Psychology Chapter 6: Learning How Nurture Changes

Us

Roadmap: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive models of

learning Biological influences on learning Learning fads
Terms:
1. Learning: Change in an organisms behavior or thought as a result of
experience.
2. Habituation: Process of responding less strongly over time to repeated
stimuli.
Classical Conditioning:
3. Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning: Form of learning in which animals come to
respond to a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with another
stimulus that elicits an automatic response.
4. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that elicits an automatic response
without prior conditioning.
5. Unconditioned response (UCR): Automatic response to an unconditioned
stimulus.
6. Conditioned response (CR): A response elicited by a previously neutral
stimulus as a result of conditioning.
7. Conditioned stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus which after conditioning
elicits a condition response (CR).
8. Acquisition: Learning phase during which a conditioned response is
established.

9. Extinction: Gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned

response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the
unconditioned stimulus.
10.Spontaneous recover: Sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned
response after a delay following an extinction procedure.
11.Renewal effect: Sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following
extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the
conditioned response was acquired.
12.Stimulus generalization: Process by which conditioned stimuli similar but not
identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response.
13.Stimulus discrimination: Process by which organisms display a less
pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the
original conditioned stimulus.
14.Higher-order conditioning: Developing a conditioned response to a
conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned
stimulus.
15.Latent inhibition: Difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to an already
familiar stimulus.
16.Conditioned compensatory response: A CR that is the opposite of the UCR
and serves to compensate for the UCR
17.Fetishism: Sexual attraction to nonliving things.
Operant Conditioning:
18.Operant conditioning: Learning controlled by the consequences of the
organisms behavior.
19.Law of effect: Principle asserting that if, in the presence of a certain stimulus,
a behavior results in a satisfying reward, that behavior is more likely to occur
in the presence of that stimulus in the future.
20.Insight: Grasping the underlying nature of a problem.

21.Skinner box: Small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained

periods of conditioned to be administered and behaviors to be recorded
unsupervised.
22.Reinforcement: Outcome or consequence of a behavior that strengthens the
probability of the behavior.
23.Positive reinforcement: The presentation of a stimulus (what we would think
of as a pleasant stimulus) following a behavior that strengthens the
probability of the behavior.
24.Negative reinforcement: The removal of a stimulus (what we would usually
think of as an unpleasant stimulus) following a behavior that strengthens the
probability of the behavior.
25.Punishment: Outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the
probability of the behavior.
26.Discriminative stimulus: Stimulus associated with the presence of
reinforcement.
27.Schedule of reinforcement: Pattern of reinforcing a behavior.
28.Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs,
resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than only occasional
reinforcement.
29.Partial reinforcement: Only occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting
in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually.
30.Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: A pattern in which we provide reinforcement
following a regular number of responses
31.Fixed interval (FI) schedule: A pattern in which we provide reinforcement for
the first response following a specified time interval
32.Variable ratio (VR) schedule: A pattern in which we provide reinforcement
after a variable number of responses, with the number varying randomly
around some average.
33.Variable interval (VI) schedule: A pattern in which we provide reinforcement
for the first response following a variable time interval, with the actual
intervals varying randomly around some average.

34.Shaping by successive approximations: Conditioning a target behavior by

progressively reinforcing behaviors that come close and closer to the target
35.Secondary reinforce: Neutral object that becomes associated with a primary
reinforcer.
36.Primary reinforce: Item or outcome that naturally increases target behavior.
37.Secondary reinforce: Neutral object that becomes associated with a primary
reinforcer.
38.Primary reinforcer: Item or outcome that naturally increases the target
behavior.
Cognitive Models of Learning:
39.Latent learning: Learning thats not directly observable.
40.Cognitive map: Mental representation of how a physical space is organized.
41.Observational learning: Learning by watching others.
42.Mirror neuron: Cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific
motions when an animal both performs and observes that action.
Biological Influences on Learning:
43.Preparedness: Evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared
stimuli over others owing to their survival value.
44.Instinctive drift: Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following
repeated reinforcement.
Learning Fads:
45.Learning style: An individuals preferred or optimal method of acquiring new
information

Distinguishing Operant Conditioning from Classical Conditioning

Target behavior is
Behavior is a function of

Classical Conditioning
Elicited automatically
Stimuli that precede the

Operant Conditioning
Emitted Voluntarily
Consequences that follow

Behavior depends

behavior
Autonomic nervous

the behavior
Skeletal muscles

primarily on

system

Distinguishing Reinforcement from Punishment

Procedure

Effect on
Behavior

Typical Example

Positive
reinforcement

Presenting a
stimulus

Increases target
behavior

Negative
reinforcement

Removing a
stimulus

Increases target
behavior

Positive
punishment

Presenting a
stimulus

Decreases target
behavior

Negative
punishment

Removing a
stimulus

Decreases target
behavior

Giving a gold star

on homework,
resulting in a
student studying
more
Static on phone
subsides when you
stand in a specific
spot in your room,
causing you to
stand there more
often
Scolding by a pet
owner, reducing a
dogs habit of
chewing on shoes.
Confiscating a
favorite toy,
stopping a child
from throwing
future tantrums

Widespread Myths about the Psychology of B.F. Skinner

1. Skinner believed that genes played no role in human behavior. He
acknowledged that genes affected the ease with which people learn habits,
but he believed that behaviorists should emphasize the study of
environmental influences on behavior.
2. Skinner didnt believe in thinking or emotion. He regarded thinking/feeling
merely as unobservable behavior.
3. Skinner favored the use of punishment as a behavioral technique. Skinner
opposed the use of punishment and believed in reinforcement
4. Skinner believed that any human behavior could be conditioned. Skinner
never argued this but his predecessor John. B Watson nearly did.
5. Skinner denied the uniqueness of individuals. Skinner openly
acknowledged that all individuals are unique.
6. Skinners vision of society was devoid of morality. He advocated a society
in which people would be reinforced for ethical and co-operative behavior.