements derived from the use and occupation of land by man in
their watershed enhances the process of eutrophication. Studies
in western Paran indicate increased level of nutrients in high
rainfall events that occurred during the plantation of corn and
soybean, respectively 6-8.
The Trophic State Index (TSI) evaluates water quality regarding
nutrient enrichment. Its effect is related to excessive algal growth
or increased infestation of aquatic weeds. The TSI has been
consolidated as an indicator of eutrophication in aquatic
400
Figure 1. Watershed location, urban perimeters, control site and collection sites along So
Francisco Verdadeiro river and its tributaries.
Table 1. Location and characterization of the control site and the nine collection sites along So Francisco Verdadeiro river
and its tributaries.
Site
C00
River
Geographic Coordinates
S 2457; W 5328
S02
So Francisco Verdadeiro
after the urban perimeter
So Francisco Verdadeiro/Lope
S 2447; W 5343
S03
S 2447; W 5343
S04
So Francisco Verdadeiro/Toledo
S 2445; W 5347
S05
S 2445; W 5347
S06
S 2446; W 5404
S07
S 2446; W 54 04
S08
S 2444; W 5407
S09
S 2441; W 5409
S01
S 2455; W 5330
Characteristics
One of the several springs of So Francisco Verdadeiro river
in the urban perimeters of Cascavel.
After the urban perimeter of Cascavel and discharge of a
sewage treatment station.
Rural area.
Tributary of a rural area, tanks for fish farming and intensive
swine production.
Rural area with influence on the urban perimeter of Toledo.
Tributary of a rural area that receives domestic and industrial
sewage from the urban perimeter of Toledo.
Area with higher land declivity (building of a small
hydropower plant) with agriculture and pastures.
Tributary of an area with extensive production of cattle.
Close to the reservoir of Itaipu hydropower plant: rural area
and pastures with higher land declivity.
Close to the reservoir of Itaipu hydropower plant: rural area,
with intensive production of swine and poultry.
401
402
0.001
0.56
8.95
2.78
13.28
3.05
9.80
Table 4. Trophic state indices and trophic state classification for the
control treatment and nine collection sites.
(a)
-1
(b)
(c)
(d)
403
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Abstract
Fish samples of Rastrelliger kanagurta of various lengths (cm) and weight (g) were collected from the coast of Karachi fish Harbour during August,
2006 to December, 2011. Samples were analysed as seasonal variation for Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn by using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. The highest
(24.01.75) and the lowest mean (23.51.65) lengths of fish were measured in 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. The maximum (13222.76) and minimum
(12618.65) weights were also measured in 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. The highest (498.21161.37 g/g) and lowest (16.7414.07 g/g) mean
concentrations of Fe were recorded in liver and gonads of fish during 2007-2008. Maximum (18.239.46 g/g) and minimum (0.510.45 g/g)
concentrations of Mn were determined in liver and gonads during 2006-2011. Fishing operations can cause ecological impacts of different types: by
catches, damage of the habitat, mortalities caused by lost or discarded gear, pollution, generation of marine debris, etc. Periodic reassessment of the
R. kanagurta potential is also required with adequate inputs from exploratory surveys as well as commercial landings and this may prevent any
unsustainable trends in the development of the tuna fishing industry in the Arabian Sea.
Key words: Heavy metals, Rastrelliger kanagurta, fish harbour, Karachi, Pakistan.
Introduction
For so many years, preventive measures have been taken to reduce
the input of trace metals into oceans, rivers and estuaries, but
accumulation in the different aquatic systems have been reported
even today 19, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30. The anthropogenic activity generating
the cause for environmental concern may have divesting effects
on the ecological balance of the aquatic environment and diversity
of biota 8, 9. Sea is one of the precious gifts awarded by nature to
the human beings. Trace elements occur in minute concentrations
in biological systems. They may exert beneficial or harmful effects
on plant, animal and human life depending upon the concentration.
Heavy metals have the tendency to accumulate in the various
aquatic animals, and the accumulation depends upon the intake
and the elimination from the body 17. Metal pollution of the sea is
less visible and direct than other types of marine pollution but its
effects on marine ecosystems and humans can be intensive and
extensive.
Fish being a best nutritional source is a component of a balanced
diet that is a vital part of a healthy lifestyle. It is far healthier than
many alternative foods. Marine fishes exposed to these heavy
metals have been consumed as sea foods and hence, a connecting
pathway for the transfer of toxic heavy metals in human beings.
Fishes are major part of the human diet because they have high
protein content, low saturated fat and omega fatty acids, which
are known to support good health 6, 15. Fish is a major source for
405
2006-2007
Seasons
Summer
Spring
Muscles
Winter
Liver
Kidney
Autumn
Gills
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Gonads
700
Concentration of Fe (
g/g)
B
2007-2008
Seasons
Summer
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Autumn
Gills
0
200
400
600
800
Gonads
Concentration of Fe (
g/g)
C
2008-2009
Summer
Seasons
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Concentration of Fe (
g/g)
D
2009-2010
Summer
Spring
Seasons
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
200
400
600
800
Concentration of Fe (
g/g)
E
2010-2011
Summer
Seasons
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Concentration of Fe (
g/g)
407
2006-2007
Seasons
Summer
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
10
15
20
Concentration of Mn (
g/g)
B
2007-2008
Summer
Seasons
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
10
15
20
25
Concentration of Mn (
g/g)
2008-2009
Summer
Seasons
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
408
Gonads
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Concentration of Mn (
g/g)
D
2009-2010
Seasons
Summer
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Concentration of Mn (
g/g)
E
2010-2011
Summer
Seasons
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Concentration of Mn (
g/g)
2006-2007
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Seasons
Summer
Seasons
2006-2007
Summer
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
Gonads
0
10
20
30
g/g)
Concentration of Cu (
40
50
2007-2008
Muscles
Liver
Seasons
Seasons
Spring
Kidney
2007-2008
Spring
10
20
30
g/g)
Concentration of Cu (
40
Kidney
Gills
Gonads
0
Gonads
0
Muscles
Liver
Winter
Autumn
Gills
Autumn
10
50
Seasons
Muscles
Liver
Winter
2008-2009
Spring
Muscles
Gonads
Gills
Autumn
Liver
Kidney
Gills
Winter
Autumn
Kidney
10
20
Gonads
20
40
60
g/g)
Concentration of Cu (
60
Summer
Spring
20
30
40
50
g/g)
Concentration of Zn (
2008-2009
Summer
80
100
30
40
50
60
70
Concentration of Zn (
g/g)
D
2009-2010
Summer
Seasons
2009-2010
Summer
Seasons
60
50
Summer
Winter
Spring
Muscles
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Kidney
Gills
Winter
Autumn
Liver
Winter
Gonads
0
Kidney
10
20
Gonads
0
20
40
60
g/g)
Concentration of Cu (
80
100
30
40
50
60
70
Concentration of Zn (
g/g)
Gills
Autumn
2010-2011
Summer
Seasons
2010-2011
Summer
Seasons
20
30
40
g/g)
Concentration of Zn (
Summer
Seasons
10
Spring
Muscles
Liver
Kidney
Gills
Gonads
Winter
Spring
Muscles
Winter
Autumn
Liver
Kidney
Gills
Autumn
Gonads
0
20
40
60
80
g/g)
Concentration of Cu (
100
120
20
40
60
80
100
Concentration of Zn (
g/g)
409
411
413
414
F
2833.390
36.665
11.573
7.434
6.227
4.492
5.485
822.834
28.059
125.768
14.629
39.032
15.460
20.720
1267.365
50.486
34.616
26.397
19.020
4.910
4.234
21.330
21.330
113.835
45.17
18.282
43.478
132.632
21.773
Mean square
1.5487
200316.436
63227.547
40616.048
34020.327
24543.949
29965.326
5463.481
8812.057
300.494
1346.905
156.663
418.004
165.569
221.895
10.709
130652.302
5204.580
3568.558
2721.309
1960.784
506.137
436.524
103.090
2777.626
14823.368
5882.512
2380.673
5661.685
17271.113
2835.230
130.219
* = significant at P < 0.05 ** = significant at P < 0.01 *** = significant at P < 0.001. F statistics, df degree of freedom.
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
df
4
3
4
12
16
12
48
2070
2170
1269
4
3
4
12
16
12
448
2070
2170
1269
4
3
4
12
16
12
48
2070
2170
1269
4
3
4
12
16
12
48
2070
2170
1269
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
P
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
Winter
Summer
Spring
Autumn
Winter
Summer
Spring
Autumn
Winter
Summer
Spring
Autumn
Winter
Summer
Spring
Autumn
Season (I)
Season (J)
Spring
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Summer
Spring
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Summer
Spring
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Summer
Spring
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Summer
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Winter
Autumn
Spring
Summer
Std. Error
4.683256
4.450861
4.414836
4.683256
4.596317
4.561441
4.450861
4.596317
4.322502
4.414836
4.561441
4.322502
0.207463
0.197057
0.195462
0.207463
0.203616
0.202073
0.197057
0.203616
0.191374
0.195462
0.202073
0.191374
0.643311
0.611388
0.606440
0.643311
0.631369
0.626578
0.611388
0.631369
0.593756
0.606440
0.626578
0.59.756
0.723019
0.687141
0.681849
0.723019
0.709597
0.704474
0.687141
0.709597
0.667600
0.681849
0.704474
0.667600
Metal
Sum of square
6.1927
600949.308
252910.190
487392.580
544325.233
294527.384
1438335.649
1.1317
1.1118
7.7717
35248.229
901.481
5387.619
1879.960
6688.064
1986.829
10650.940
22157.750
147290.070
86054.529
522609.207
15613.740
14274.232
32655.703
31372.536
6073.641
20953.171
213395.741
1169657.543
871289.316
11110.504
44470.104
23530.047
28568.078
90586.965
207253.360
136091.043
269422.185
1175701.157
818354.910
Metal
Effect
Organs
Season
Year
Organs*Season
Organs*Year
Season*Year
Organs*Season*Year
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Organs
Season
Year
Organs*Season
Organs*Year
Season*Year
Organs*Season*Year
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Organs
Season
Year
Organs*Season
Organs*Year
Season*Year
Organs*Season*Year
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Organs
Season
Year
Organs*Season
Organs*Year
Season*Year
Organs*Season*Year
Error
Total
Corrected Total
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
This study discusses the effect of feeding urea molasses multinutrient block (UMMB) as an alternative supplement on the pica symptom of
Limousin cattle. Thirty indigenous pica cattle were chosen from Ningnan mountainous district Guyuan City on the basis of similar bodyweight. The
Ningnan mountainous district cattle produce was limited by harsh environments and nutritional factors. Especially the forage quality and availability
are affecting nutrient intake. Forage was reduced during winter and early spring of the year. A background of these blocks manufacturing process and
their effect on pica symptom of cattle are reported. Sixty cattle were randomly divided equally into control and UMMB treatment supplemental
groups. Both groups had the same forage except the treatment group had free access to supplement with UMMB. The experiment lasted for 30 days.
The contents of mineral elements (Se, Zn, Cu, Co, I, Ca, P) in blood in the experiment group were significantly increased compared with control group
(P<0.05) after feeding the UMMB. The activity of ceruloplasmin (CP), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and lactate dehydrogenate (LDH) in the serum
of experimental group were significantly increased in contrast with control group (P<0.05). The contents of mineral elements Se, Zn, Cu, Co on
feather in the experiment group were significantly increased in contrast with control group (P<0.05). According to field observation and stock owner
reflect, the pica symptom was disappeared in the treatment group after feeding UMMB three days, and the intake and drinking have significantly
increased. Cattle have the symptom of pica and the hair was coarse and had lack of luster before experiment in the experiment group. The symptom
of pica was gradually disappeared and the appearances of cattle were dramatically changed with feeding the UMMB. Furthermore, the colour of hair
was bright and bushy, and the cattle was in good condition in the treatment group after feeding UMMB, but the hair of the cattle in the control group
was sparse and dirty. The symptoms of pica all disappeared, which means the UMMB was effective in treated cattle pica. Hence, the UMMB can
be used as an effective way mineral supplement and treatment in cattle pica.
Key words: Urea molasses mltinutrient block, pica, cattle, Ningnan mountainous area.
Introduction
Nutrient deficiency is a commonly problem in the world, especially
the mineral deficiencies and imbalances for cattle 1. In arid and
semi-arid regions, feed shortage is the main constraint to their
productivity. During the hot and dry seasons, the available feed
resources are not enough in energy and digestion proteins, which
are insufficient to ensure maintenance requirements and reducing
productivity throughout the year. In drought conditions,
ruminants need enough nutritious forage to improve animal
performance. Earlier studies have assessed the nutritional quality
in Ningnan mountainous district forage. The nutrition consent in
this mountain was deficiencies and required to supplement the
desired level of production. In the past decades, UMMB was
chosen as a supplementation to deficient diets in cattle 2-4, sheep57
, and buffaloes 8-11. However, there are many kinds of UMMB in
the market. Since these UMMB are too soft or hygroscopic due to
humidity resulted in gobbled rapidly by the animals, which lead to
extensive supplement to animals. In order to study the UMMB of
local cattle in Guyuan, the present study was carried out on UMMB
formulas, raw material, technical parameters and feeding effect.
415
Results
Routine blood index: Routine blood test results are in Table 1.
The number of red blood cells (RBC), hematocrit (HCT),
Blood biochemical index examination: Blood biochemical index hemoglobin (HGB) and the number of white blood cells (WBC) of
was examined by chemical colorimetric method (Test Kit). The pica cattle were below normal index. The number of RBC, WBC,
evaluation indexes included ceruloplasmin (CP), glutathione HCT, HGB, neutrophils (NP), mean corpuscular volume (MCV),
peroxidase (GSHPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), lactate and medial plaque volume (MPV) in the experiment group were
dehydrogenase (LDH) and alkaline phosphatase (AKP).
increased by 49% (P>0.05), 4.19% (P>0.05), 12.88% (P<0.05), 3.64%
(P>0.05), 6% (P>0.05), 7.67% (P<0.05), 2.54% (P<0.05), 11.68%
Blood element analysis: The blood element analysis included (1) (P>0.05) compared with control group. Lymphocytes (LY), median
selenium determination. Instrument was AFS-930 double ways cells (MC), platelets (PLT), lymphocyte rate (LY%), median cells
for atomic fluorescence photometric (Beijing auspicious day rate (MC%), mean content of hemoglobin (MCH), mean
Instrument Company.). Blood 2.0 g with 15 ml of nitric acid and 1 corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) and platelet cubic
thrombocytocrit (PCT) in the experiment
Table 1. Blood routine tests in sick cattle.
group were reduced by 9.2% (P>0.05),
Blood
At the beginning of the experiment
At the end of the experiment
23.38% (P>0.05), 16.18% (P<0.05), 2.04%
Unit
routine item Experiment group Control group Experiment group Control group
(P>0.05), 18.97% (P>0.05), 9.16% (P>0.05),
12
RBC
4.640.99
4.560.92
9.180.99*
4.740.94*
10 /L
11.65% (P<0.05), 5.26% (P<0.05) compared
WBC
7.882.39
7.932.32
8.462.33*
7.552.03*
109/L
with control group.
HCT
22.725.54
21.465.23
26.086.14*
23.215.52*
%
HGB
NP
LY
MC
PLT
LY%
MC%
NP%
MCV
MCH
MCHC
MPV
PCT
109.412.86
2.980.8
4.131.76
0.770.41
413.5216.37
51.058.4
9.492.94
39.468.08
48.672.52
24.667.32
515.9185.81
91.78
0.380.26
108.6412.41
2.760.73
3.941.48
0.710.34
415.57217.3
50.837.48
9.132.51
40.128.53
47.862.17
25.677.85
513.1183.65
9.561.92
0.350.17
113.5311.58
3.170.92
3.751.38*
0.590.17*
346.6146.09*
50.018.34*
7.691.09*
42.748.03*
49.943.18
22.42.51*
455.8102.56*
10.191.86
0.360.21
112.1312.45
3.150.86
4.441.72*
0.780.36*
417.8193.17*
52.348.86*
8.992.61*
38.678.32*
48.732.61
24.546.16*
511.8158.01*
9.331.67
0.40.24
g/L
109/L
109/L
109/L
109/L
%
%
%
fL
Pg
g/L
fL
%
Experiment group compared with control group. *Notice P< 0.05, Significant difference.
Experiment group compared with control group. *Notice P< 0.05, Significant difference.
416
Unit
1012/L
109/L
%
g/L
109/L
Reference
0.13
9
5
0.1
-102
260.15
Experiment group compared with control group. *Notice P< 0.05, Significant difference.
Reference
10
1~5
Experiment group compared with control group. *Notice P< 0.05, Significant difference.
1-5 d
126.418.43
6-15 d
76.25.14
16-30 d
766.73
Experiment group compared with control group. *Notice P< 0.05, Significant
difference.
The consumption of the block: The pica cattle liked to lick block
and the block palatability was better, especially at the first stage,
some cattle not only suck the block but also bite it. It means that
the mineral deficiencies of cattle are pretty serious in the
countryside. In the first days of the test, the time of lick was
controlled in order to prevent the excessive suck. After four or
five days, the average intake was normal (76.2 g/d). According to
the lick intake each day, each block was available for every cattle
suck 20 ~ 30 days or so. There were differences among individuals,
in cattle feed block intake, but urea poisoning did not appear.
The effect of the block on the hair and the symptom of pica:
Every cattle had the symptom of pica before experiment. In the
pica cattle symptoms were gradually reduced since entering the
experiment period in the experimental group. According to the
client, the cattle with pica symptoms in the experiment group
gradually disappeared after licking the block 3 days, and the feed
and water intake were increased. The pica symptom was
disappeared after 15 days, but the control group still had pica
symptom.
The hair was harsh and lusterless etc. before the experiment,
the hair was improved greatly and hair removal time neatly and
with shining fur after the experiment. The results showed that
UMMB has a good curative effect on cattle pica. It can improve
hair nutrition, promote the hair take off and growth as early as
possible.
The appetite, spirit and different body status: All the cattle feed
and excrement was normal during the experiment. The feed and
water intake was increased according to the field observation and
reflect from the client. The feed intake still could not be measured
although a lot of effort on feed intake, because this experiment
was conducted in production conditions. The body status and
fur condition in experiment group were better than in control group.
The above statement showed that UMMB can improve the cattle
nutrition and health conditions, and can improve the dry matter of
feed intake, especially straw feed intake.
Discussion
Routine blood index is a comprehensive index, which reflects the
cattle nutrition and metabolism condition, the environmental
balance in the body, body health, growth speed and production
performance 13. The present results showed that the index of RBC,
WBC and HGB were below normal in pica cattle. The blood routine
index was normal after feeding UMMB. It means that the
physiological and biochemical indexes had relatively
comprehensive improvement when feeding UMMB.
The most important function of mineral elements is the
composition of enzymes and maintaining of the enzyme activity.
The active enzyme in the blood and tissue can be used to diagnose
certain mineral elements. The results showed that the enzyme
activity was significantly higher in the experiment group than in
the control group. AKP is a kind of metal enzyme containing zinc,
the AKP activity dropped significantly when animals lack zinc or
vice versa, the activity of AKP increasing significantly with
supplementary zinc 14. A lack of selenium resulted in the GSHPX
activity change. The relationship between blood GSHPX activity
and food selenium levels is confirmed in mouse, chicken, lamb,
calves and pig. The activity of GSHPX can be used as an index in
the early diagnosis of selenium deficiency 15. Siddons and Mills 16
reported that GSHPX changes provide an objective evidences for
417
31
419
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
Nowadays, the future of sericulture is prosperous, since the European Union adopted sound economic reforms to support the mulberry cultivators.
This study aims at investigating the individual and societal characteristics of mulberry cultivation investors and farmers, in compliance to the 1257/
99, article 31 of EU legislation regarding the afforestation of agricultural lands and its specific application at the prefecture of Evros (North Greece).
The adopted methodology of the study was implemented via the structure and distribution of a questionnaire. The data was gathered and manipulated
with the use of the SPSS software. According to the study outcomes, the mulberry cultivation meets the social approval and landowners acceptability,
since it is considered a prosperous and economically safe investment.
Key words: Prefecture of Evros, mulberry cultivation, Regulation (EC) No 1257/99, individual and societal characteristics.
Introduction
During the last decades, European Union under the Framework of
CAP has directed its policy into the integrated rural development
and the agri-environmental measures 1, 2. In particular, European
Union has adopted and initiated regulations and directives in
relation to transition of agricultural areas from food production
towards forest production 3-5.
In the relevant literature, many of published studies have
addressed the forest production and particular the fuelwood
production for energy in Greece 6, 8-11.
Also, many studies investigated the forest management and its
impact to local societies, in according to issues of safety and
optimum exploitation 7, 8, 12-15 under the framework of the Greek
rural development.
Particularly, the Regulation (EC) No 1257/99 manipulates issues
of rural development 16. The article 31 of the Regulation 1257/99
mention the forestry areas development under policies that
address the forest costs: Those are allocated in the annual
economic subsidiary for the operation and development of these
new forest areas, as well as in balancing out the revenue losses
for investments 17. One of forest species, that were selected to
implement these forestry management reforms, is the mulberry.
Mulberry is a native species that is endemic in China and the
Far East. Its introduction to Greece was noted during the 12th
century to rearing silkworms as well as an edible fruit 18. In
420
years, while the average gross annual income was 13,350. Above
average income are positioned 26 participants (27.6%) and below
average income 72.4%. Farming has been declared as a secondary
occupation for 13.8% with an annual revenue of 3,250, while
from other professional activities their annual revenue is 7,680.
Farming has been declared as the primary occupation from 81
participants, which is equivalent to 72.4%. The professional
allocation was 3 public servants, 5 private servants and 5
freelancers; their percentage allocation corresponds to 3.2%, 5.3%
and 5.3%, respectively. The educational allocation was such that
51 (54.3%) participants had primary education, 20.2% had
secondary education, and 13.8% completed their gymnasium
studies without completing their secondary education, 4.3% had
vocational education and 4.3% were bachelor graduates from
universities and 3.2% from technical foundations.
In parallel, 49% of the cultivators/investors had participated in
agricultural-oriented seminars, while 24.5% and 28.7% of the
cultivators/investors were informed frequently and most frequently
by agricultural-oriented broadcasts, respectively, and 37.2% and
9.6% of them were informed sometimes or seldom, respectively.
Even though farming is mainly an outdoors profession an overall
53.2% have been informed by agricultural-oriented broadcasts.
One fourth (26.6%) of the participants have read articles and
news of agricultural interest, and 23.3% have expressed occasional
engagement. Of the cultivators/investors 19.1%, 14.9% and 17%
were frequent, less frequent or not at all readers of similar
information.
On average, 55.4% declared that the value of irrigated land has
been decreased in the last 5 years, showing prospects to decrease
more, as some of the respondents annotated. Of the respondents
10.6% answered that the value of irrigated land has been increased
during the last 5 years, especially in lowland areas, while a
significant percentage of the respondents (34%) declared that the
respective value has been remained stable during the same period.
The privately owned land was from 0.38 ha to 45 ha. The average
land was 7.8 ha from which 3.4 ha was irrigated and 4.4 ha non
irrigated. The average agricultural farm measures 8.21 holdings
and finally the average fallow agricultural farm is 0.52 ha.
Only 21.3% of the respondents were satisfied by the selling
prices of agricultural products, while the majority (78.7%) was not
satisfied by the respective selling prices. Among respondents
67% considered the cotton cultivation more profitable, while a
small proportion (10.6% and 6.4%) considered sugar beet and
maize cultivations, respectively, as more profitable.
As far as the reason of why investors/cultivators prefer to utilize
a part of their farms by planting with forest trees, 38.3% considered
this action as more profitable than other kinds of cultivation. Of
the respondents 24.5% prefer forest planting as an easiest way of
utilizing their farms, and 23.4% declared that forest plantations
are having better subsidies than others. Finally, 6.4% of the
respondents choose this kind of plantations and especially
mulberry plantations as they have the proportional knowledge in
order to manage it efficiently. A small proportion of the respondents
(5.3%) were affected by other local cultivators in their decision to
plant their land with forest trees. The easy disposal of the product
in the free market was one of the reasons that the rest 2.1% establish
mulberry plantations in their farms, as the foliage can be available
for sericulture and the wood for selling after 20 years which is the
maximum period of regulation subsidy.
421
26
423
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
Current mathematical models for predicting herbicide behaviour in tropical soils use sorption coefficients (Kd) and organic carbon affinity (Koc)
obtained from temperate soils, indicating that the information obtained may be distorted. Moreover, organic matter content in tropical soils varies
greatly when methods and laboratories are compared; consequently, those conditions cause Koc values to vary. Thus, the objectives of this paper were
to review the scientific literature and discuss problems associated with the determination, calculation and interpretation of Kd and Koc values for
Brazilian tropical soils, evaluate Kd and Koc values of tropical soils using the values described in the databases for temperate soils, correlate Kd values
with tropical soil properties and suggest a method for calculating standardized Kd values applicable to soils with properties similar to those reported
for tropical soils. Koc values were calculated based on an OC/OM (organic carbon/organic matter) index of 0.54 for 22 herbicides. Pearson correlation
was used to compare Kd values and soil properties (organic matter, OM; clay mineral, CM; potential hydrogen, pH and cation exchange capacity,
CEC) for each herbicide in tropical soils. The results indicate that Kd and Koc values for herbicides in tropical soils presented an OC/OM index ranging
from 0.395 to 1.275, with some similarities and differences compared to temperate soil values. The Kd values of the majority of the herbicides
correlate with the variation of OM and CEC contents in tropical soils. Standardized values confer more precision and accuracy to the mathematical
models when used to represent herbicide behaviour in soils with similar properties to topical soils.
Key words: Databases, environmental behaviour, mathematical models, soil properties.
Introduction
Herbicides play an important role in modern agriculture, but
concerns about food safety and environmental impacts of herbicide
residues have increased 1, 2. Surface and subterranean waters have
become contaminated because of agricultural and non-agricultural
applications of herbicides, due to the processes of runoff and soil
leaching 3.
Herbicide registration processes focus on requirements such
as environmental impacts and animal toxicology. Additionally, after
being available on the market, most products go through a
revalidation procedure to meet newer country-specific legislation
to comply with current guidelines and national security profiles.
Recently, global conservation programs have been developed to
protect all countries from environmental contaminants. Studies of
herbicide applications and production system efficiency are tools
to monitor environmental impacts and support food safety 1.
It should be noted that applied pre-emergent herbicides are
more problematic compared to post-emergent herbicides, because
they are deposited directly into the soil and therefore more subject
to leaching and runoff, thus leading to further environmental
contamination 4, 5.
Soil herbicide behaviour is controlled by a set of complex
processes, such as degradation (chemical, microbiological and
photodegradation) 6, retention (sorption from soil colloids) 7,
424
Surface sorption
Water-soluble fraction
Organic
matter
Mineral
fraction
Surface
sorption
Organic
matter
(1)
(2)
425
Table 1. Values reported in the literature of herbicide sorption coefficients (Kd), OC affinity coefficients (Koc) in Brazilian
tropical soils, selected soil property values, calculated OC and OC/OM indices, and calculated OC and Koc values,
assuming an OC/OM index of 0.54 as proposed by Weber et al. 32.
Reported valuesa
Calculated values
Herbicide
Acetochlor
Alachlor
Ametryn
Aminocyclopyrachlor
Atrazine
Dicamba
Diclosulam
426
Kd
(L kg-1)
0.76
1.22
1.67
2.75
0.53
0.54
1.48
2.15
2.19
5.51
4.57
5.49
6.35
13.44
33.50
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.14
0.23
0.29
0.34
0.48
0.50
0.50
0.62
0.85
1.07
1.17
1.34
2.16
2.86
3.03
4.87
5.96
0.51
0.85
1.69
3.81
4.06
10.53
1.60
1.72
1.93
1.95
2.35
2.42
28.58
0.07
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.22
0.52
1.95
2.03
Koc
(L kg-1)
86.00
116.00
126.00
166.00
150.00
94.00
102.00
77.00
126.00
74.00
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
318.44
10.00
9.00
16.00
22.00
32.00
32.00
33.00
27.00
27.00
47.00
39.00
39.00
66.00
57.00
67.00
81.86
105.15
135.27
225.46
248.33
145.00
146.00
61.00
219.00
280.00
140.00
233.90
247.50
143.10
170.00
148.80
194.50
271.67
11.00
34.00
9.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
98.00
159.00
OM
(%)
1.63
1.94
2.46
3.07
0.65
1.07
2.68
5.15
3.22
13.80
1.70
1.70
1.70
2.55
18.89
0.92
1.20
1.13
1.18
1.26
1.67
1.89
3.31
3.39
1.96
2.96
4.02
3.02
3.80
3.44
4.55
4.68
3.86
3.72
4.13
0.65
1.07
5.15
3.22
2.68
13.80
1.67
1.67
3.00
2.72
3.28
2.58
18.89
1.07
0.65
2.68
3.22
5.15
13.80
3.68
2.37
CM
(%)
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
10.0
6.0
42.0
75.0
34.0
14.0
44.0
44.0
44.0
25.0
59.8
10.0
5.0
7.0
11.0
7.0
17.0
11.0
50.0
56.0
17.0
65.0
59.0
57.0
57.0
23.3
58.3
32.7
33.7
34.0
53.0
10.0
6.0
75.0
34.0
42.0
14.0
27.0
29.0
46.0
39.0
56.0
64.0
59.8
6.0
10.0
42.0
34.0
75.0
14.0
35.5
34.1
pH
5.50
5.40
4.70
4.70
4.30
4.50
4.80
6.30
4.50
4.60
5.80
4.90
4.40
5.90
4.10
5.40
7.20
6.50
6.50
5.10
5.70
4.90
6.10
5.70
6.00
6.00
6.20
5.20
5.90
5.80
5.10
6.00
5.40
5.20
5.10
4.30
4.50
6.30
4.50
4.80
4.60
6.10
6.30
5.60
6.00
6.00
6.20
4.10
4.50
4.30
4.80
4.50
6.30
4.60
5.0
4.4
CEC
(cmolc kg-1)
9.00
9.00
9.00
9.00
3.00
4.40
14.50
26.10
14.40
46.80
11.87
2.37
2.29
4.47
50.00
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
9.00
8.90
7.60
11.70
7.50
11.70
3.00
4.40
26.10
14.40
14.50
46.80
9.03
9.03
16.19
14.68
17.69
13.93
50.00
4.40
3.00
14.50
14.40
26.10
46.80
n/a
n/a
OC (%)
0.884
1.052
1.325
1.657
0.353
0.574
1.451
2.792
1.738
7.446
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
10.520
0.500
0.667
0.562
0.636
0.719
0.906
1.030
1.778
1.852
1.064
1.590
2.179
1.621
2.053
2.000
2.639
2.720
2.240
2.160
2.400
0.352
0.582
2.770
1.740
1.450
7.521
0.684
0.695
1.349
1.147
1.579
1.244
10.520
0.636
0.353
1.444
1.667
2.750
7.428
1.990
1.277
OC/OM
indexc
0.542
0.542
0.539
0.540
0.543
0.536
0.541
0.542
0.540
0.539
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.557
0.543
0.556
0.497
0.539
0.571
0.542
0.545
0.537
0.546
0.543
0.537
0.542
0.537
0.540
0.581
0.580
0.581
0.580
0.581
0.581
0.541
0.544
0.538
0.540
0.541
0.545
0.409
0.416
0.450
0.422
0.481
0.482
0.557
0.594
0.543
0.539
0.518
0.534
0.538
0.541
0.539
Calculated values
assuming
OC/OM = 0.54
OCd
Koce
(%)
(L kg-1)
0.880
86.364
1.048 116.412
1.328 125.753
1.658 165.862
0.351 150.997
0.578
93.426
1.447 102.280
2.781
77.310
1.739 125.934
7.452
73.940
0.918 497.821
0.918 598.039
0.918 691.721
1.377 976.035
10.201 328.399
0.497
10.060
0.648
9.529
0.610
14.754
0.637
21.978
0.680
33.823
0.902
32.151
1.021
33.301
1.787
26.861
1.831
27.307
1.058
47.259
1.598
38.798
2.171
39.152
1.631
65.604
2.052
57.018
1.858
72.120
2.457
87.912
2.527 113.178
2.084 145.393
2.009 242.409
2.230 267.264
0.351 145.299
0.578 147.059
2.781
60.770
1.739 219.091
1.447 280.580
7.452 141.304
0.902 177.383
0.902 190.687
1.620 119.136
1.469 132.743
1.771 132.693
1.393 173.726
10.201 280.169
0.578
12.111
0.351
34.188
1.447
8.984
1.739
8.626
2.781
7.911
7.452
6.978
1.987
98.138
1.280 158.594
Source
Ferri et al. 49
Ferri et al. 50
Andrade et al. 38
Matallo et al. 51
Arantes et al. 42
Inoue et al. 43
Matallo et al. 51
Lavorenti et al. 52
Table 1. Continued.
Reported valuesa
Calculated values
Herbicide
Diuron
Hexazinone
Imazaquin
Imazethapyr
Indaziflam
Metamitron
Metolachlor
Metsulfuron-methyl
Nicosulfuron
Picloram
Prometryn
Simazine
Kd
(L kg-1)
1.44
2.65
4.34
4.58
8.42
10.99
14.31
2.70
3.10
14.70
5.07
10.14
12.98
13.40
15.77
17.05
0.13
0.18
0.71
0.74
0.75
1.58
0.33
0.58
1.63
0.08
0.10
0.29
0.42
0.54
0.76
4.86
5.22
9.42
12.44
21.14
27.44
23.05
1.80
3.10
3.90
0.09
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.27
0.14
0.14
0.31
0.32
0.35
0.38
0.81
0.92
2.40
86.28
0.34
0.54
0.76
1.09
2.02
6.45
3.60
4.00
36.10
Koc
(L kg-1)
145.00
180.00
310.00
627.00
2,631.00
2,290.00
917.00
145.00
n/a
917.00
741.60
1,482.50
1,131.60
966.60
1,267.70
1,079.80
36.00
30.00
25.00
42.00
52.00
21.00
66.31
52.77
108.82
22.00
17.00
17.00
6.00
19.00
53.00
972.00
855.00
434.00
1,173.00
1,321.00
1,339.00
219.11
179.00
261.00
n/a
16.00
33.00
5.00
10.00
9.00
4.00
39.00
24.00
18.00
11.00
24.00
5.00
82.7
n/a
n/a
820.15
96.00
93.00
27.00
75.00
117.00
86.00
367.00
299.00
343.16
OM
(%)
1.83
2.72
2.59
1.35
0.59
0.89
2.89
1.46
0.87
2.87
1.67
1.67
2.72
3.00
2.58
3.28
0.65
1.07
5.15
3.22
2.68
13.80
0.92
2.04
2.78
0.65
1.07
3.22
13.80
5.15
2.68
0.92
1.13
4.02
1.96
2.96
3.80
18.89
0.87
2.87
1.46
1.07
0.65
5.15
2.68
3.22
13.80
0.65
1.07
3.22
5.15
2.68
13.80
1.81
1.70
3.10
18.89
0.65
1.07
5.15
2.68
3.22
13.80
1.81
2.48
18.89
CM
(%)
35.0
27.0
32.0
40.0
35.0
37.0
33.0
45.0
48.4
31.6
29.0
27.0
39.0
46.0
64.0
56.0
10.0
6.0
75.0
34.0
42.0
14.0
8.0
20.0
70.0
10.0
6.0
34.0
14.0
75.0
42.0
10.0
7.0
59.0
17.0
65.0
57.0
59.8
48.4
31.6
45.0
6.0
10.0
75.0
42.0
34.0
14.0
10.0
6.0
34.0
75.0
42.0
14.0
22.0
35.0
26.0
59.8
10.0
6.0
75.0
42.0
34.0
14.0
22.0
40.0
59.8
pH
4.90
4.60
4.30
4.50
5.10
4.20
4.70
5.00
5.10
5.10
6.30
6.10
6.00
5.60
6.20
6.00
4.30
4.50
6.30
4.50
4.80
4.60
5.90
6.10
5.50
4.30
4.50
4.50
4.60
6.30
4.80
5.40
6.50
6.20
6.00
6.00
5.90
4.10
5.10
5.10
5.00
4.50
4.30
6.30
4.80
4.50
4.60
4.30
4.50
4.50
6.30
4.80
4.60
5.60
6.33
4.96
4.10
4.30
4.50
6.30
4.80
4.50
4.60
5.60
5.50
4.10
CEC
(cmolc kg-1)
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
9.03
9.03
14.68
16.19
13.93
17.69
3.00
4.40
26.10
14.40
14.50
46.80
n/a
n/a
n/a
3.00
4.40
14.40
46.80
26.10
14.50
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
50.00
n/a
n/a
n/a
4.40
3.00
26.10
14.50
14.40
46.80
3.00
4.40
14.40
26.10
14.50
46.80
n/a
18.75
4.96
50.00
3.00
4.40
26.10
14.50
14.40
46.80
n/a
n/a
50.00
OCb (%)
0.993
1.472
1.400
0.730
0.320
0.489
1.560
1.862
n/a
1.603
0.684
0.684
1.147
1.184
1.244
1.579
0.361
0.600
2.840
1.762
1.442
7.524
0.498
1.099
1.498
0.364
0.588
1.706
7.000
2.842
1.434
0.500
0.610
2.170
1.060
1.600
2.049
10.520
1.005
1.188
n/a
0.562
0.364
2.600
1.500
1.778
6.750
0.359
0.583
1.722
2.909
1.458
7.600
0.979
n/a
n/a
10.520
0.354
0.581
2.815
1.453
1.726
7.500
0.981
1.338
10.520
OC/OM
indexc
0.543
0.541
0.540
0.541
0.542
0.550
0.540
1.275
n/a
0.558
0.409
0.409
0.422
0.395
0.482
0.481
0.555
0.561
0.551
0.547
0.538
0.545
0.541
0.539
0.539
0.560
0.550
0.530
0.507
0.552
0.535
0.543
0.540
0.540
0.541
0.540
0.539
0.557
1.155
0.414
n/a
0.525
0.560
0.505
0.560
0.552
0.489
0.552
0.545
0.535
0.565
0.544
0.551
0.541
n/a
n/a
0.557
0.545
0.543
0.547
0.542
0.536
0.543
0.542
0.539
0.557
Calculated values
assuming
OC/OM = 0.54
Koce
OCd
(%)
(L kg-1)
0.988
145.749
1.467
180.641
1.399
310.221
0.729
628.258
0.319 2,639.498
0.481 2,284.823
1.561
916.720
0.788
342.639
0.470
659.574
1.550
948.387
0.902
562.084
0.902 1,124.168
1.620
801.234
1.469
912.185
1.771
890.457
1.393 1,223.977
0.351
37.037
0.578
31.142
2.781
25.530
1.739
42.553
1.447
51.831
7.452
21.202
0.497
66.398
1.102
52.632
1.501
108.594
0.351
22.792
0.578
17.301
1.739
16.676
7.452
5.636
2.781
19.417
1.447
52.522
0.497
977.867
0.610
855.738
2.171
433.901
1.058 1,175.803
1.598 1,322.904
2.052 1,337.232
10.201
225.958
0.470
382.978
1.550
200.00
0.788
494.924
0.578
15.571
0.351
34.188
2.781
4.674
1.447
10.366
1.739
9.201
7.452
3.623
0.351
39.886
0.578
24.221
1.739
17.826
2.781
11.507
1.447
24.188
7.452
5.099
0.977
82.907
0.918
100.218
1.674
143.370
10.201
845.799
0.351
96.866
0.578
93.426
2.781
27.328
1.447
75.328
1.739
116.159
7.452
86.554
0.977
368.475
1.339
298.730
10.201
353.887
Source
Carbo et al. 44
Dores et al. 53
Inoue et al. 43
Barizon et al. 54
Alonso et al. 7
Matallo et al. 51
Dores et al. 53
Regitano et al. 57
Matallo et al. 51
427
Table 1. Continued.
Reported valuesa
Calculated values
Herbicide
Sulfometuron-methyl
Tebuthiuron
2,4-D
Kd
(L kg-1)
0.14
0.21
0.46
0.73
0.77
1.18
0.72
0.79
1.58
1.61
2.50
2.57
0.13
0.23
0.31
0.36
0.40
0.43
0.49
0.81
0.90
0.91
0.94
0.97
1.02
1.07
1.17
1.29
1.60
2.10
4.63
Koc
(L kg-1)
38.00
37.00
17.00
50.00
44.00
16.00
258.21
374.30
135.40
159.40
138.20
151.40
27.80
21.30
26.70
42.90
31.10
40.90
32.20
53.70
70.70
60.30
82.00
98.80
70.00
89.10
80.60
99.40
102.30
131.30
306.50
OM
(%)
0.65
1.07
5.15
2.68
3.22
13.80
0.48
0.36
2.02
1.74
3.12
2.93
0.92
2.04
2.22
1.48
2.41
2.04
2.78
2.78
2.41
2.78
2.04
1.80
2.59
2.22
2.59
2.41
2.96
2.96
2.78
CM
(%)
10.0
6.0
75.0
42.0
34.0
14.0
8.0
8.0
62.0
62.0
36.0
36.0
10.0
16.0
28.0
13.0
41.0
27.0
54.0
41.0
24.0
51.0
50.0
5.0
39.0
19.0
61.0
42.0
52.0
64.0
2.0
pH
4.30
4.50
6.30
4.80
4.50
4.60
7.30
7.30
5.70
5.90
5.40
5.90
5.00
5.60
5.60
6.30
5.50
6.60
5.80
5.70
6.50
5.80
5.00
6.40
6.00
4.60
5.70
6.10
5.30
4.90
4.80
CEC
(cmolc kg-1)
3.00
4.40
26.10
14.50
14.40
46.80
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
OCb (%)
0.368
0.568
2.706
1.460
1.750
7.375
0.279
0.211
1.167
1.010
1.809
1.697
0.468
1.080
1.161
0.839
1.286
1.051
1.522
1.508
1.273
1.509
1.146
0.982
1.457
1.201
1.452
1.298
1.564
1.599
1.512
OC/OM
indexc
0.566
0.531
0.525
0.545
0.543
0.534
0.581
0.586
0.578
0.580
0.580
0.579
0.509
0.529
0.523
0.567
0.534
0.515
0.547
0.542
0.528
0.543
0.562
0.546
0.562
0.541
0.561
0.538
0.528
0.540
0.544
Calculated values
assuming
OC/OM = 0.54
Koce
OCd
(%)
(L kg-1)
0.351
39.886
0.578
36.332
2.781
16.541
1.447
50.449
1.739
44.278
7.452
15.835
0.259 277.992
0.194 407.216
1.091 144.821
0.940 171.276
1.685 148.368
1.582 162.452
0.497
26.157
1.102
20.871
1.199
25.855
0.799
45.056
1.301
30.746
1.102
39.020
1.501
32.645
1.501
53.964
1.301
69.178
1.501
60.626
1.102
85.299
0.972
99.794
1.399
72.909
1.199
89.241
1.399
83.631
1.301
99.154
1.598 100.125
1.598 131.414
1.501 308.461
Source
Souza et al. 46
Spadotto et al. 47
OM, organic matter; OC, organic carbon; CM, clay mineral; pH, potential hydrogen (H2O or CaCl2); CEC, cation exchange capacity; n/a, not available. b (%OC) = Kd/Koc 100. c (%OC)/(%OM)
ratio. d (%OC) = (%OM) 0.54. e Koc = Kd/(%OC) 100.
a
Reported mean
Kd (L kg-1)a
Trsb
Tes
1.600 0.84*
3.210c
2.067 1.83ns
2.890d
12.670 12.16
n/a
0.460 0.36** 0.390c
4.327 6.29** 2.340d
0.202 0.16* -0.530d
1.990 0.05
n/a
8.852 5.41** 8.300c
0.682 0.52* -4.400d
0.847 0.68
n/a
0.365 0.26
n/a
13.420 9.09
n/a
23.050
0.890c
2.933 1.05*
0.670c
0.153 0.06
n/a
0.350 0.22** 0.440d
0.140d
1.660 1.04ns
86.280
3.340d
6.100 10.81ns 1.960d
0.582 0.39** -0.500d
1.628 0.79** 1.780d
1.040 1.00** 1.240c
Reported mean
Koc (L kg-1)a
Trsb
Tes
123.500 33.04**
156.000c
103.833 29.43**
335.000c
318.440
316.000c
32.571 16.45**
24.000c
171.765 68.15**
100.000c
13.000 10.37*
2.000d
90.000d
128.500 43.13ns
988.787 731.04**
813.000c
34.333 11.46**
54.000c
75.967 29.24
n/a
22.333 15.97*
52.000c
1,015.667 343.09** 1,000.000c
219.110
77.700c
220.000 57.98ns
120.000c
12.833 10.75
n/a
29.100 25.99*
30.000c
n/a
13.000c
820.150
400.000c
167.018 130.43**
130.000c
33.667 14.09*
85.000c
202.818 95.62**
80.000c
77.242 63.66**
88.400c
Trs, tropical soils; Tes, temperate soils; n/a, not available. b Mean reported from Brazilian literature as described in Table
1. Kd and Koc values associated with standard deviation (SD) of the mean. Significant at the * 0.05 and ** 0.01 level by
Students t-test; ns, nonsignificant. c Source: FOOTPRINT 33. d Source: EXTOXNET 34.
a
OM, organic matter; OC, organic carbon. b Kd = Koc (%OC)/100. c Reported mean from Brazilian
literature described in Table 1.
a
429
Table 4. Pearson correlation of herbicide sorption coefficient (Kd) and OC affinity coefficients (Koc) values vs. selected
soil properties and equations for calculating Kd values when soil property values were available (values taken
from Brazilian literature).
Herbicide
Chemical
family
Mean Kd
(L kg-1)b
Acetochlor
Nonionizable
1.600
Alachlor
Nonionizable
2.067
Ametryn
Base
12.670
Aminocyclopyrachlor
Acid
0.460
Atrazine
Base
4.327
Dicamba
Acid
0.202
Diuron
Hexazinone
Nonionizable
Base
1.600
0.682
Imazaquin
Acid
0.847
Imazethapyr
Acid
0.365
Indaziflam
Acid
13.420
Metolachlor
Nonionizable
2.933
Metsulfuron-methyl
Nicosulfuron
Simazine
Sulfometuron-methyl
Tebuthiuron
2,4-D
Acid
Acid
Base
Acid
Nonionizable
Acid
0.153
0.350
6.100
0.582
1.628
1.040
Equationc
R2
0.99
ne
4
0.99
6
0.97
0.97
5
0.92
0.87
0.83
14
0.92
0.50
0.81
0.99
19
6
0.96
0.54
16
0.86
0.94
6
6
0.95
0.99
3
0.93
6
0.89
7
6
0.85
9
7
0.84
6
0.84
0.99
6
0.87
0.49
19
OM, organic matter; OC, organic carbon; CM, clay mineral; pH, potential hydrogen (H2O or CaCl2); CEC, cation exchange capacity. b Reported mean from Brazilian literature as described
in Table 1. c Most significant linear equation; ns, nonsignificant. d Significant at the * 0.05 and ** 0.01 levels. e Number of values correlated.
a
430
431
432
433
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The effect of soil relocation on organo-mineral complex status and combined humus was considered to be based on the relocation of undisturbed soil
in a long-term experiment in Agricultural Soil Ecological Environment Key Field Scientific Observation and Experiment Station (Harbin) of the
Ministry in Northeast China. Four fertilizer treatments were selected in this study including CK (control, no fertilizer), M (organic fertilizer, horse
manure), NPK (chemical fertilizer), MNPK (horse manure plus chemical fertilizer). Tested soils were relocated at December 18, 2010 to March 15,
2011 by the relocation of undisturbed soil columns under freezing conditions. There were no effect of soil relocation on soil organo-mineral complex
degree, quantity of combined humus and the ratio of loosely and tightly combined humus. The youngest humus, the highest complex degree of organomineral complex and the highest soil fertility were observed in the combination of chemical plus organic matter (NPKM) in all tested soils. Soil organic
carbon, heavy fraction of organic carbon and organo-mineral complexes contents did not change much in all tested soils. However, the soil relocation
impacted significantly the content of additional organo-mineral complexes and the degree of additional organo-mineral complexes which showed the
trend of increase-decrease order after two years of soil relocation. Soil relocation did not impact significantly the quantity of combined humus and the
ratio of loosely and tightly combined humus in 0 - 20 cm soil layer in all tested soils.
Key words: Long-term experiment, black soil, combined humus, organo-mineral complex degree.
Introduction
Long-term located fertilization experiment is the most basic and
effective way to study the soil science, because it can
systematically explain the evolution of soil fertility, provide a
comprehensive evaluation of fertilization effect and the scientific
basis for fertilization 1. Long-term experiment has 170 years
history since Rothamsted Experimental Station in UK was
established in 1843. From the early 1980s, more than 100 longterm experiments related to soil and fertilizer were established in
typical agricultural regions in China, but finally only about 30
long-term experiments related to soil and fertilizer were preserved
due to various reasons. Because the limitations of the initial trial
design of long-term experiments, especially with the accelerated
urbanization process in China, some long-term experiment sites
must be relocated in order to protect the long-term experiment
resources. Soil relocation in long-term experiment site has been
recorded in a volume of literatures, but the information about the
effect of soil relocation in the long-term experiment on soil humus
is limited.
Humus is the main resource of soil nutrients, affects the soil
physical, chemical and biological properties, and controls the soil
fertility. Soil humus is composed of complex components, there is
much difference between humus which determines soil properties
and soil fertility. Combined humus played an important role in
soil fertility 2. Combined soil humus and minerals include 3 forms:
loosely combined humus, stably combined humus and tightly
combined humus 3. The contribution of soil humus to soil fertility
depended on the degree of the combination of humus and
minerals 4. The effect of soil relocation on the organo-mineral
434
N
(kg hm-2)
150
150
75
P2O5
(kg hm-2)
75
75
150
K2O
(kg hm-2)
75
75
75
M (house
manure) (t hm-2)
18.75
decreased and changed from 12.28 to 15.07g kg-1 after two years
of soil relocation (2012 and 2013). Soil organic carbon content
in 2012 was decreased by 6.5% and 7.7% for CK and MNPK
treatments, increased 4.9% and 3.6% for NPK and M treatments,
respectively, compared with that in 2010. Soil organic carbon
content in 2013 were increased 7.1%, 1.0% and 2.3% for CK, M
and MNPK, decreased 4.6% for NPK treatment, respectively,
compared with that in 2012. The variation of soil organic carbon
in 20-40 cm soil layer was more than that in 0 - 20 cm soil layer.
There was a significantly positive relationship between soil
organic carbon content and heavy fraction organic carbon (y = 0.579x
+ 4.258, r0.01 = 0.996, n = 8) in 2010, indicating that the process of soil
organic matter transformation involved gradually the formation
of organo-mineral complex. This significantly positive relationship
also was recorded in two years of soil relocation (2012: y = 0.672x +
3.067, r0.01 = 0.975, n = 8 , 2013: y = 0.753x + 2.072, r0.01 = 0.978, n = 8),
heavy fraction organic carbon showed the similar change trend with
soil organic carbon in different soil layers and treatments. Heavy
fraction organic carbon content in 2010 was decreased 3.5%
and 3.4% for CK and MNPK, increased by 2.9% and 3.8% for
NPK and M, respectively, compared with that in 2012. Heavy
fraction organic carbon content in 2012 was increased by 7.6%,
1.7% and 3.2% for CK, M and MNPK, decreased by 3.6% for NPK,
respectively, compared with that in 2013. The range of change of
heavy fraction organic carbon content in 20 - 40 cm soil layer was
more than that in 0 - 20 cm soil layer.
The effect of soil relocation on organo-mineral complex degree:
The degree of organo-mineral complex and quantity of additional
organo-mineral complex are used to represent complex degree of
soil organic matter and minerals, and reflect the status of soil
fertility, it is an important quantitative indicator to characterize
complex of soil organic matter and inorganic minerals. The quantity
of additional organo-mineral complex of the organic manure is the
ratio of the composite organic carbon from organic manure and
soil mass during the process of improving soil fertility 8. The degree
of additional organo-mineral complex is the percentage of the
composite organic carbon from organic manure and the increased
value of total soil organic carbon.
The quantity of original soil organo-mineral complex of M and
MNPK treatments was higher than CK and NPK, and was higher
in 0 ~ 20 cm soil layer than 20 ~ 40 cm soil layer in 2010 (Table 4).
The similar trends were found in 2012 and 2013. The quantity of
original soil organo-mineral complex in 2010 was decreased by 4.3%
and 2.3% for CK and MNPK, increased by 2.3% and 3.9% for M
and NPK, respectively, compared with that in 2012. The quantity
of original soil organo-mineral complex in 2013 was increased
by 10.9%, 5.7% and 6.3% for CK, M and MNPK, decreased by 1.1%
for NPK, respectively, compared with that in 2012. The degree of
original soil organo-mineral complex was in the increasing order of
CK > NPK > M > MNPK, and was more in 20 - 40 cm soil layer than
that in 0 - 20 cm soil layer, indicating that organic manure application
Organic carbon
(g kg-1)
26.62
28.96
29.14
30.48
Total N
(g kg-1)
1.39
1.52
1.49
1.60
Total P
(g kg-1)
0.94
1.50
1.19
1.42
Total K
(g kg-1)
21.75
19.40
18.22
20.11
Available
(mg kg-1)
103.56
116.41
119.63
114.85
Available
P2O5 (mg kg-1)
14.49
57.18
17.22
66.78
Available
K2O (mg kg-1)
155.75
205.03
167.64
213.77
pH
6.9
6.5
7.2
7.0
435
Table 3. The difference of soil organic carbon and heavy fraction organic carbon
contents in 2010, 2012 and 2013 under different treatments.
Soil depth
cm
0 - 20
20 - 40
Treatments
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
0 - 20
20 - 40
Treatments
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
2010
11.14
11.27
11.61
12.24
10.77
10.85
10.88
11.94
SQC
(g kg-1)
2012
10.53
11.81
11.77
11.94
10.44
10.82
11.58
11.68
2013
11.48
12.11
12.3
12.52
11.76
10.31
12.35
12.59
2010
82.15
78.87
79.14
75.56
83.68
92.03
83.18
77.48
SDC
(%)
2012
84.85
82.13
81.28
80.57
85.02
84.14
81.66
81.34
2013
87.17
84.16
84.07
83.08
88.62
88.27
86.24
85.13
QAC
(g kg-1)
2010 2012 2013
2010
DAC
(%)
2012
2013
0.47
1.10
1.24
1.41
0.82
1.04
42.34
41.67
59.90
58.51
56.16
54.74
0.11
1.17
1.14
1.24
0.59
0.83
52.38
46.06
60.00
59.62
56.19
54.61
0 - 20 cm
20 - 40 cm
Treatment
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
CK
NPK
M
MNPK
66
55
CK
CK
NPK
NPK
M
M
MNPK
MNPK
0-20 cm 0 - 20 cm
44
33
22
11
00
2010
2010
2012
2012
Experimental year
2013
2013
The
ratio of
combined
humus
he ratio
of loosely
looselytototightly
tightly
combined
hum
Conclusions
The contents of soil organic carbon and heavy fraction of organic
carbon were in an increasing order of CK < NPK < M < MNPK in
all tested soils. The effect of soil relocation on soil organic carbon
and heavy fraction of organic carbon did not be found. The
quantity of organo-mineral complex showed an increasing order
of CK < NPK < M < MNPK in 2010 (before soil relocation), 2012 and
2013 (after soil relocation), the organo-mineral complex degree
showed an inverse trend. The organo-mineral complex degree
showed a decreasing order of CK > NPK > M > MNPK, indicating
that organic manure application could improve the status of soil
organo-mineral complex. The organo-mineral complex degree
increased gradually in experimental three years, indicating that
soil organic carbon aged with the increase of fertilization and
tillage periods. The quantity of additional organo-mineral complex
in MNPK was higher than in M, but the degree of additional
organo-mineral complex in MNPK was less than in M. The ratio of
loosely and tightly combined humus showed a higher range in 20
~ 40 cm soil layer than in 0 ~ 20 cm soil layer, and was decreased in
2012 and increased in 2013 compared with that in 2010. There was
no significant difference of the ratio of loosely and stable combined
humus, the higher change was observed in M treatment, which
needs more research in the future. Generally, the properties of soil
fluctuated after soil relocation, and showed that activity of soil
fertility supply was decreased. However, most properties did not
have significant change. Relocated soil would be suitable for new
environmental conditions with the increase of experimental years.
The properties of soil would be recovered to the status before soil
relocation, but this needs continually observation in the future.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation
of China (41171244), and Key Program of the Heilongjiang Province
Natural Science Fund Project, China (ZD201113), the National
Science and Technology Support Program of China (2013BAD07B01),
the Special Fund for Agro-scientific Research in the Public Interest
of China (201303126), Soil restoration and high efficient utilization
science team of Northeast Agricultural University.
66
55
CK
C
K
20-40 cm20 - 40 cm
NPK
NPK
M
M
MNPK
MNPK
44
33
22
11
00
2010
2010
2012
2012
Experimental year
2013
2013
Figure 1. The effect of soil relocation on ratio of loosely to tightly combined humus.
Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.12 (3&4), July-October 2014
437
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15
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16
Zhang, D. X., Han, Z. Q., Wang, Q. B., Chen, H. B., Chang, L. S., Yu,
Y. Q., Liu, D. Q. and Wang, J. Y. 2006. Dynamic change of soil combined
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17
Li, J. M., Wu, J. G. and Wang, L. H. 2011. Effects of different organic
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1
438
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Abstract
The So Francisco Verdadeiro River watershed reaches 11 cities in Western Paran. It is the largest tributary of Paran River and essential to the economy
and public supply of this region, where human activities such as agriculture, swine and poultry farming, industries and urban supply are held. The 9.433/
97 Legislation - National Water Resources Policy has foreseen the watershed as a management tool for water resources and its 5th article deals with water
bodies classification according to the predominant uses. Thus, this study aimed at classifying the So Francisco Verdadeiro River according to the limits
of 357/05 CONAMA Resolution, based on the following physicochemical parameters: turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, cadmium, lead, cobalt, copper,
chromium, manganese, nickel and zinc. Ten points were selected along the river, where fortnightly collections of water samples were taken over a year.
It was concluded that So Francisco Verdadeiro River has been undergone by several environmental impacts due to human activities, which have
contributed to water quality changes. According to 357/05 CONAMA Resolution, the studied river was classified as Class III.
Key words: Anthropogenic actions, 357/05 CONAMA, water quality.
Introduction
Brazil is worldwide known for its abundance in water; however, its
demand is increasing due to the development of industries,
agriculture and cities, possibly jeopardizing water quality. Many
studies have pointed out that there is a trend of water resources
to become increasingly scarce in both quantitative and qualitative
features 1-4. Therefore, urgent measures must be taken in order to
improve the water supply and demand management for different
uses. Thus, maintenance of water supply, not only in amount but
also in quality, has been the greatest challenge to be overcome by
society.
Water quality evaluation is an important tool to manage its
quality and resources, so, it must be included the trends monitoring
in space and time. This allows to identify some anthropogenic
and natural factors that determine surface waters quality 5-7. The
evaluation of water quality as well as its temporal and spatial
evolution will only be possible based on the implementation of
systematic monitoring via programs. This results in several
historical data that, in the future, can be analyzed to establish
standards for seasonal and spatial distribution 8.
Monitoring and evaluating of surface and groundwater quality
are major factors for the correct management of water resources.
They allow features and analyses of trends in river basins, essential
for several management activities, such as planning, granting,
levy taxing and classification of watercourses.
Developing countries have also experienced a growing problem
of water or soil pollution due to, for example, heavy metals toxicity
with industries discharges, agricultural waste and urban sewage 9.
In Brazil, the National Water Resources Policy, Law 9.433/97,
establishes as one of its warranties that water management should
always provide the multiple uses of water, are associated to its
439
-5410
-5400
-5350
-5340
-5330
-5400
-5350
-5340
-5330
-2450
-2450
-2440
-2440
-5420
10
20 km
-5420
-2500
-2500
-5410
Figure 1. Locations of watershed, urban perimeters and collection sites in So Francisco Verdadeiro River and its
tributaries 12.
Table 1. Location and characterization of the collection sites in So Francisco Verdadeiro River and its tributaries.
Location
River
S01
Mosaics Source
S02
S03
S04
S05
S06
S07
S08
S09
S10
440
So Francisco Verdadeiro
after urban perimeter
Lope (estuary)
So Francisco
Verdadeiro /Lope
Toledo (estuary)
So Francisco
Verdadeiro/Toledo
Santa Quitria (estuary)
So Francisco
Verdadeiro/Santa Quitria
So Francisco
Verdadeiro (estuary)
Marrecos (estuary)
Geographic Coordinates
S 24 57 W 53 28
S 24 55 W 53 30
S 24 47 W 53 43
S 24 47 W 53 43
S 24 45 W 53 47
S 24 45 W 53 47
S 24 46 W 54 04
S 24 46 W 54 04
S 24 44 W 54 07
S 24 41 W 54 09
Characteristics
One of several springs of San Francisco Verdadeiro River
within urban area of Cascavel city.
After urban perimeter of Cascavel and discharge of sewage
treatment plant.
Tributary area of agriculture and ponds for fish production.
Agricultural Region.
Farming region tributary that receives domestic and
industrial sewage from the urban perimeter of Toledo.
Agricultural region with influence of the urban perimeter of
Toledo.
Regional tributary of extensive farming.
Region with the highest slope of the land (construction of a
small dam plant) with agriculture and grasslands.
Next to the reservoir of Itaipu dam: agricultural and grazing
region with the steepest ground.
Next to the reservoir of Itaipu Dam: agricultural region, with
intensive swine and poultry production.
CONAMA
357/05 class II
100 NTU(a)
5.0 mg/L(b)
6 a 9(c)
0.05 mg/L
0.1 mg/L
0.025 mg/L
0.18 mg/L
S01
S02
S03
S04
S05
S06
S07
S08
S09
S10
0.35
6.23
5.47
0.08
0.07
0.02
0.13
20.77
7.08
7.19
0.09
0.05
0.02
0.15
69.70
7.90
7.38
0.11
0.08
0.02
0.21
83.70
7.96
7.26
0.10
0.09
0.03
0.21
78.60
7.08
7.33
0.11
0.09
0.02
0.26
81.60
8.19
7.49
0.11
0.08
0,02
0.19
85.50
8.28
7.36
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.25
48.02
8.30
7.41
0.07
0.08
0.01
0.31
71.30
8.24
7.47
0.10
0.10
0.02
0.36
92.20
7.84
7.49
0.08
0.16
0.01
0.32
441
442
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
Isolation and identification of microorganisms from soil in a young oil palm plantation
Nur Masirah Mohd Zain 1, Rosli B. Mohamad 1*, Kamaruzaman Sijam 2 and Yahya Awang 1
1
Department of Crop Science, 2 Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. *e-mail: rosli@agri.upm.edu.my, yahya_awg@putra.upm.edu.my
Abstract
Microorganisms in soil could be beneficial to the ecosystem or pathogenic to crop plants. Their distribution depends on the environmental habitat
favoring each species. This study was intended to isolate and identify the types of microorganisms in soil habitat of a young oil palm plantation, and
associate them to their role as being beneficial or pathogenic to the ecosystem. The isolation process was done by soil sampling and soil dilution
technique. The bacterial population were identified through BIOLOG, whereas the fungal and actinomycetes were identified through conventional
methods of microscopic observations of the isolates. Five of the isolates were bacterial species, identified as Malikia spinosa, Bacillus humi, Bacillus
cereus/thuringiensis, Bacillus pseudomycoides and Bacillus sp. Other isolates were three fungi and two actinomycetes of Mucor sp., Penicillium sp.
and Aspergillus sp., and Streptomyces spp. isolate B1 and C2, respectively. None of the isolated species were reported to be pathogenic on oil palm,
but Aspergillus sp. could be pathogenic to other crop plants. Bacillus cereus/thuringiensis is commonly used commercially as biological control agent
mainly for Lepidopterous insects.
Key words: Soil bacteria, soil fungi, soil actinomycete, oil palm soil.
Introduction
Soil provides diverse habitats for a wide range of organisms. It
serves as a complex habitat of soil microorganisms, in which the
populations are crucial for sustainable agriculture 1. Soils are made
up of different components of solid fractions including sand, silt,
clay and organic matter, which provide a wide range of
microhabitats for various type of microorganisms 2, 3. Major groups
of microorganisms in soil include bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes, and their population varies according to the soil
microhabitats.
Each fertile soil could contain high bacterial number, indicating
that the microorganisms can be an important indicator of soil
quality and ecologically important parameter 4-6 . Soil
microorganisms are also crucial in primary production through
decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling 7. Soil
microorganisms have essential roles in elemental cycles including
carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycle. These organisms also transform
phosphorus, iron and potassium to more soluble form which assists
the uptake of the compounds by plants 8.
Despite of the importance of microorganisms in soil processes,
several soil-borne microbial species are known to cause plant
diseases. In oil palm plantation, at certain stages of the crop
growth, Ganoderma boninense is widely known to cause basal
stem rot of oil palm in Malaysia 9. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
elaeidis has been reported to cause vascular wilt in African oil
palm 10. Other pathogenic soil-borne microorganisms include
Colletotrichum spp. (antrachnose disease), Phytophthora spp.
(root rot disease) and Rhizoctonia solani (damping-off disease) 11.
This study was aimed to isolate and identify the microorganisms
present in soil of young oil palm plantation, and grouped them as
beneficial or pathogenic to the ecosystem.
443
Note: Values in the same column followed by a similar letter are not significantly different by
LSD (P<0.05).
Actinomycete
Microbial isolate
Mucor sp.
Penicillium sp.
Aspergillus sp.
Streptomyces sp. isolate B1
Streptomyces sp. isolate C2
Similarity Index
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.2
445
isolates. The cells were straight rods with rounded ends which
occurred singly, in pairs or in short chains. The colonies on NA
appeared to be circular, raised, smooth, creamy white and
translucent. After few days, the colonies appeared mucoid.
Bacillus humi was observed to be a rod shaped Gram-positive
organism. The cells were slightly curved with rounded end,
occurred singly or in pairs. On NA, the colonies were convex and
appeared to be glossy and white with watery texture.
Bacillus cereus/thuringiensis appeared Gram-positive, and
when grown on NA, the colonies were white, large, raised and
dull surface, irregular margins and opaque. The cells were rod
shaped and occurred singly or in pairs.
Bacillus pseudomycoides was also observed as Gram-positive.
The appearance of colonies on NA was whitish cream and opaque.
Microscopic observation showed that the cells were rod shaped
and occurred in short chains.
Another species, only identified as Bacillus sp. appeared to be
convex, white and opaque on NA. The cells were stained Gram- p
ositive, and rod shaped.
Discussion
Fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes were recorded to be present in
soils from young oil palm plantation. Bacteria and actinomycetes
recorded significantly higher population counts compared with
that of the fungi. Bacteria, however, were observed to have slightly
higher CFU/g of dry weight soil than actinomycetes. Bacteria were
reported to replicate rapidly in favourable conditions 17. There
was indication in this study that actinomycetes had slower growth
rate compared with bacteria. This could be explained by the visible
and distinct colonies of actinomycetes that could only be seen
after 5 to 10 days, compared with bacterial colonies which normally
appeared after 12 to 24 hours. Fungi recorded the lowest CFU/g of
dry weight soil compared with bacteria and actinomycetes. Despite
of the low population count, the presence of fungi in the soil of
young oil palm plantation remains important as they can still
dominate the soil through their extensive mycelia and reproductive
spores, which ensures the survival of most fungal species 18.
The fungal species identified were all considered as common
soil fungi. Mucor sp. can be regarded as one of the commonest
soil fungi 15. Certain Mucor spp. are beneficial, capable of
producing large quantities of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) which
is effective in curing certain human diseases 19.
Penicillium species occurred with particular frequency in soil
dilution plate technique; differences in soil washing number will
not alter the number of colonies 15. Penicillium sp. is a fungus of
major importance due to its ability to produce penicillin, used as
antibiotics to control human pathogens 20. Penicillium sp. and
Aspergillus sp. are strong phosphate solubilizing microorganisms
in soil, which convert phosphate for plant uptake 21. Aspergillus
sp., unlike Penicillium sp., is found predominantly in warmer
regions 15. The species are known to cause serious infections in
humans and animals by producing aflatoxin 22. In agriculture, certain
Aspergillus spp. were recorded as plant pathogens by producing
mycotoxins 23.
Streptomyces spp., which represented the actinomycete group,
were considered non-pathogenic. Streptomyces spp. are known
as antibiotic producers, particularly Streptomyces griseus, which
is widely recognized to produce streptomycin, essential antibiotic
in medicine 8. Streptomyces has been observed to produce
446
antibiotic depending on the growth phase 24. Candicidin (antifungal antibiotic) was produced after vegetative growth in liquidgrown culture of S. griseus, while Streptomyces antibioticus
grown on agar surface only produces oleandomycin at the end of
the vegetative growth state 25.
The BIOLOG Gen III Identification System was not able to
differentiate between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. These species
are closely related, and can only be distinguished through
molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction combined
with a restriction endonuclease 26. Many literatures have reported
B. cereus to be responsible of minor food-borne illnesses, causing
nausea, vomiting and diarrhea 27, 28. This opportunistic pathogen
has endospore which can survive and stimulate bacterial growth,
thus producing enterotoxin. This enterotoxin can survive high
temperatures and wide range of pH, which finally will cause
poisoning in humans 29. B. thuringiensis is also known to produce
toxins, which are termed Cry proteins which specifically targets
insects including Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and others30.
B. pseudomycoides was also reported to be closely related to B.
cereus, but can easily be separated through fatty acid composition 31.
It was even proposed as a new species, after previous studies
showed that this species was genetically distinct but
phenotypically similar to B. mycoides 31. Therefore, no previous
studies were found on the pathogenicity of this species. B.
mycoides, a non-pathogenic bacterium, which has distinctive
rhizoidal colony formations, was reported to induce systemic
resistance in sugar bit, thus acting as biological control agent 32, 33.
Little is known of B. humi and M. spinosa, as both species were
proposed in 2005, and therefore, no report was found on the
pathogenicity of both species. B. humi was first isolated in
agricultural research area in Netherlands 34, whereas, M. spinosa
has been misclassified as Pseudomonas spinosa and was proposed
to the new genus Malikia in 2005 35.
Conclusions
Fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes made up the major groups of
microorganisms present in soil of young oil palm plantation from
UPM. Ten microbial isolates were obtained from the soil, consisting
of three fungi, two actinomycetes and five bacteria. The fungal
isolates were identified as Mucor sp., Penicillium sp. and
Aspergillus sp. Two actinomycete isolates were identified as
Streptomyces spp. isolate B1 and C2. The bacterial isolates were
identified as M. spinosa, B. humi, B. cereus/thuringiensis, B.
pseudomycoides and Bacillus sp. No previous report was found
on the pathogenicity of all the identified isolates towards oil palm.
However, Aspergillus sp. could be pathogenic to other plant crops.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank University Putra Malaysia for providing
the research fund under Research University Grant Scheme
(RUGS) vot. 91329.
References
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in soil: Selection of microbial populations by plant and soil type and
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Phytopathology 42:243-270.
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Granum, P. E. and Lund, T. 1997. Bacillus cereus and its food poisoning
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Arnesen, L. P., Fagerlund, A. and Granum, P. E. 2008. From soil to gut:
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Heredia, N., Wesley, I. and Garcia, S. 2009. Microbiologically Safe
Foods. John Wiley and Sons, USA.
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Bravo, A., Gill, S. S. and Soberon, M. 2007 . Mode of action of Bacillus
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Nakamura, L. K. 1998. Bacillus pseudomycoides sp. nov. International
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Bargabus, R. L., Zidack, N. K., Sherwood, J. W. and Jacobsen, B. J.
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Evolutionary Microbiology 45:46-49.
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and Vos, P. D. 2005. Bacillus arenosi sp. nov., Bacillus arvi sp. nov.
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Systematic & Evolutionary Microbiology 55:111-117.
35
Spring, S., Wagner, M., Schumann, P. and Kampfer, P. 2005. Malikia
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27
447
WFL Publisher
Science and Technology
Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980
Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: info@world-food.net
www.world-food.net
2, 4
Department of Biological Sciences - King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah, 21989, Saudi Arabia. Department of
Geography, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. Box 715, Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia. 3 Ecosystem Management, University of New
England, Armidale NSW 2351, Australia. 4 KACST GIS Technology Innovation Centre, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. Box 715,
Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia. *e-mail: hmkhormi@uqu.edu.sa
Abstract
House-to-house surveys of larval population of Aedes aegypti were conducted to determine the importance of house index for each habitat in Jeddah
governorate. In this study, we aimed to survey and monitor mosquito population and potential breeding sites by using House index (HI), Container
index (CI), and Breteau index (BI). The statistical analysis showed that the presence of larval stages of Ae. aegypti reported throughout the year inside
houses in the studied locations (Ghuleel, Al-Balad, Al-Jameiah, Al-Nazlah Al-Yamaneyyah, and Al-Safa) with some significant differences among
investigated areas showed that Ghuleel had highest and Al-Safa lowest in density of larvae, respectively. House indices of each study area compared
with the highest ratio of standard WHO (5-10%) were as follows: 8.7, 7.6, 6.6, 6.22 and 4%, respectively, for the above sites (P<0.05). The results
showed that there were significant differences among types of containers of water in the inspected houses. Large containers were most significant
compared with medium and small containers. Container index (CI) was 12% (Ghuleel), 13% (Al-Balad) and 14% (Al-Jameiah), 12% (Al-Nazlah AlYamaneyyah) and 9% (Al-Safa), whereas Breteau index (BI) was 8, 6.6, 4.7, 4.5 and 1.43%, respectively. Significant increase in the density of larvae
was found in November, March, June and January due to the effect of the environmental factors including temperature and humidity.
Key words: Dengue fever, populations, monitoring, Aedes aegypti, residential areas, house index.
Introduction
Mosquitoes are considered Public Enemy Number One for
humans because of their biting and blood feeding habits and their
role as vectors of dengue fever 1. Dengue is the most common
arthropod-borne viral (Arboviral) illness in humans. Globally, 2.5 3 billion individuals, in more than one hundred countries, have
experienced dengue transmission. Approximately 50-100 million
individuals are infected annually with 30,000 deaths 2-5.
Dengue fever outbreaks can cause high morbidity and mortality
in a short span of time, and may create panic among the people,
who expect urgent action from the government. Distribution of
mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Saudi Arabia has been
investigated by many researchers. Mattingly and Knight 6 studied
the distribution of mosquito larvae in the Arabian Peninsula and
recorded 46 species and subspecies. The commonly-used larval
indices (house, container and Breteau) are useful for determining
general distribution, seasonal abundance and principal larval
habitats, as well as for evaluating environmental sanitation
programmes 7. Ae. aegypti, widely distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions, is highly adapted to the urban environment
and beyond the Arctic Circle. Ae. aegypti plays an important role
in the transmission of arboviruses such as dengue and urban
yellow fever 8.
One of the fundamental requirements in the epidemiology and
control of vector-borne diseases is information on the biology
and ecology of the vectors 9. Understanding the spatiotemporal
distribution of risk for mosquito-borne infections is an important
step in planning and implementing effective control measures.
448
45E
50E
55E
60E
30N
30N
33N
35E
im
lQ
A
35E
600 KM
40E
21N
Ash Sharqiyah
18N
`Asir
300
Ar Riyad
Najran
45E
50E
55E
15N
JEDDAH Makkah
24N
ua
ss
27N
24N
Al
Madinah
21N
18N
Hail
27N
Al Jawf
Tabuk
(1)
Figure 2. The study sites and Ae. aegypti larval collection locations
in five residential districts of Jeddah governorate.
CI =
(2)
(3)
449
studied locations were 8.7, 7.6, 6.6, 6.2 and 4% of Ghuleel, AlBalad, Al-Jameiah, Al-Nazlah Al-Yamaneyyah and Al-Safa,
respectively, while the values of container indices (CI) were 12,
13, 14, 12 and 9%, respectively, whereas (BI) were 8, 6.6, 4.7, 4.5
and 1.43%, respectively. These results, in some studied locations
(Al-Jameiah, Al-Nazlah Al-Yamaneyyah and Al-Safa), are in
agreement with Al Thabiany et al. 23, who studied the abundance
of Ae. aegypti in container breeding mosquitoes indoors and
nearby homes in Makkah City. They reported that the values of
HI, CI and BI indices during dry and wet season in Makkah City
were 4.44/12.73, 2.5/6.13 and 1.66/4.83, respectively.
The results as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 4 revealed that there is
significant difference among locations with mean values are 0.91,
0.86, 0.81, 0.77 and 0.65 of Ghuleel, Al-Balad, Al- Nazlah AlYamaneyyah, Al-Jameiah and Al Safa, respectively.
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Jan
Aug Sept
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Location
Guleel
Al-Balad
Al-Jameiah
Al-Nuzlaah Al-Yamaniah
Al-Safa
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Guleel
Al-Balad
Al-Jameiah
Al-Nuzlaah
Al-Yamaniah
Al-Safa
Locations
HI (%)
8.70
7.60
6.60
6.22
4.00
CI (%)
12.00
13.00
14.00
12.00
9.00
BI (%)
8.00
6.60
4.70
4.50
1.43
House index (HI): Percentage of positive houses presence of Ae. aegypti larvae.
Container index (CI): Percentage of positive containers per 100 houses. Breteau
index (BI): Number of positive containers of Ae. aegypti larvae per 100 houses.
Size of containers
Large containers
Small containers
Medium containers
* Means followed by the same letter are not significant different according
to LSD at (0.05).
1
0.9
Month
* Means followed by the same letter are not significant different according
to LSD at (0.05).
0.1
0
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Large containers
Small containers
Medium containers
Size of container
2.5
1.5
0.5
Guleel
Al-Balad
Al-Jameiah
Al-Yamaniah
Al-Safa
Location
Climatic factors
60
HI mean
50
40
Mean temp.
(C)
30
Mean RH
(%)
20
10
Rain total
(mm)
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
451
References
452
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