September 14

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 42

Number 9
Contents
September 2014
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-3
From the Editors Desk - Research & Development in Road Sector
4-8
Meet the Office Bearers of the Indian Roads Congress
Announcement of International Seminar-2014
Just Released Publications of IRC
10-17 Highlights of 203rd Mid-Term Council Meeting of IRC

18

A Comparative Laboratory study on CBR and Permeability of Sub Base Materials Using Chemical Additives and Fibers
Praveen Kumar, G.D. Ransinchung R.N. and Dharampal Singh Kandari
24

Estimation of Time Overruns on National Highway Development Project Using Regression Analysis
M. Kishore Kumar and Ch Hanumantha Rao
39

Influence of Randomly Distributed Nylon Fibers Mixed with Fly Ash in Black Cotton Soil
Deepak Gupta and Mrs. Vandana Tare
44

Distressed Concrete Bridges in India-Problems and Solutions

R. Manisekar, P. Sivakumar, M. Kumarappan and G. Jayaraman
51
Announcement
52

Development of Pay Factors for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes by Relating Construction Quality to Performance
Deepak Baskandi, A. Veeraragavan and Rajib B. Mallick
68

Experiences on Hill Road Construction in Mizoram

K. Lalsawmvela, Jayadeep Nayak and Satyajit Parija
76

Accidents on Roads - A Way Forward

Kuldip Singh and Arun Kumar Sharma
80-85 Circular Issued by MoRT&H

86
Tender Notice, NH Salem
87
Tender Notice, NH Madurai
The Indian Roads Congress

E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/indianhighways@irc.org.in
Founded : December 1934

IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri S.N. Das on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the contents and the
opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility and liability for any
statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the papers and contents
published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
From the Editors Desk
Research & Development in Road Sector

Dear Readers,
Government of India has emphasized on the need for improving mobility and accessibility; it envisaged the
development of the total road network in the country. This included phased removal of deficiencies in the
existing road network, widening and strengthening, improvement, rehabilitation and reconstruction of weak
or dilapidated bridges, adequate maintenance of the roads, and road safety measures. It also laid stress on
improving the riding quality of the existing highways/roads and for providing wayside amenities to road
users. With growing road network of the country and with ambitious road development plans, the role of R&D
inputs becomes most valuable, considering the large impact that even a minor technological change can play
in such scenario.
India is identified for its geographical diversities with mountains, hills, rivers terrains, forest, wet lands, deserts
and scattered habitations in remote areas. Also, there exists a wide range in the sub-grade soil types, rainfall,
traffic pattern and availability of construction materials. This requires adoption of different technological
standards based on site specific conditions. It is well established that investment in road research gives
larger benefits. Review of literature suggests that the benefit-cost ratio on the investment in road research is
more than 20. There are several well defined research areas with quantifiable future benefits in the country.
Internationally, the allocation for research in highway sector is about 2% of the total investment on roads. The
R&D efforts and money spent on relevant research schemes and development of new technologies pay rich
dividends to the economy, as has been the experience world wide. India is one of the top-ranking countries in
the field of basic research.
The Indian Roads Congress have stimulated interest in research by publishing articles in the Journals and by
providing a forum for discussion on research activities during the Annual Sessions of the Congress. The IRC
also plays an active role in the promotion of road research. In the first instance, the IRC took active interest
in setting-up of the road research laboratories in the country. As far back in 1944, a detailed scheme was
worked out for setting-up Central Road Research Institute at New Delhi and a chain of research laboratories
in the States in addition to the work of gathering information concerning road research within the country.
The Highway Research Board (HRB) was constituted in the year 1973 under the aegis of Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) as the Forward Looking Group of the Science & Technology Advisory Committee (STAC)
of the Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways. The Director General (Road Development) &
Special Secretary to the Govt. of India, Department of Road Transport & Highways, Ministry of Shipping,
Road Transport & Highways (MoSRT&H) is the ex-officio Chairman of HRB, The Secretary General,
IRC is the Secretary of this board; and experts in road sector from the Research Institutes, Government
Departments, Universities, Engineering Colleges and the Business Sector are the members of HRB.
IRC-HRB with the help of Identification Monitoring & Research Application Committee (IMRA) and
Core Group and Technical Committees of IRC identify the priority areas and action plan in road sector and
thereafter forward recommendation to the MoRTH.
A major thrust to the research in the highway sector was given by the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways in early 1980s. About eighty research projects related to various aspects of roads, bridges, traffic
2
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014
EDITORIAL
management and safety were taken up. These research schemes provided very useful information for
cost-effective solutions to the problems faced on the ground, and led to development of several design
guidelines and standards suited to Indian conditions. The innovations and developments have resulted in
significant savings and improvements in road infrastructure in developed countries.
While systematic visionary research could not be initiated at par with the taking up of the huge road
development initiative in the country since 2000. The shortfall in research has led to a very undesirable
condition of our roads and a failure to get the benefits of new materials, technology and processes. As contrast,
the US for example invested millions of dollars in research in nineties and their present return is counted in
billions. Our investment in road research is negligible compared to the huge investments in road construction.
The neglect so far due to not realizing the real value and benefits of road research is quite unfortunate.
This gap should be addressed on an emergent basis in the country. The research and development is crucial
for the socio-economic growth of a country. Innovations are important for faster development, so that the
innovations will result in cost effective solutions which will provide better performing and safer highways in
the country.
As technologies are changing at a fast pace, we must come with new ideas, learn from our experiences
and develop the capacity to compete and innovate user friendly technologies. The various components of
R&D strategy should be improvement in design, modernization of construction techniques, introduction of
improved materials conforming to latest standards, evolving better and appropriate specifications, encouraging
development and use of new technologies, use of marginal materials, etc. The basic aim of research should be
to develop durable infrastructure and elements to improve in-service performance, reduce maintenance needs
and costs, reduce life-cycle costs and significantly use of new technologies and marginal materials etc.
The main thrust of research and development (R&D) in the roads sector is to build a sustainable and
environment friendly road infrastructure comparable with the best roads in the world. To build such roads, our
existing technology policy needs to be reformulated in the light of the scenarios emerging from technological
development taking place elsewhere in the world, increased traffic, depleting sources of construction materials,
environmental damage and aesthetic consideration. We need to be more aggressive in acquiring and applying
advanced technologies in wide range of fields, including roads, bridges, tunnels, traffic-transportation and
incident management.
Investment in road research should be viewed as a long term investment, to put the country on higher pedestal
in the field of highways. It is well established that investment in road research gives larger benefits. Often it
is seen that research schemes take a lot of time to commence after their identification and taking the research
work to a logical completion also takes considerable time. There is a need to evolve a strategy to reduce this
time period and put R&D activities on a fast track. It is essential to shorten the time taken in award of the
research work and in implementing them by following a comprehensive monitoring system which should also
solve the bottlenecks, when faced, while carrying out research work. Further, there are many organizations
in the country which are involved in the R&D activities. There is an urgent need to coordinate all these
R&D activities to avoid duplication of research work and their dissemination for effective application of the
available results in the field.
Place :
Dated :
New Delhi
29th August, 2014
S.N. Das
MEET THE Office Bearers OF THE INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS
SHRI SUNIL BHOWMIK

President
Born on 4th January, 1955, Shri Sunil Bhowmik did his B.E (Civil Engg) from Tripura Engineering College
(now NIT Agartala). Shri Bhowmik joined the Tripura PWD in 1979, as an Asst. Engineer (Civil) in the Gumti
Hydro-Electric project under Power Department Govt. of Tripura and worked there up to May, 1984 and he
was directly involved in the execution of construction of various multi-storied building projects, construction
works including preliminary survey and detailing.
Shri Bhowmik worked with the survey and investigation unit in Water Resources Wing of Public Works
Department, Tripura from 1984 to 1987. He was directly involved in the preparation of detailed project
reports of Gumti, Khowai and other projects of barrages and diversion schemes.
On getting promotion as Executive Engineer in July, 1987, he was entrusted with Tripura Tribal area
Autonomous District Council as an Executive Engineer and during his incumbency in TTAADC he had
executed multi type construction works including Roads, bridges, and irrigation projects in tribal area from
1987 to 1990.
Again he was posted in Gumti Hydro-electric Project under Power Department, Govt. of Tripura as an
Executive Engineer and during this period he had executed additional storage schemes of Gumti Hydroelectric project including designing, execution of power channel forebay siphoning works etc. from January,
1990 to 1996.
On September, 1997, he was promoted as Superintending Engineer and posted in the Water Resources Wing
of PWD, Tripura and during this period he was involved in the execution of barrage works and small and
medium irrigation projects and continued there up to 2003.
On July, 2003, he was promoted to the post of Chief Engineer and held the post of Housing Commissioner
for a period of time in Tripura Housing Board. Then he joined again as Chief Engineer of PHE Wing of PWD
and involved in the whole process and in a short period of his tenure, a number of treatment plants were
commissioned and a large number of unconnected habitations were connected with drinking water supply.
Then again in January, 2007, he was posted to Roads and Buildings Wing of Public Works Department,
Government of Tripura as Chief Engineer.
On 9th July, 2013, he was promoted as Engineer-in-Chief, PWD(R&B). He is an eminent Engineer of repute
and closely associated with IRC, IBC, IE(I) and Institution of Public Health Engineering.
Shri Sunil Bhowmik has been elected as President of the Indian Roads Congress during its 74th Annual
Session held at Guwahati (Assam) in January 2014.
4
EDITORIAL
Meet the Office Bearers
of the INdian Roads Congress
SHRI S.N. Das

DG(RD), MoRT&H
Shri S.N. Das did B.Sc. Engineering (Mechanical) in 1st Class with distinction in the year 1979
from Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology, Bihar University, Muzaffarpur. After completion of his
Graduation, he joined M/s Rohatas Industries, Dalmianagar, Bihar as a Mechanical Engineer.
He has worked in the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways on various capacities and has
completed many important projects.
Shri S.N. Das was promoted to the post of Chief Engineer (Mech.) in October 2008 in the Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways. From 12th June 2012 to 18th January, 2013 he was given Additional
Charge of Director, Indian Academy of Highways Engineers, Noida. He was promoted to the post
of Additional Director General, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways w.e.f. 5.12.2012. He also
dealt with the Projects in North Eastern Region. From 14.03.2014, he was posted in S&R Zone,
Roads & Bridges and Mechanical Zone.
He is the Convenor of HSS, BSS and GSS Appex Committees of IRC and Chairman of Highways
Research Board. He is also the Convenor of Mechanization Committee (G-4) of Indian Roads
Congress from the year 2009. He has been Instrumental in formation of important IRC documents
relating to Mechanization.
Shri S.N. Das was elevated to the post of Director General (Road Development) in Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways on 1st August, 2014. He is also the Honorary Treasurer of the Indian Roads
Congress.
___________
Meet The Office Bearers of The Indian Roads Congress
SHRI C. KANDASAMY
Past-President
Shri C. Kandasamy joined Central Engineering Service (Roads) of Government of India in 1976 and have
held various positions in the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways as well as in the National Highways
Authority of India.
He was on deputation with National Highways Authority of India as General Manager and was associated
with Phase-I of NHDP (Golden Quadrilateral). As Chief General Manager Shri Kandasamy was involved in
Phase II of NHDP (North South & East West Corridors). He took most of the projects under his jurisdiction
in North-South corridor through the BOT model. As Member (Technical), NHAI, he was incharge of Phase III
(BOT) of NHDP projects. In his long and illustrious career spanning over 35 years, Shri Kandasamy has been
involved in all aspects of development of National Highways including implementation of NHDP.
Shri C. Kandasamy held various positions in the Ministry and elevated to the post of Director General
(Road Development) and Special Secretary in December 2011.
Shri C. Kandasamy is a Life Member of the Indian Roads Congress. He is an eminent engineer of repute and
is closely associated with the Technical Committees of Indian Roads Congress. He is also instrumental in
preparation of IRC Codes, Specifications, Manuals etc.
Shri C. Kandasamy was President of the Indian Roads Congress during 2013 and at present its Past
President.
EDITORIAL
Meet The Office Bearers
of The Indian Roads Congress
SHRI Ajoy Chandra Bordoloi

Vice-President
Ajoy Chandra Bordoloi has a brilliant & illustrious academic
and service carrier. He graduated from Assam Engineering
College in 1978 with Gold Medal breaking all earlier records
in Engineering Stream of Gauhati University. He was also
selected as the Best Engineering Graduate of Guwahati
University in 1978 among all Branches of Engineering.
Shri Bordoloi joined the Public Health Engineering Department
in 1978 as Trainee Engineer and thereafter joined as Assistant
Engineer in Assam Public Works Department in February, 1979.
He topped the select list of the APSC in 1980. He qualified for
Indian Engineering Service, Group A in 1980 conducted by
UPSC and joined as Assistant Executive Engineer in Border
Roads Organization in 1981. But he came back to the Assam
Public Works Department in 1982. Since then he worked in
different capacities and successfully completed numbers of
important Building and National Highway projects like, New
State Secretariat Building, National Game Village at Guwahati,
Rehabilitation of flood damaged Ranganadi Bridge on NH-52
and numerous NH projects in the State.
He is also instrumental in introducing the Green Technologies
in the Major Building Projects in the State. Stabilization
of embankment using Bamboo piles and rehabilitation of
Ranganadi Bridge are some of the example of his success
stories adopting innovative approaches. He is well known
as a Structural Engineer both in Building and Bridge works.
He obtained Masters Degree in Soil Mechanic in 1987 from
Guwahati University with Record Marks. For a brief period he
served as Under Secretary in Assam Public Works Department
in 1999.
Shri Bordoloi was elevated to the Post of Chief Engineer in
July 2004 and due to his outstanding performance he became
Commissioner & Special Secretary to the Govt. of Assam of
the newly created Public Works Building & NH Department
in May, 2010.
Shri Nalini Kanta Pradhan

Vice-President
Shri N.K. Pradhan did B.Sc Engg. (Civil) with

Hons. in the year 1980. He has also completed
M.Sc Engg. (Transportation) with Hons. in the year
1996. Shri Pradhan has also did P.G Diploma in
Environmental Education & Management in the
year 1999.
Shri N.K. Pradhan has served in the Works
Department of the Govt. of Odisha and taken
initiatives in completion of a number of major road
and bridge projects in the State of Odisha. Due to
his efforts, State-wise master plan, e-governance
and Asset Management of works have been put in
place. He has initiated a number of reforms in the
Department and has shown exemplary improvement
in the overall functioning and efficiency during all
his previous postings.
Presently, he is serving as Engineer-in-Chief-cumSecretary to the Works Department, Government
of Odisha.
Shri N.K. Padhan has been elected as VicePresident of the Indian Roads Congress during its
74th Annual Session held at Guwahati (Assam) in
January 2014.

Sri Ajoy Chandra Bordoloi has been elected as the Vice
President of the Indian Roads Congress during its 74th Annual
Session held at Guwahati (Assam) in 2014.
Meet The Office Bearers of The Indian Roads Congress
SHRI SHYAM SUNDER PORWAL, VSM

Vice-President
Shri Shyam Sunder Porwal did B.E Civil (Hons) from MBM
Engineering College, Jodhpur in 1978 and M.Tech from IIT,
Delhi in 1987. He is presently pursuing Ph.D on part time basis
from NIT, Silchar from 2008 onwards.
He joined Border Roads Organization in August 1980 as
Assistant Executive Engineer. He has served for past 34 years
in various appointments and capacities out of which for 28
years, he was fully engaged in road and bridge construction
activities. He has served for 24 years in far flung areas of
North and North-East devoid of basic amenities and having
poor road communication in difficult terrain. He also served
as Indian expert to Royal Govt. of Bhutan from 1986 to 1989
under ITEC Programme.
While serving as Superintending Engineer, 38 Border Roads
Task Force his innovative approach in snow clearance and
hard work made possible to open Manali-Sarchu sector two
months ahead of normal opening during OP Vijay in 1999
which helped in speedy induction of troops, stores to Kargil
in OP Vijay and in recognition of the meritorious service
rendered by Shri Porwal, he was awarded with prestigious
Vishisht Seva Medal (VSM) by President of India in 2001.
He has also commanded 50 BRTF and started the four lanning
work of NH-1A Jammu-Vijaypur section. As Director, Design
and Specification, he has worked in HQ DGBR Delhi.
On promotion to the post of Chief Engineer, commanded
prestigious BRO Project Vartak from 2004 to 2007 at Tezpur
and he has carried various works of GS as well MORTH in
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. His second Command was
in Project Setuk in Shillong (2007 to 2010) comprising area
of Mehgalaya, Triupra and part of Assam. For his exemplary
services, he was awarded Chief of Army Staff Commendation
Card twice in 1993 and 2000. Presently, he is working as Chief
Engineer, Project Swastik at Gangtok in the State of Sikkim.
Shri Shyam Sunder Porwal has been elected as Vice-President
of the Indian Roads Congress during its 74th Annual Session
held at Guwahati (Assam) in January 2014.
SHRI Mohit Verma

Vice-President
Shri Mohit Verma has graduated in Civil Engineering from
Aurangabad University, Maharashtra in 2001. He has also
done M. Tech in Transportation with Diversification to Traffic
Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
in 2006. He has also done his Post Graduate Diploma in
Geographical Information System (GIS) from Pentasoft
Technologies Limited, New Delhi.
Shri Mohit Verma has started his career with N.S. Constructions,
New Delhi as Site Engineer and was involved in construction
of Barista cafeteria.
In the year 2001, he joined MSV International Inc. as Field
Engineer on PMGSY Project at Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh. He
was deputed on 4/6 laning of NH-26 from Rajmarg Chouraha
Lakhnadon on NSEW corridor as Deputy Project Manager
in 2003.
Shri Mohit Verma worked on a DST project Design Options
Based on Performance Analysis of Rural Road in Uttaranchal
during his post-graduation at IITR, Roorkee till 2006. He further
worked as Associate Director (Project) at MSV International
Inc till 2007.
In the year 2008, he joined RBI Grade-81 as Manager
(Technical). Shri Mohit Verma was promoted as Assistant
General Manager in 2010 and in this capacity he was responsible
for all the technical matters related to feasibility, planning,
testing, design, implementation, QA&QC & evaluation of the
pavement with RBI Grade-81 technology.
Shri Mohit Verma is currently working as General Manager
(Technical) with Alchemist Touchnology Ltd., New Delhi,
and he is the head of technical department of RBI Grade-81
Technology.
Shri Mohit Verma has been elected as Vice-President of the
Indian Road Congress during its 74th Annual Session held at
Guwahati (Assam) in January 2014.
ANNOUNCEMENT
International Seminar on Road Safety for Inclusive and Sustainable
Development Current Practice and Perspective
on 24th & 25 th November, 2014 at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi
Organizers : Indian Roads Congress (IRC), World Road Association (PIARC), Global Road Safety Facility
(The World Bank), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways and International Road Federation. (India Chapter)
Who should attend : Central/State Government Ministries/Departments/Agencies, Public Sector Undertakings, Autonomous Organizations, Law Enforcement Agencies, Traffic Police, Research/Academic Institutions,
Road Sector Project executing agencies both from Government and Private Sector including Concessionaires/
Transporters/Cargo Movers/Fleet Operators, Automobile Manufacturers, Devices Manufacturers, NGOs,
Emergency Medical Service Providers & Insurance Companies, etc.
Themes of the Seminar

Session 1:
Session 2:
Session 3:
Session 4:

Session 5:
Session 6:
Plenary Session
Road Safety Action Plan, Strategy for Implementation
Inclusive Safety Protecting Vulnerable Road Users
Crash Response, Trauma Care Facility, Investigation, Data Analysis to Include Accident Recording,
Analysis Systems, Crash Testing Facilities and Parameters, etc.
Improving Road Behavior through Enforcement, Education & Awareness
Innovative ways of Financing in Road Safety
Session 7:
Panel Discussion & Summing up with Implementable Recommendations Short Term & Long Term
For submitting Technical Papers (Words limit 2000 only)
Please contact Shri R.V. Patil, Asst. Director (Technical), IRC (email: rahulpatil@irc.org.in) Tel. 011 2671 6778.
Registration Fee:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
For IRC Members from India and SAARC Countries

For Non IRC Members/Official delegates

For delegates from other Countries

Rs. 4000/- per participant

Rs. 6000/- per participant
US $ 150 per participant
Opportunity available for Advertisers Opportunity available for Sponsorship Opportunity available for
Registration
For further details and enquiry for getting associated with the International Seminar, please contact Shri D. Sam Singh, Under Secretary, IRC,
E-mail: samsingh@irc.org.in, Tel. No.: 2617 1548 & Shri S.K. Chadha, Under Secretary (I/c), IRC, E-mail: ircseminar@gmail.com, Tel. No.: 2338 7140.
JUST RELEASED
The following IRC Publications were released during the 203rd Council Meeting of IRC on 19th August, 2014:
S. No.
Code No.
Title of the Publication
Price (Rs.)
Postage (Rs.)
1.
IRC:83-2014 (Pt. IV) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges
Section-IX Bearings (Spherical and Cylindrical)
600.00
40.00
2.
IRC:116-2014
Specifications for Readymade Bituminous Pothole Patching Mix using

Cut-Back Bitumen
400.00
30.00
3.
IRC:SP:42-2014
Guidelines of Road Drainage (First Revision)
800.00
40.00
4.
IRC:SP:49-2014
Guidelines for the use of Dry Lean Concrete as Sub-Base for Rigid
Pavement (First Revision)
400.00
30.00
5.
IRC:SP:84-2014
Manual of Specifications & Standards for Four Laning of Highways

through Public Private Partnership (First Revision)
1000.00
50.00
6.
IRC:SP:101-2014
Interim Guidelines for Warm Mix Asphalt
600.00
30.00
7.
IRC:SP:102-2014
Guidelines for Design and Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls
800.00
40.00
Above publications can be purchased on line through IRC website www.irc.org.in or from office of Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,
New Delhi-110011 or Kama Koti Marg, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110022. For further inquiry please contact Tel No. 23386274 E-mail: sale@irc.org.in.
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE 203rd Mid-Term COUNCIL MEETING

OF INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS HELD AT NEW DELHI
ON 19th & 20th AUGUST 2014
Welcoming Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural Development,
Govt. of India Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping

& Rural Development, Govt. of India being welcomed by
President, IRC, Shri Sunil Bhowmik, along with other
Office Bearers of IRC
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways,

Shipping & Rural Development, Govt. of India and other
Dignitaries on the way to Seminar Hall
The Indian Roads Congress organized its 203rd

Mid-Term Council Meeting on 19th & 20th August,
2014 at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi. Besides
Council members the meeting was attended by the
Secretaries, Engineer-in-Chiefs, Chief Engineers/
Officers of Central/State Government Departments/
PWDs/Academic Institutes, etc. The Council
Meeting was inaugurated by the Honble Minister
of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural
Development Govt. of India, Shri Nitin Jairam
Gadkari Ji by lighting the traditional lamp. The
Guest of Honour for the Inaugural Function was
Secretary to the Govt. of India, Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways, Shri Vijay Chhibber Ji. The
Inaugural Function was also graced by the President,
IRC & Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Tripura Shri Sunil

Bhowmik; Director General (Road Development),
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
and Hony. Treasurer of IRC, Shri S.N. Das;
Immediate Past President, IRC & Former DG
(RD) & SS, Govt. of India, Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways, Shri C. Kandasamy;
Vice-Presidents of IRC, Shri A.C. Bordoloi,
Commissioner & Spl. Secretary, PWD Assam; Shri
N.K. Pradhan, Engineer-in-Chief & Secretary, Works
Department, Govt. of Orissa, Shri S.S. Porwal,
Chief Engineer, Project Swastik at Gangtok DGBR &
Shri Mohit Verma, General Manager (Technical),
M/s. Alchemist Touchnology Ltd, New Delhi.
10
Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting

Inaugural Function
Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural Development,
Govt. of India inaugurated the 203rd Council Meeting by lighting the traditional lamp.
Lighting of Traditional Lamp during the 203rd Council Meeting
11
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural Development, Govt. of India being welcomed in a
traditional manner with Shawl by President, IRC, Shri Sunil Bhowmik
Secretary to the Govt. of India, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Shri Vijay Chhibber being welcomed in a traditional
manner with Shawl by Director General (Road Development) Ministry of Road Transport & Highways and
Hony. Treasurer of IRC, Shri S.N. Das,
A View of the dais
12

Address by Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping
and Rural Development, Govt. of India
Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural Development,
Govt. of India in his Inaugural address stated that he has promised to Honble Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji that
Road Transport, Shipping and Inland Waterways will exert all efforts to add Two Percent extra to the GDP of the country.
Speaking about highway network he said that 19 out of 51 road projects had to be dropped for different reasons. He
invited the attention of all stakeholders for speeding up the process to achieve the target of building 30 kms of highways
per day in the next two years. Admitting that impediments like land acquisition, environmental clearances by Ministry
of Environment and Forest and ROB clearance by Railways had stalled many projects, the Minister informed that about
80 percent of the projects stalled for lack of environment and forest clearances have been resolved and land acquisition
process and clearances from Railways and Defence are being expedited. Praising the efforts of the Indian Roads Congress
for the overall development in road sector in the country, the Honble Minister urged the Indian Roads Congress to
concentrate on Research and Development for maximizing the use of locally available materials for speedy and durable
construction of roads and bridges in the country. He said, this is the right time for the road sector to come up to the
expectation of the nation and that there will be no dearth of funds including foreign funding but he emphasized that all
should focus on time-bound completion of projects.
Address by Secretary, Govt. of India, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

Shri Vijay Chhibber, Secretary, Govt. of India, Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways informed the august gathering that his
Ministry has set a target of award of 8500 km of NHs and completion
of 6000 km of NHs works during the fiscal year. He further informed
that the work is going as per schedule and he was confident to achieve
this target of completion of 6000 km of NH works. Whereas for
achievement of the 1st target i.e. award of work, Ministry is looking
forward the active support from all the stakeholders including IRC.
The IRC provides a common forum on focusing on all the matters
related to Design, Construction, Maintenance of Roads & Bridges,
Technology, Equipment, Materials, Research, Planning, Financing
and Taxation and what is sometimes overlooked is road safety. I
would urge IRC to reflect upon the need for further and closer interaction with the Ministry so that the targets can be
achieved.
13

Address by President, IRC & Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Tripura
Shri Sunil Bhowmik, President, IRC in his presidential
address mentioned about the role of IRC being played
in bringing uniformity in planning, design, construction,
maintenance and operation of all categories of roads and
road infrastructure in the Country. During the journey spread
over 79 years (since 1934), the role and responsibilities
of IRC have increased manifold. The IRC has stood all
demands and pressures and with each passing day it is
striving to achieve higher levels of excellence. The IRC
has achieved unprecedented feat by publishing as many as
17 documents in a single year, which is a great achievement
by all means. He appreciated the excellent work done by
the members of various Technical Committees of IRC and
IRC secretariat for their untiring and continuing efforts.
He also mentioned that new publications which are being brought by IRC are of world class level and they are being
used by the neighboring SAARC countries. IRC had embarked upon the program to develop Code of Practice for use
of waste materials in the construction of roads. One of the biggest areas of concern in India had been the plastic waste
and IRC takes the pride to be the first organization to issue the formal code of practice for use of waste plastic in road
construction. More work is being carried out for use of other waste materials like flyash, slag etc. from steel industry,
aluminum & copper industry in the road sector.
He briefed the august gathering about IRC initiatives in organizing the forthcoming International Seminar on Road
Safety for Inclusive and Sustainable Development Current Practice and Perspective in the month of November 2014
to enhance road safety. He further stated that IRC is willing to accept any challenge thrown to it. Recently, Ministry of
Rural Development has been directed by the PMO to prepare the action plan for plantation on rural roads. The ministry
in turn requested IRC in the middle of July 2014 to prepare the necessary guidelines on Tree Plantation on Rural Roads.
Accordingly, IRC took the work in hand and finalized the draft document within record time of one month.
He also stressed upon the greater use of re-cycled materials in road sector for which re-cycling methodology needs
up-gradation with faster R&D efforts. He also stressed the need of setting up one Research and Analytical Institute as
well as Training Institute like CRRI and IAHE in the North East Zone preferably in Guwahati.
Address by Director General (Road Development), Ministry of Road Transport & Highways and
Hony. Treasurer, IRC
Shri S.N. Das, Director General (Road Development),
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways in his address
mentioned that good road transport system is one of the
indicators of the countrys economic and industrial growth.
The overall improvement in road sector in India is indeed
synonymous with the country growth, at large. Today
the roads have to sustain heavy traffic and road industry
is more conscious about various aspects of sustainability
and deeply committed to promoting new innovations
and initiating R&D in road sector. To build world class
roads in the country we need to reformulate our existing
technology policy in the light of the emerging international
trends, diffusion of technologies and keep pace with more
demanding international standards for cost, quality and
productivity. The Government has also made substantial
efforts to tackle the highways sectors shortcomings and to reform its transport institutions. Highway development
fosters inclusive growth, it promotes overall development of the region, provides direct/indirect employment to skilled/
semi-skilled/unskilled workers all along the region served by the highway.
14

Welcome Address by Vice President, IRC & Commissioner Cum Spl. Secretary, PWD Assam
In his Welcome Address Shri A.C. Bordoloi, Vice-President of IRC welcomed
the Chief Guest, Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping
& Rural Development, Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji, Secretary to the Govt. of
India, Ministry of Shipping Road Transport & Highways, Shri Vijay Chhibber Ji
and other dignitaries on the dais and off the dais. Shri Bordoloi highlighted the
role of IRC & its achievements for the last two years with specific reference to
the excellent work done by IRC in bringing out number of Codes, Guidelines,
Manuals on the key issues in the road sector. He said that the delegates would
benefit immensely from this Council Meet.
Vote of Thanks by Vice President, IRC Shri N.K. Pradhan, Engineer-in-Chief cum Secretary, PWD Odisha
Shri N.K. Pradhan, Vice-President, IRC proposed a Vote
time not by chance but as a necessity to achieve higher
of Thanks to the Honble Minister of Road Transport &
inclusive growth of Indian economy, therefore, there
Highways, Shipping & Rural Development, Secretary,
is a need to have an investment-cum-financing-cum
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, President,
governance strategy and simultaneously corresponding
IRC, Director General (Road Development), Ministry
interlinked
deliverance
infrastructure
for
its
of Road Transport & Highways, Vice-Presidents of IRC,
operationalization in a meaningful way and the fraternity
Council Members, Members of Technical Committees
of Indian Roads Congress is struggling hard to make these
and distinguished guests who had graced the Inaugural
endeavors a grand success. He also thanked the press and
Function. He mentioned that road sector in the country
media for their wide coverage of this event.
will continue to remain a sunrise sector for coming
Release of IRC Documents

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping & Rural Development releasing 7 new IRC
Publications during Inaugural Function
IRC:SP:101-2014 Interim Guidelines for Warm Mix Asphalt
IRC:SP:42-2014 Guidelines of Road Drainage
IRC:SP:102-2014 Guidelines for Design and Construction of

Reinforced Soil Walls
IRC:SP:49-2014 Guidelines for the use of Dry Lean

Concrete as Sub-Base for Rigid Pavement (First Revision)
15
IRC:SP:84-2014 Manual of Specifications & Standards for

Four Laning of Highways through Public Private Partnership
(First Revision)
IRC:116-2014 Specifications for Readymade Bituminous

Pothole Patching Mix using Cut-Back Bitumen
(First Revision)
IRC:83-2014 (Pt. IV) Standard Specifications Code of

Practice for Road Bridges Section IX Bearings
(Spherical and Cylindrical)
View of Audience during Inaugural Function
Council Meeting
The Council in its 203rd Meeting approved the following draft Standards/Guidelines :
(iv)
View of the dais
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
16
Draft Amendment to IRC:6-2014 Standard

Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Section-II - Loads and Stresses.
Draft Amendment to IRC:112-2011 Code of
Practice for Concrete Road Bridges.
Draft Explanatory Handbook to IRC:112-2011
Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges.
Draft Second revision of IRC:22 Standard

Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Section-VI Steel-Concrete Composite
Construction.
(v) Draft Guidelines for Fabrication and Erection of
Steel Bridges.
(vi) Draft Standard Specifications and Code of Practice
for Road Bridges, Section-IX: Roller & Rocker
Bearings.
(vii) Draft revision of IRC:SP:51 Guidelines for Load
Testing of Bridges.
(viii) Engineering Guidelines on Management of
Landslides on Indian Roads & Highways.
(ix) Draft First Revision of IRC:108 Guidelines for
Traffic Forecast on Highways.
(x) Draft Second Revision of IRC:35 Code of Practice
for Road Markings.
(xi) Draft First Revision of IRC:109 Guidelines for
Wet Mix Macadam.

(xii) Draft Amendment to IRC:81-1997 Guidelines for
Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements using
Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique (First
Revision).
(xiii) Draft First Revision of IRC:85 Recommended
Practice for Accelerated Strength Testing and
Evaluation of Concrete for Road and Airfield
Constructions.
(xiv) New Draft on Guidelines for the Structural
Evaluation of Rigid Pavement by Falling Weight
Deflectometer.
(xv) New Draft on Guidelines for Design &

Construction of Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement.
(xvi) New Draft document on Guidelines on Tree
Plantation along Rural Roads.
(xvii) Draft First Revision of IRC:11 Recommended
Practice for the Design and Layout of Cycle
Tracks.
(xviii) New Draft document on Guidelines for Traffic
Safety Barriers.
In the end Presentations on Cement Stabilized Fly Ash for Sub-base and Base Layers of Flexible
Pavements by Dr. Vasant G. Havangi, CRRI and A Mechanism for Generation of Road Safety Fund by
Prof. P.K. Sarkar, SPA were also made.
Highway Research Board
View of the dais
The Highway Research Board in its 70th Meeting on

the 20th August, 2014 board identified priority R&D
areas on which research has lagged behind in India
and recommended to the government agencies to
take up on priority basis. In addition two presentation
were made one by Shri D. Siddi Ramulu and
Shri M. Selvakumar, Consultant M/s L&T Ramboll
Consulting Engineers Ltd, Chennai on Study
on impact of high speed rail on passenger traffic
in India and other by Dr. Rina Singh, CRRI on
Nanotechnology
for
Road Transport
and
Environment Sector.
Secretaries, E-in-Cs & Chief Engineers Meeting

The Secretaries, E-in-Chief & Chief Engineers
Meeting was held on 20th August, 2014 under the
Chairmanship of Shri S.N. Das, Director General
(Road Development), Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways.
Following important items were deliberated during
the meeting:
(1) Specifications for Road & Bridge Works;
(2) Revision of Standard Data Book for Analysis
of Rates; (3) Road Safety Issues; (4) Renumbering
of NHs and Review of NH referencing system;
(5) Engagement of National Project Monitors for
View of the dais
monitoring of highway project; (6) Preparation of
DPR fir deficient NHs and corridor approach method for NH development; (7) Development of way-side
amenities; (8) Modification in CRF (State Roads) Rules; (9) Feedback on EPC Projects; (10) Emerging new
materials and techniques and (11) Declaration of new NHs for district connectivity.
17
A COMPARATIVE LABORATORY STUDY ON CBR AND

PERMEABILITY OF SUB BASE MATERIALS USING
CHEMICAL ADDITIVES AND FIBRES
Praveen Kumar*, G.D. Ransinchung R.N.** and Dharampal Singh Kandari***
ABSTRACT
Granular Sub-Base (GSB) is placed just on top of subgrade and
just beneath unbound base course, its role is to serve as drainage
layer as well as load bearing layer. Traditionally, aggregates for
sub-base application were composed of sand, gravel, quarry stone,
crushed rock and natural mineral materials that provided necessary
strength and durability. But use of these traditional materials in
GSB layer construction is not possible in all time, especially in hill
roads where hauling distance is considerable, as a result of which
it would be uneconomical. In this study, three different types of
aggregates collected from different sources and chemical additive
lime and fibres were used. GSB mixes were prepared by mixing
three different types of aggregates with different percentages of
lime (i.e. 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% by total weight), and fibres (i.e. 0.5%,
1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% by total weight). Initially, physical properties of
these materials were ascertained to judge its suitability for the job.
Secondly, these materials were proportioned to meet the desired
gradation limits as specified in MoRT&H. Thirdly; performance
related tests like MDD & OMC, soaked CBR and permeability
were performed in the laboratory with or without chemical additive
like lime and fibre. Inclusion of lime improves CBR strength of
GSB mixture considerably. Incorporation of fibre enhanced the
reinforcing effect of the matrix and as a result of which there was
a significant improvement on the strength of the mixture. Also, the
permeability characteristics of the GSB mixes are improved by
the addition of polypropylene fibre. On the basis of the results, it
was found that polypropylene fibre is the best sub base material as
it has good strength and is more permeable compared to lime.
INTRODUCTION
India has the third largest road network in the world,

stretching across a distance of 33 lakh kilometres. In
India, more than 98% of the roads are of flexible type.
The pavement structural section is a costly element of
the highway system and its premature failure is of great
concern. Water damage is the most important factor
which affects adversely the performance of flexible
pavements. Water enters into the pavement section
through cracks, joints, pavement infiltration and high
water table. Some of the effects of water, when trapped
within the pavements structure are:- a) Reduction in
*
Professor, E-mail: pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in
**
Asstt. Professor, E-mail: gdranjan@gmail.com
strength of subgrade and base/sub-base, b) Hydraulic

pumping action under effect of traffic which causes
disintegration of aggregate particles in different
pavement layers, c) Differential swelling in expansive
subgrade soils, d) Stripping of asphalt in flexible
pavements, e) Frost heave and reduction of strength
during frost melt, and f) Movement of fine particles
into base or sub-base course materials resulting in a
reduction of the coefficient of permeability. There are
two approaches to reduce water infiltration into the
pavement. First, pavement joints and cracks should
be sealed to reduce infiltration. Second, water can
be removed either vertically through the subgrade
or laterally through the drainage layer into a system
of pipe collectors. In most areas, vertical drainage is
not adequate because the coefficient of permeability
of subgrade materials is usually very low. Therefore,
lateral drainage is needed to carry free water away
from pavement structure. A system of lateral drains
uses a drainage layer to carry the infiltrated water to
a collector system, which consists of longitudinal or
transverse drains. A drainage layer generally consists
of highly permeable materials. Therefore, laboratory
determination of the permeability of sub base materials
is the most important factor for assessing the drainage
capability.
Granular Sub-base (GSB) is above the subgrade soil
and serves as the foundation for the overall pavement
structure. The GSB layer is divided into two parts:

i)
The upper GSB functions as drainage

layer
ii)
The lower GSB functions as filter layer

to prevent intrusion of subgrade soil into
the pavement.
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee
*** M.Tech. Student, E-mail: dpskspce@iitr.ernet.in
18
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The main functions of the sub base layer in pavements
are as follows:

1)
It is a structural layer which will accept

greater compressive stresses than the
subgrade.
the sample surface and measuring the time needed for

collecting a known amount of water at the tail end. The
permeability can be calculated using the equation

k=
QL
Aht
2)
It provides a working platform on which

the paving materials can be transported,
laid and compacted.
Where,

= coefficient of permeability (cm/sec),

from constant head test
3)
It reduces the intrusion of fines from the

sub-grade in the pavement structure.
= quantity of water discharged, cm3
= total time of discharge, sec
It provides adequate drainage for the

infiltration of rain water through cracks
and joints.
= cross-sectional area of soil sample,

cm2
= length of the sample (cm), and
Permeability is the capacity of a material to discharge

water under a given hydraulic gradient. The coefficient
of permeability is defined as the rate of discharge of
water at 2C under conditions of laminar flow through
a unit cross sectional area of a soil medium under a
unit hydraulic gradient (Parker and Thornton, 1977).
The permeability coefficient is calculated based on
Darcys Law, which is derived from the velocity
and flow rate equations introduced by H. Darcy in
1856. The coefficient of permeability is expressed in
cm/sec and ft/day. The factors that affect granular soils
are particle size distribution, density, particle size,
particle shape, and texture and clay mineralogy. The
smaller the particles, the smaller the voids between
them therefore, the coefficient of permeability
decreases with decreasing particle size. Well-graded
soils can be expected to be less permeable than
more uniform soils. The coefficient of permeability
decreases with increasing density because the denser
a soil, the smaller the pores. Elongated or irregular
particles create flow paths which are more irregular
than those around nearly spherical particles. Particles
with a rough surface texture provide more frictional
resistance to flow than do smooth-textured particles.
Both effects tend to reduce the rate of flow of water
through the soils, i.e., to reduce its permeability.
Permeability is measured using both constant head set
and falling head set. Constant head permeability test
is conducted on highly permeable soil like gravel or
sand. It consists of applying a constant head (h) on
= Head causing flow (cm)
4)
Many researchers have attempted to measure the

coefficient of permeability of sub base materials
using laboratory test procedures. Some of the test
procedures used and results obtained are summarized
below. Strohm et al (1968) compared constant head
method and falling head method. They indicated that
falling head method is not as reliable as the constant
head method because of the small quantity of water
permeating the sample. As reported by (Jones and
Jones (1989) granular sub base or capping layer
which is to function as a drainage layer should possess
the following properties: i) adequate permeability,
ii) stability, iii) adequate strength and stiffness,
iv) non-frost susceptible and v) ability to maintain
its function throughout its service life. They also
suggested that the method of test, state of compaction,
and range of hydraulic gradients should be included in
any specification of permeability. Zhou et al. (1993)
considered that for open-graded aggregates, the
percent of fractured faces have a substantial influence
on permeability where aggregates with 100 percent
fractured faces were more permeable than aggregates
with 88 percent fractured faces. For the New Jersey
gradation, aggregates with 100 percent fractured
faces had a coefficient of permeability of 0.838 cm/s
and aggregates with 88 percent fractured faces had
a coefficient of permeability of 0.272 cm/s which is
more than a three fold decrease in permeability.
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
On the other hand, Elsayed et al. (1996) stated that
percent crushed faces had no significant effect on
permeability. Thus, there is some uncertainty on
the effect of percent crushed faces on permeability.
Nonetheless, fractured faces are very important for the
construction and stability of open-graded aggregates
since they provide mechanical interlock between the
particles. H. R. Cedergren (1994) reported that the
life of a poorly drained pavement is reduced to one
third or less of the life of a well-drained pavement.
He also stated that the permeability increases 40,000
times if the drainage layer material is coarse, opengraded aggregates of 0.5 to 1.0 inch instead of sand.
Hoppe (1996) stated that the fines content do not exert
a statistically significant influence on permeability. In
his opinion, the coefficient of uniformity is a better
predictor of the permeability. This variable describes
the particle size distribution of the material. He
showed that increasing the coefficient of uniformity
decreased permeability. He also concluded that for
coefficient of uniformities from 10 to 115, improved
drainage may be achieved by using subbases with a
low coefficient of uniformity with no unfavorable
impact on strength.
Table 1 Physical Properties of Type-I Aggregate

Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
Tests on Aggregates
Aggregate crushing value
Los Angeles Abrasion value
Aggregate impact value
Specific gravity
Water absorption (%)
Test Results
15.10 %
28.61 %
15.90 %
2.65
0.70
Table 2 Physical Properties of Type-II Aggregate

Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
Tests on Aggregates
Specific gravity
Test Results
16.1 %
27.45 %
18.55 %
2.78
0.25
Table 3 Physical Properties of Type-III Aggregate

Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
Tests on Aggregates
Specific gravity
Test Results
11.2 %
28.96 %
14.60 %
2.61
0.65
2 Material Selection
2.1
Aggregates
Three different types of aggregates were collected

from different sources. Type-I Aggregate was
collected from Chamoli district (Chainage 8 km 9 km), Type-II Aggregate was collected from
Chamoli district (Chainage 9 km) and Type III
Aggregate was locally available. The physical
properties such as specific gravity, water absorption,
aggregate crushing value, Los Angeles abrasion
value and aggregate impact value are presented in
Table 1 to 3 for Type-I aggregate, Type-II aggregate
and Type-III aggregate respectively. Fig. 1 presents
the grain size distribution curves of the aggregates.
Table 4 shows grading for close graded granular sub
base materials.
20
Fig. 1 Grain Size Distribution Curve of Aggregate
Table 4 Grading for Close Graded Granular

Sub Base Materials
IS Sieve
Size, mm
75
53
26.5
9.5
4.75
2.36
0.425
0.075
Upper Limit
100
100
90
65
55
40
25
10
Lower
Limit
100
80
55
35
25
20
10
3
Adopted
Gradation
100
90
72.5
50
40
30
17.5
6.5
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.2
Fibre
In this study, polypropylene fibre was used as an

additive in sub base layer. Polypropylene fibre is a
synthetic fibre which is resistant to acids, alkalies,
chemicals and sea water. The diameter of fibre was
0.3 mm. The fibre was cut into piece of 3 cm giving
the value of aspect ratio (Aspect ratio is the ratio of
length of fibre to diameter of fibre) as 100. The fibre
was mixed in GSB mixes in different percentages of
0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% by dry weight of mix. Table 5
shows the properties of polypropylene fibre.
Fig. 2 OMC for GSB Mixes with Varying Lime Content
Table 5 Properties of Polypropylene Fibre

Sr. No
Particulars
Value
Molecular formula of
polypropylene
(CH2-CH2)
Shape
Average diameter
Aspect ratio
100
Specific gravity
0.9
Straight Ends
0.3 mm
Fig. 3 MDD for GSB Mixes with Varying Lime Content
2.3 Lime
In the present study, hydrated lime was subjected to
specific gravity test. The specific gravity of lime is
2.69.
3 Laboratory Investigation and
Interpretation of Results
3.1
Standard Proctor Test
The aim of the Proctor test (moisture-density test) was

to determine the Optimum Moisture Contents (OMC)
and Maximum Dry Densities (MDD) of various GSB
mixes. In order to obtain these parameters, heavy
compaction test was employed for the mentioned
mixture proportions as per IS:2720 (Part 8). Figs. 2
and 4 show OMC for GSB Mixes with varying lime
and fiber content respectively. Figs. 3 and 5 show
MDD for GSB Mixes with varying lime and fiber
content respectively.
Fig. 4 OMC for GSB Mixes with Varying Fibre Content
Fig. 5 MDD for GSB Mixes with Varying Fibre Content
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Addition of lime to GSB mixes increases OMC and
MDD. The MDD value increases with lime content
because the specific gravity of lime is higher than
the specific gravity of material replaced. Also, lime
improves the gradation of the GSB mixes by filling
the voids. The increase in OMC with lime content
is attributed to the increase in OH ion concentration
which modifies the surfaces of aggregate particles and
increases the water associated by them. Same trend
is reported in State of Art Lime Stabilisation HRB.
In case of Polypropylene fibre, the OMC values are
increasing and the MDD values are decreasing with
increasing percentages of polypropylene fibre when
added to GSB mixes. The increase in OMC with
fibre content is due to adsorption of water particles
on the surface of polypropylene fibre. Same trend
was reported by Pateriya and Patil (2009). The MDD
value decreases with fibre content due to lower value
of specific gravity of fibre.
3.2
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
CBR test is a measure of resistance of material to

penetration of standard plunger under controlled
moisture and density conditions. For finding soaked
CBR, the mould was soaked in water for four days.
In case of lime GSB mix, first the samples were cured
for three days and then the samples were soaked in
water for four days. This test was as per IS:2720
(Part 16). Figs. 6 and 7 show CBR for GSB mixes
with varying lime and fibre content respectively.
Fig. 7 CBR for GSB Mixes with Varying Fibre Content
It was observed that CBR of GSB mixes increased

with increase in percentage of lime content. The
reason for increase in CBR value is the formation of
cementitious compounds due to the reaction between
lime and aggregate. The strengths initially increase
with increasing lime content. However, no further
increase in strength is observed beyond 4% lime
content due to the presence of non-reactive lime. Extra
lime could not be mobilised for the reaction which
occcupies spaces within the sample. This reduces the
bond in the GSB mixes and lime mixture. Hence, 4%
lime content is considered as optimum lime content.
In case of fibre, a general trend of increasing CBR
values with increasing fibre content was observed. As
fibre content increases, the surface area between fibre
and aggregate increases, the friction between them
increases. Hence, there is an increase in resistance
offered by the adhesion between fibre and aggregate
surface resulting into higher strength of mix. The
strength of the mix from 0% to 1.5% is more and from
1.5% to 2.0% is less. Also, addition of fibre beyond
1.5% fibre content caused mixing problems. Hence,
1.5% fibre content is considered as optimum fibre
content.
3.3 Permeability Test
Fig. 6 CBR for GSB Mixes with Varying Lime Content
22
In the present study, Constant head permeability

apparatus was used for determining the coefficient
of permeability of various GSB mixtures. In case of
lime GSB mix, first the samples were cured for three
days and then the permeability values of the samples
were determined using constant head apparatus.
Constant head permeameters are specially suited to
the testing of pervious, coarse grained soils, since
adequate, measurable discharge is needed for the
TECHNICAL PAPERS
accurate determination of permeability by this method.
Water is allowed to flow through the sample from a tank
designed to keep the water level constant by overflow.
The quantity of water flowing out or discharge Q during
a given time t is collected in a vessel and weighed.
Figs. 8 and 9 show permeability values for GSB mixes
with varying lime and fibre respectively.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The optimum content of lime is considered as 4%

based on highest value of CBR.
Addition of polypropylene fibre to GSB mixes
increases OMC, decreases MDD, increases CBR
and permeability values.
The optimum content of polypropylene fibre
is considered as 1.5% because addition of fibre
beyond this value caused mixing problems and
increase in strength of mix is very marginal.
Among sand, flyash, polypropylene fibre and
lime, polypropylene fibre is the best material
which increases permeability from 4.83 x
10-3 cm/sec to 6.94 x 10-3 cm/sec, 7.23 x
10-3 cm/sec to 10.11 x 10-3 cm/sec and 6.095 x 10-3
cm/sec to 11.972 x 10-3 cm/sec for GSB mix-I,
GSB mix-II and GSB mix-III respectively.
References
Fig. 8 Permeability Results of GSB Mixes with
Varying Lime Content
Fig. 9 Permeability Results of GSB Mixes with

Varying Fibre Content
It was observed that with increase in polypropylene fibre

permeability of the GSB mixes increases because fibre
increases the void content due to lack of cohesiveness and
poor dispersion of fibres. It was found that permeability
value decreases with increase in lime content. This may
be due to formation of cementitious compounds and
decrease in void content of the mix. Thus, the time taken
for the water to travel through the sample decreases
leading to reduction in permeability.
4
1.
Conclusions
Addition of lime to GSB mixes increases OMC,
MDD, CBR and decreases permeability values.
1.
Cedergren, H.R. (1994). Drainage of Highway and

Airfield Pavements. Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Company, Florida, 1987.
2.
Elsayed, A.S. and Lindly J.K., (1996). Estimating

the Permeability of Untreated Roadway Bases. J.
Transportation Research Board 1519, pp 15-19.
3.
Hoppe, E.J., (1996). The Influence of Fines on Strength

and Drainage Characteristics of Aggregate Bases. Report
VTRC 96-R35RB, Virginia Transportation Research
Council, Charlottesville, VA., pp. 39.
4.
IS:2720 (Part 16), Laboratory Determination of CBR.

1987.
5.
IS:2720 (Part 17),

Permeability. 1986.
6.
IS:2720 (Part 8), Determination of Water Content-Dry

Density Relation using Heavy Compaction. 1983.
7.
Jones, R.H. and H.A. Jones, (1989). Keynote Paper:

Granular Drainage Layers in Pavement Foundations.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on
Unbound Aggregate in Roads, University of Nottingham,
England, pp 55-69.
8.
MORT&H, Specifications for Road and Bridge Works,

Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, 2001.
9.
Strohm, V.E., Nettles, C.H. and Calhoun, C.C. (1968).

Study of Drainage Characteristics of Base Course
Materials. Highway Research Record No.203. pp 8-27.
10.
Zhou, H., Moore, L., Huddleston. J. and Gower, J.,

(1993). Determination of Free- Draining Base Materials
Properties. Transportation Research Record 1425,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
pp. 54-63.
Laboratory
Determination
23
of
ESTIMATION OF TIME OVERRUNS ON NATIONAL HIGHWAY

DEVELOPMENT PROJECT USING REGRESSION ANALYSIS
M. Kishore Kumar* and Ch Hanumantha Rao**
1
INTRODUCTION
Prior to commencement of massive infrastructure

NHDP in 1998, India had about 3.3 million kilometres
road network which is the second largest in the world.
It included Expressways, National Highways, State
Highways, Major District Road (MDRs) and Rural
Roads. The total length of National Highways (NH)
was 66,590 kms (now 79,450 kms), thus constituting
only 2 percent of the total road network but share
approximately 40 percent of the total traffic on roads.
About 56 percent of National Highways is intermediate
and two lane, 32 percent is single lane, and 12 percent
is four lane. Though the National Highways Authority
of India (NHAI) was established as a statutory entity
under NHAI Act 1988, but was operationalised only
in February 1995 with the appointment of a full time
Chairman. NHAIs initial mandate in 1996 was limited
to only a few projects undertaken with the assistance
of Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Japan Bank
for International Cooperation (JBIC). Subsequently
in 1998, the Government of India announced the
major initiatives to upgrade and strengthen the
National Highways through National Highways
Development Project (NHDP) comprising mainly the
Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) linking the four metros
and connectivity to major ports in the first phase and
North-South & East-West corridors in the second
phase. Later on the scope was extended into 7 phases
as shown below:

NHDP Phase III viz., 4-laning of existing

NHs about 10000 kms, not covered under
GQ & NSEW Corridor.
Executive Engineer (Civil), 31 BRTF, Research Scholar,

E-mail : makam64@sify.com
**

Prof & Head, Department of Civil Engineering,

E-mail : hanumantharao.chappidi@gmail.com
24
2-laning with paved shoulders of

20,000 km of National Highways under
NHDP Phase-IV at an estimated cost of
Rs. 25,000 crore.
6-laning of GQ and some other selected

stretches covering 6,500 km under
NHDP Phase-V at an estimated cost of
Rs. 17,500 crore.
Development of 1,000 km of express

ways under NHDP Phase-VI at an
estimated Rs. 15,000 crore.
Development of ring roads, bypasses,

grade separators, service roads, etc.
under NHDP Phase-VII at an estimated
Rs. 15,000 crore.
As per the status report of Ministry of Statistics &

Project Implementation (MOS&PI) pertaining to the
period March 2008, out of 742 central projects in
vital infrastructure sectors as railways, roads, power,
aviation, mines, coal, telecom, water resources, steel,
atomic energy, 269 (36%) have time over-runs. In
the highways sector, total 224 projects figured in the
report and an alarming 70% of the ongoing highway
projects were entangled in time overruns ranging from
3 to 78 months. An analysis has been carried out in
this paper on time overruns in the implementation of
various highway packages under the ambit of NHDP
using statistical tools of correlation and regression.
2
ANALYSIS
PROJECTS
OF
NHDP
HIGHWAY
Data on highway projects is obtained from the status

reports published by Ministry of Statistics & Project
KL University, Vaddeswaram, Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Implementation (MOS&PI). The various details of
the ongoing highway packages furnished by Project
Implementation Units (PIUs) of the monitoring
agency National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)
are tabulated at Annexure I. Quantitative data viz.,
name of road stretch being improved to four lane or
six lane, National Highway Route No, length in kms,
Date of Approval was reproduced from the status
reports. Time overrun in months was arrived at by
deducting the original stipulated period of completion
from the expected duration as on the date of reporting.
Hence the time overrun, for instance in the case of
16 km long stretch of Lucknow-Kanpur highway
on NH 25 in the state of Uttar Pradesh being
improved to four lane road under East West Corridor
project (listed at Srl No 1 in Annexure I), the time
overrun was assessed as 78 months in the status
report pertaining to March 2008. Whereas the same
has ascended to 96 months when the reports were
compiled after two years in Mar 2010. As may be seen
from the Annexure I, the dismal state of time overruns
not only continued but escalated in a majority of
cases.
Apart from the quantitative data, the status reports
carried descriptive picture furnished by PIUs such
as reasons for delays. Broadly the causes of delay
brought out by PIUs were land acquisition, utility
shifting, poor contractor performance, termination
of contract, late conclusion of contract, rains/floods,
law & order problems, and delays in approvals of
bridges ROB/RUBs. While tabulating the data at
Annexure I, numeral 1 was inserted under the
respective columns where the project was delayed
on account of those reasons for delay. The following
illustration helps in understanding the methodology
adopted in tabulation.
Lucknow-Kanpur highway on NH 25 at Srl No 1 in the
Annexure I was stated to be delayed on account of poor
contractor performance and termination of contract,

hence numeral 1 was inserted under these columns
and no entries were made in the remaining columns.
Nothing was entered for the project Purnea Gayakota
in Bihar at Srl No 2 since the project authorities failed
to mention any reasons for delay in their reports. The
readers may devote some time on Annexure I to have
the first hand information on the data compiled from
MOS&PI status reports.
The state wise and NHDP phase wise progress of
various ongoing highway construction packages
incorporating crucial information as average delay
period and relevant causes of delay are tabulated
at Table 1 & 2 respectively. Maximum number of
highway projects were from Uttar Pradesh followed
by West Bengal & Assam, whereas from the project
length & cost point of view Tamil Nadu takes the top
place. In total, 72 projects were delayed on account
of land acquisition and 21 out of them happen to
be from the state of Assam. It may be seen from
Annexure I that a project can be delayed on account
of one or more reasons as recorded by the project
implementing authorities. If we go by the quantum of
delays, Orissa leads the table with average delay of
49 months in the status report of Mar 2008 and the
state of Jharkhand figured high on average delay with
63 months in Mar 2010. A mere glance on Table 2
shows that a majority two thirds of the projects were
from NSEW corridor and about 20% catered from GQ
& Phase III. East West Corridor projects are crippled
with all the reasons attributed to delay and affected
projects were also were high as shown in Table 2. The
average delay was recorded as minus 12 months in
Phase III projects since few of them were completed
prior to the original completion schedule. Maximum
delays in implementation were noticed amongst GQ
projects amounting to an average delay of 43 months
in Mar 2008.
25
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 State wise Statistics on Delays in Highway Projects as on March 2008
State/Provincial
Administrative Unit
Highway
Packages
Mean Delay (Months)
Late Conclusion
of Contract
Rains/Floods
Law & Order
ROB Approvals
Assam
25
634
53.10
14
28
21
14
13
20
Andhra Pradesh
14
691
43.22
Bihar
16
566
42.58
23
32
12
Chhattisgarh
131
10.78
Delhi
112
6.20
15
Gujarat
525
34.17
14
Haryana
144
12.42
11
22
Jammu Kashmir
138
8.40
18
33
Jharkhand
79
3.99
42
63
Karnataka
14
527
40.93
21
28
Length
(km)
Termination of
Contract
Status
Report
2010
Contractor Poor
Performance
Status
Report
2008
Utility Shifting
Cost
(Rs.
billion)
No of Projects Affected by
Land Acquisition
No
Kerala
57
9.75
23
Maharashtra
12
460
32.85
19
28
Madhya Pradesh
16
821
41.77
16
Uttar Pradesh
36
1128
82.04
13
15
Orissa
274
14.39
49
53
Punjab
169
12.90
15
Rajasthan
15
780
51.13
Tamil Nadu
33
1596
108.20
16
13
12
West Bengal
Total
2
224
58
8890
3.40
612.22
0
14
47
32
72
44
1
54
1
17
27
29
22
Mean Delay
(Months)
[Status
Report 2010]
Contractor Poor
Performance
Termination of
Contract
Law & Order
ROB Approvals
No of Projects Affected by
Golden Quadrilateral
25
43
37
10
16
East West Corridor
79
15
23
37
20
19
12
28
20
Phase III
26
-12
12
Rains/Floods
Mean Delay
(Months)
[Status Report
2008]
Late Conclusion
of Contract
No of Highway
Packages
Land
Acquisition
NHDP Phase
Utility Shifting
Table 2 NHDP Phase Wise Delays in Highway Projects as of Mar 2008
MORT&H
11
15
North South Corridor
66
12
21
17
13
14
Other Roads
10
20
Port Connectivity
10
21
2
224
0
14
0
32
72
44
54
17
27
29
22
Phase V (6 Laning)
Total
26
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3
RESEARCH TECHNIQUE : CORRELATION

& REGRESSION
Correlation and regression are intertwined tools

generally performed together. Correlation analysis
is employed to measure the degree of association
between two sets of quantitative data. For instance,
how the project cost or length is related to time and cost
overruns. Correlation is usually followed by regression
analysis in many applications. The main objective of
regression analysis is to explain the variation in one
variable (dependent or criterion variable) based on
the variation in one or more other variables, called the
independent or predictor variable. Thus, correlation
analysis determines the extent of relationship whereas
regression establishes the equation relating the
dependent and independent variables. Karl Pearson,
a well known statistical scientist established the
concept of product moment correlation r, the most
widely used statistic summarizing the strength of
association between two metric variables. This is also
known as Pearson correlation coefficient and serves
as an index to determine whether a linear or straight
line relationship exists between variables. From a
sample of n observations, independent variable X
and dependent variable Y, the product moment
correlation or Pearson coefficient of correlation r
can be determined as follows :

r = [{(Xi - X^)(Yi - Y^)}/{(Xi - X^)2

(Yi - Y^)2}]
Dividing the numerator and denominator by (n 1)

gives

r = [{(Xi - X^)(Yi - Y^)}/(n 1)]/[{(Xi X^)2/(n 1)} {(Yi - Y^)2/(n 1)}]
= COVxy/SxSy
In these equations, X^ and Y^ denote the sample

means, and Sx and Sy are standard deviations. COVxy,
the covariance between independent variable X
and dependent variable Y, measures to the extent to
which X and Y are related. The covariance may be
either positive or negative. Division by SxSy achieves
standardization, so that r varies between 1.0 and
+ 1.0. It may be noted that the correlation coefficient
is an absolute number and is not expressed in any
unit of measurement. The correlation coefficient

between two variables will be same regardless of
their underlying units of measurement. Correlation is
perfect positive if coefficient of correlation r is +1
and perfect negative incase r = -1. Thus the value of
r can range between -1 to +1 indicating the extent
of relationship. Coefficient of Determination r2
(r multiplied by r) is also employed in statistical
analysis for assessing the degree of relationship
and greater the value of r2, higher the degree of
relationship. r2 signifies the proportion of the total
variation in Y that is accounted for by the variation
in X. Both r and r2 are symmetric measures of
association. In other words, the correlation of X with
Y is the same as the correlation of Y with X. It does
not matter which variable is considered to be the
dependent variable and which the independent.
Coefficient of correlation r measures the strength
of the linear relationship and is not designed to
measure nonlinear relationship. Thus, the coefficient
of correlation r = 0 merely indicates that there is
no linear relationship between X and Y. It does not
mean that X and Y are unrelated, but there could be a
nonlinear relationship between them.
In conducting multivariate data analysis, it is often
useful to examine simple correlation between each pair
of variables. These results are presented in the form of
a correlation matrix, which indicates the coefficient
of correlation between each pair of variables.
The computer programs available for conducting
regression analysis are SPSS, SAS, MINITAB and
Excel. In the instant case, Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) was used. Correlation and
regression are best applied together to test whether
metric variables are associated with each other, and
whether the dependent variable can be explained
by some independent variables, or predicted from
them. It would be better if one is aware of the basic
assumptions in the regression models so that these
models can be effectively employed in practice. The
underlying assumptions are listed as under :

a)
The error term is normally distributed.

For each fixed value of X, the distribution
of Y is normal.
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS

b)
The means of all these normal distributions

of Y, given X, lie on a straight line with
slope b. Regression equation is normally
represented as Y = a + b.X where Y is
dependent variable, X is independent
variable, a is intercept with the vertical
axis and b is slope of the regression line.
c)
The mean of the error term is 0.
d)
The variance of the error term is constant.

This variance does not depend on the
values assumed by X.
e)
The error terms are uncorrelated. In other

words, the observations have been drawn
independently.
Regression analysis is a powerful and flexible

procedure for analyzing associative relationships
between a metric dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. Regression analysis is carried
out to assess the existence of relationship, strength
of relationship, work out the mathematical equation
relating the independent and dependent variables
and predict the values of dependent variable with the
help of mathematical equation derived. In the
end, regression analysis is used for controlling the
other independent variables when evaluating the
contributions of a specific variable or set of variables.
Although the independent variables may explain the
variation in the dependent variable, this does not
necessarily imply causation. The use of the terms
dependent or criterion variables, and independent or
predictor variables in regression analysis arises from
the mathematical relationship between the variables.
These terms do not imply that the criterion variable
is dependent on the independent variables in a causal
sense. Regression analysis is concerned with the
nature and degree of association between variables
and does not imply or assume any causality.
4
DELAY INDEX MODEL FOR ESTIMATION

OF TIME OVERRUNS
Before going into the model suggested by the

author for quantifying delay, it is noteworthy to
mention about the previous studies carried out on
this subject. Ayman H Al-Momani of Jordan (2000)
28
had attempted to establish a relation between actual

time versus planned time of construction projects. He
had developed a simple linear regression equation
categorizing the projects as housing, office and
administrative building, school projects, medical
centers and communication facilities. Though the
various statistical coefficients were satisfying 99%
confidence level, the author had himself admitted that
the model failed to include intrinsic variables such
as construction experience of the contractors. More
over this model serves as a post mortem analysis since
actual construction time is required to perform the
analysis, thus useful only for completed projects.
Ram Singhs study (2010) is aimed at covering all
the infrastructure sectors in India. He had made an
attempt to evolve a general purpose simultaneous
equation for time overruns incorporating technical
and natural factors, contractual failures and economic
factors. Though the model is exhaustive covering the
entire infrastructure sector, it had failed to explain the
reasons for superior performance of certain states.
The model suggested in this paper is specially
tailored to highway projects and attempt has been
made to incorporate the inputs given by Project
Implementation Units (PIUs). Further the equations
developed are state specific and simple to understand
and implement. For the delay factors enunciated
by Project Implementation Units (PIUs) viz.,
land acquisition, utility shifting, poor contractor
performance, termination of contract, late conclusion
of contract, rains/floods, law & order problems,
and delays in approvals of bridges ROB/RUBs.
Weightages for each delay factor are calculated as
follows. For instance as shown in Table 1, in the state
of Assam 21 projects were delayed on account of land
acquisition vis--vis total 72 land acquisition delayed
BOT projects in the country. Hence weightage for land
acquisition in the state of Assam was arrived as 21/72
i.e., 0.292. On the same analogy, state wise weightages
are calculated for the remaining delay factors such as
utility shifting, poor contractor performance etc. The
exhaustive list of weightages for each factor arranged
in the chronological order of states is given in
Table 3.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 3 Weightages for Delay Factors
Assam
21
14
13
Bihar
12
Chhattisgarh
Delhi
Gujarat
Haryana
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
(4) /
Total
(4)
(5) /
Total
(5)
(6) /
Total
(6)
(7) /
Total
(7)
(8) /
Total
(8)
(9) /
Total
(9)
0.000
0.000
0.019
0.059
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
20
0.292
0.318
0.074
0.000
0.148
0.448
0.909
0.000
0.083
0.091
0.093
0.000
0.037
0.414
0.045
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.019
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.074
0.000
0.000
0.103
0.000
0.111
0.014
0.023
0.019
0.059
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.042
0.136
0.056
0.000
0.037
0.000
0.000
0.222
0.014
0.023
0.019
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.045
0.000
0.014
0.023
0.037
0.176
0.037
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.019
0.059
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.028
0.045
0.037
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.069
0.068
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.333
0.056
0.000
0.093
0.235
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Punjab
0.028
0.045
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Rajasthan
0.097
0.000
0.056
0.000
0.333
0.000
0.000
0.000
Tamil Nadu
13
12
0.181
0.023
0.222
0.176
0.259
0.034
0.000
0.000
Uttar Pradesh
0.083
0.205
0.148
0.176
0.148
0.000
0.000
0.333
West Bengal
0.000
0.000
0.019
0.059
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
72
44
54
17
27
29
22
Total
ROB Approvals
(3) /
Total
(3)
Law & Order
(2) /
Total
(2)
(1)
Rains/Floods
ROB Approvals
Law & Order
Andhra Pradesh
Rains/Floods
(6)
Late Conclusion
of Contract
(5)
Termination of
Contract
(4)
Contractor Poor
Performance
Late Conclusion
of Contract
(3)
Utility Shifting
Termination of
Contract
(2)
Land Acquisition
Contractor Poor
Performance
Weightages
Utility Shifting
No. of Projects Affected by

Land Acquisition
State
(7) (8) (9)
Based on the weightages so calculated, Delay Index

was evaluated for each highway project as shown
at Annexure I. To start with the Lucknow-Kanpur
Section of the National Highway NH 25 between km
59.5 to 75.5 as shown at Serial No 1 in Annexure I, the
project was stated to be delayed on account of poor
contractor performance and termination of contract.
From Table 3, the corresponding weightages for these
delay factors are 0.148 and 0.176 and when these
weightages summed up, we get Delay Index as 0.324
for this stretch of Lucknow-Kanpur highway km 59.5 to
75.5. Similarly Delay Indices were calculated and
inserted for all the 224 highway projects listed in
Annexure I. As seen from the Annexure I, Delay Index
(DI) was shown as zero for as many as 101 projects
where PIUs have not intimated any reasons for delay.
The value of Delay Index varied from 0.0278 to

1.9672.
With the help of computer assisted software SPSS,
Regression Analysis was carried out to ascertain
the relation between the calculated Delay Index and
the time overruns. It may be noted that the units of
Delay Index in mere number whereas time overrun
is assessed in months. The relationship so determined
between Delay Index and time overruns using linear
regression technique is depicted at Table 4. From the
Table 4, it may be noted that strong correlation existed
between Delay index and time overruns as evident
from the high value of coefficient of correlation R
except for few states such as Assam & Rajasthan.
The significance value indicates the confidence
level with which the results can be predicted i.e.,
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
= 0.01 and 0.05 signifies confidence level of 99%
and 95% respectively. From statistical point of view,
correlation coefficient is preferred to be above 0.600
with confidence level of 95%. In the case of 3 states
viz., Chhattisgarh, Delhi and Jharkhand, computation
was not possible due to fewer than 2 variables and
relationship could not be established due to existence

of data only for a single project. The basic input given
by PIUs on the delay factors need to be substituted to
arrive at Delay Index based on the weightages given in
Table 3. The proposed model is simple to understand
as explained in the following illustration.
Table 4 Established Relationship between Delay Index and Time Overruns

State
Assam
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Delhi
Gujarat
Haryana
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Orissa
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
West Bengal
30
Data
Pertaining to
Regression Equation Y = a + b X
Coeff of
Correlation R
Significance
Y = Time Overrun TOR (in months)

(2 Tailed)
X = Delay Index (DI) of Highway Project
2008
TOR = 11.575 + 1.595 x DI
0.121
0.547
2010
TOR = 27.969 + 2.475 x DI
0.121
0.583
2008
TOR = 0.846 + 454.772 x DI
0.946
0.000
2010
TOR = 8.750 + 585.383 x DI
0.950
0.000
2008
TOR = 47.402 59.648 x DI
0.583
0.018
2010
TOR = 71.258 82.219 x DI
0.661
0.010
Computation not possible due to fewer than 2 variables. Hence relationship could not be established due to
existence of data only for a single project.
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
2008
2010
TOR = - 0.884 + 168.67 x DI

0.919
0.001
TOR = - 0.513 + 48.902 x DI
0.398
0.329
TOR = 5.808 + 568.629 x DI
0.706
0.294
TOR = - 4.996 + 1106.122 x DI
0.982
0.121
TOR = 35.049 73.117 x DI
0.633
0.127
TOR = 64.200 108.053 x DI
0.807
0.053
Computation not possible due to fewer than 2 variables. Hence relationship could not be
established due to existence of data only for a single project.
TOR = 16.585 + 21.509 x DI
0.071
TOR = 15.647 + 132.564 x DI
0.567
Statistics could not be completed since TOR = 0, in all the three cases.
TOR = 12.500 + 407.503 x DI
0.991
TOR = 8.088 + 527.018 x DI
0.785
TOR = 26.723 + 487.571 x DI
0.695
TOR = 2.846 + 51.259 x DI
0.485
TOR = 18.643 169.020 x DI
0.558
TOR = 11.167 + 45.408 x DI
0.476
TOR = 25.907 + 50.407 x DI
0.497
TOR = 30.476 + 75.077 x DI
0.732
TOR = - 5.494 + 231.442 x DI
0.986
TOR = 3 + 218.579 x DI
0.922
TOR = 14.5 + 198.087 x DI
0.980
TOR = 7.5 + 28.263 x DI
0.050
TOR = 9.75 247.945 x DI
0.241
TOR = 1.256 0.439 x DI
0.018
0.602
TOR = 36.46 35.644 x DI
TOR = 4.5 + 316.947 x DI
0.558
TOR = 17.5 + 200.517 x DI
0.330
0.835
0.185
0.087
0.004
0.038
0.067
0.025
0.003
0.008
0.098
0.000
0.026
0.020
0.859
0.386
0.953
0.153
0.250
0.523
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Illustration of Delay Index Model :
Name of Project
: Kadapa-Mydukur-Kurnool
Length

: 188.752 kms
National Highway
: NH 18
Project Cost
: `1585 crore
NHDP Phase
: III
Letter of Acceptance (LOA) : Feb 2009
Date of Commencement
: Nov 2010
Scheduled Completion by : May 2013
Present Progress
: 70% (as on Jul 2013)
Expected Completion by
: Mar 2014 (as intimated by PIU)
Contractor
: KMC & IVRCL Consortium
Independent Engineer (IE) : Aarevee Associates Architects
Mode of Execution
: BOT (Toll)
Since the project is located in Andhra Pradesh and the

reason for slow progress being poor performance of
the contractor, the weightage for delay factor as per
Table 3 is 0.019. For this lone delay factor, Delay
Index = 0.019. Referring to Table 4,
Time Overrun (based on 2008 data) = 0.846 + 454.772
x 0.019 i.e, 9.48 months
Time Overrun (as per 2010 data) = 8.750 + 585.383 x
0.019 i.e., 19.87 months
Time Overrun as ascertained from PIU = 10 months
(Mar 2014 May 2013)
As seen from the above illustration, time overrun
ascertained through Delay Index model adopting
regression technique is more or less coinciding with
the ground data. Further it may be noted that time
overrun assessed by PIU based on ground data in
practice can vary. Since the input is taken as per PIU
data, the model can be stated to reflect the accurate
ground conditions. But it suffers from the limitation
that computation is not possible in case of lack of
data or paucity of information from PIUs. Moreover
the gravity of the delay factors cannot be assessed in
the absence of any such information from PIUs. This
shortcoming can be overcome if PIUs are asked to
share the information on delay factors as well as their
intensity in the form of certain ranking on Likert scale.
Further no significant relationship could be established
on all India basis for all the 224 projects since

correlation coefficient was just 0.092, thus implying
no uniformity amongst the states. However, the model
suggested by the author has a scope for improvement
if data on delay factors can be further elaborated by
PIUs in terms of intensity of delay factors and also
bringing out the reasons for delay where PIUs have
left blank for as many as 101 projects. The model can
be further refined by incorporating these missing links
while assessing Delay Index.
5
CONCLUSION
In an infrastructure development project of this vast

magnitude, success can be achieved by following
an analytical methodology viz., introspecting on the
state of affairs followed by recommended measures
for improvement. The compilation of huge data
in the form of information presented in Tables 1
& 2 highlights so many aspects including cross
comparison thus providing an ample opportunity
to assess the situation and also suggestive remedial
actions. The art of good management lies in moulding
the available data and carving it to ones needs with
an ultimate goal of improvement. The grave situation
of time overruns in 2/3rd of highway projects under
the ambit of NHDP poses a great challenge to the
administrators at the helm of affairs.
Proper investigation is a pre-requisite for meaningful
analysis of any problem and investigation is
possible subject to availability of data, processing
of data to required information and evolving a
suitable mathematical model not only for thorough
analysis, but for deriving a appropriate solution. The
model suggested by the author gives an idea to the
management on the extent of delay on a particular
highway project by applying the relevant formula
depending on the location of the project, thus
enabling the project monitoring authorities to
work out the remedial measures. The subjective
information presently being given by PIUs need to be
systematized in future through uniformity and as well
31
TECHNICAL PAPERS
as in quantitative terms. Moreover the accuracy of
the results depends on the quantum of data available
with the management. As already explained, in the
MOS&PI status report containing 224 projects,
no information regarding the causes of delay was
available for as many as 101 projects. In this situation,
the resulting regression equations are limited to some

extent by the availability of data. Delay Index model
if used in the long run can yield significant results and
can be relied upon by managers. The overall status
of implementation of various phases of NHDP on
31st May 2013 is reproduced at Table 5.
SARDP -NE
Port
Connectivity
Others
Total by NHAI
6500
1000
700
14799
48096
388
380
1390
50254
5846
(100%)
6146
1540
(24%)
(86%)
5491
(45%)
21
(3%)
24
(1.6%)
20872
69
374
1126 20872
(43%) (18%) (98%) (81%) (42%)
Under Implementation
(km.)
751
6314
2763
20
2549
12145
43
244
12500
Contracts Under
Implementation (No.)
66
54
13
18
212
233
Balance length for

award (km.)
420
2363
2919
1000
659
12250
15660
276
20
15956
NHDP Phase
IV
12109
NHDP Phase
VII
7142
NS EW Ph. I
& II
5846
GQ
NHDP Total
NHDP Phase VI
NHDP Phase V
NHDP Phase III
Table 5 Status of NHDP Works as on 31st May 2013
Date of Approval
Jun 98
Dec 03
Nov 05 Dec 07 Dec 06
Dec 07
Original Plan for

Completion
Dec 03
Dec 09 Dec 09 Dec 12 Dec 14 Dec 12
Dec 14
Total Length (km.)

Already 4-Laned (km.)
Mar
05
REFERENCES
1.
Al-Momani, A.H. (2000). Construction Delay: A

Quantitative Analysis. International Journal of Project
Management, 18(1), 5159.
2.
Arora, P.N., and Arora, S. (2003). Statistics for

Management. 1st Ed., S Chand & Co, New Delhi.
3.
Kishore Kumar M., Ch. Hanumantha Rao., and Boeing

Singh Laishram (2012). Time and Cost Overrun Analysis
of National Highway Development Project. Journal of
Indian Roads Congress, Vol 73-3, Paper No 582, Oct-Dec
2012, pp 299-321.
4.
MOS&PI (2008). Project Implementation Status

Report of Central Sector Projects costing Rs. 20 Crore
& above (January-March, 2008). Infrastructure and
32
Project Monitoring Division, Ministry of Statistics and

Programme Implementation, Government of India.
(Website: www.mospi.gov.in/QSR_January-March 2008.
pdf).
5.
MOS&PI (2010). Project Implementation Status

Report of Central Sector Projects costing Rs. 20 Crore
& above (January-March, 2010). Infrastructure and
Project Monitoring Division, Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation, Government of India.
(Website: www.mospi.gov.in/QSR_January-March 2010.
pdf).
6.
Ram Singh (2010). Delays and Cost Overruns in

Infrastructure Projects : Extent, Causes and Remedies.
Economic & Political Weekly, May 22, Vol. XIV No 21.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Annexure I
Purnea Gayakota Km 4102 419 & 470-476

3 Mehsi Kotwa Km 480 - 440
Muzzaffarpur Mehsi Km
4 520-480
Purnea Gayakota Km 4195 447
Bijni-Assam/WB Border Km
6 30 - 0
7 Lucknow Bypass
8 Jhansi Bypass Km 104 - 91
Deesa Radhanpur Km 372 9 458
Radhanpur Gagodhar-V Km
10 138.8 - 245
Harangajo Maibang Km
11 164.08 - 190.587
12 Orai Jhansi Km 220 - 170
Silchar Udarband Km 30913 275
Sonapur Guwahati Km 183 14 163.895
Dharmatul Sonapur Km
15 205 - 183
Nagaon Dharamtul Km 255
16 - 230
Gagodhar Garamore Km
17 245 - 281.3
31
Bihar
15
EW
Apr-00
62.98
74
98
28
Bihar
40
EW
Dec-03
239
50
68
28
Bihar
40
EW
Dec-03
275
50
68
31
Bihar
28
EW
Apr-00
205.73
50
30
EW
Dec-03
230
48
78
23
EW
Apr-00
182.52
48
75
25
Assam
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
13
EW
Dec-03
158
44
58
14
Gujarat
86
EW
Dec-03
399.89
39
15
Gujarat
107
EW
Dec-03
429
39
54
Assam
Uttar
Pradesh
26
EW
Dec-03
212
27
25
50
EW
Dec-03
340
21
33
54
31C
25 &
28
Delay in Approvals of
ROB/RUB
96
Law & Order
78
Rains/Floods
51.28
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Apr-00
Utility Shifting
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
EW
Land Acquisition
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
16
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
Uttar
Pradesh
Date of Approval
25
NHDP
Length (km)
Lucknow Kanpur Km 59.51 75.5
State
SNo Name of road stretch
NH
Data Base of Ongoing Highway Projects for Regression Analysis (Source : MOSP&I's Status Reports 2008 and 2010)
Delay
Index
0.3246
0.0000
0.0926
1
1
0.5064
0.5047
0.6098
1
0.3246
0.4360
0.1775
1
1
1
1
0.2146
1.3489
0.2315
Assam
34
EW
Dec-03
157.47
21
42
37
Assam
19
EW
Dec-03
245
21
33
1.9672
31
Assam
22
EW
Dec-03
160
19
31
1.9672
37
Assam
25
EW
Dec-03
264.72
18
30
8A
Gujarat
Uttar
Pradesh
36
EW
Dec-03
412
16
31
66
EW
Dec-03
451.97
16
30
Assam
28
EW
Dec-03
198
14
32
1.9672
Assam
28
EW
Dec-03
176
14
47
1.9672
Assam
27
EW
Dec-03
208
14
32
1.9672
Bihar
25
EW
Dec-03
100.5
14
23
Rajastan
31
EW
Dec-03
266
13
28
Assam
30
EW
Dec-03
195
12
Assam
33
EW
Dec-03
237.8
12
42
Assam
31
EW
Dec-03
225
12
30
Bihar
30
EW
Dec-03
291.8
12
24
Bihar
40
EW
Dec-03
305
12
24
Assam
26
EW
Dec-03
200
12
30
Assam
20
EW
Dec-03
225
12
26
Assam
15
EW
Dec-03
155
12
25
Assam
23
EW
Dec-03
167
12
25
Assam
18
EW
Dec-03
230
12
21
Assam
30
EW
Dec-03
200
12
25
Assam
25
EW
Dec-03
225
12
30
Assam
22
EW
Dec-03
142
12
Bihar
62
EW
Dec-03
310
12
18 Orai Jhansi Km 170 - 104

25
Guwahati Nalbari Km 1093 19 1065
31
Guwahati Nalbari Km 1121 20 1093
31
Nalbari Bijni Km 1040 21 1013
31
Simrahi Ringbund Km 190 22 165
57
Gogunda Udaipur Km 104 23 73
76
24 30 - 60
31C
25 93 - 60
31C
Dakoba Nagaon Km 36 26 5.5
36
Darbhanga Muzaffarpur Km
57
27 30 - 0
Darbhanga Muzaffarpur Km
28 70 - 30
57
Dharmatul Sonapur Km
29 230.5 - 205
31
30 Lanka Daboka Km 22 - 2.4
54
Maibang Lumding Km 111 31 126.45
54
Maibang Lumding Km 60.5 32 83.4
54
Nagaon Byepass Km
36&37
33 5.5(NH36) to Km
Nalbari Bijni Km 1013 34 983
31
Nalbari Bijni Km 1065 31
35 1040.3
Nalbari Bijni Km 983 36 961.5
31
Purnea Forbesganj Km 26837 330
57
1.0581
1.9672
0.1775
0.4360
0.5880
0.0278
0.0000
1.9672
0.3657
0.4138
0.6335
1.9672
0.3657
1
0.9091
0.9091
1.9672
1.2008
1.9672
30
1.9672
24
0.4971
33
47 Jhansi Shivpuri Km 50 - 15
Forbesganj Simrahi Km
48 230 - 190
Ganga Bridge-Ramadevi
49 Crossing Km 75 - 80
Jhajharpur Darbanga Km
50 110 - 70
Ayodhya Lucknow Km 135 51 93
Bakaria Gogunda KM 73 54 29
Karur Madurai Km 373.275
55 - 426.60
Gorakhpur Ayodhya Km
56 208 - 164
Gorakhpur Ayodhya Km
57 251 - 208
Land Acquisition
12
24
57
Bihar
45
EW
Dec-03
340
12
24
28
Bihar
42
EW
Dec-03
300
11
25
28
Bihar
38
EW
Dec-03
240
11
29
76
Rajastan
43
EW
Dec-03
297
11
0.4971
0.4138
0.1759
0.5064
0.0278
31
West Bengal
26
EW
Dec-03
225
11
Gujarat
72
EW
Dec-03
360
10
54
Assam
14
EW
Dec-03
280
10
8B
Gujarat
Madhya
Pradesh
65
EW
Dec-03
399.89
10
35
EW
Dec-03
213
10
Bihar
Uttar
Pradesh
40
EW
Dec-03
333
30
EW
Dec-03
155
33
40
EW
Dec-03
340
39
42
EW
Dec-03
212
24
37
EW
Dec-03
193
28
Bihar
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
48
EW
Dec-03
217
76
Rajastan
44
EW
Dec-03
457
TamilNadu
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
53
NS
Dec-03
283.5
44
EW
Dec-03
227
26
0.1481
43
EW
Dec-03
239
24
0.1481
25
EW
Dec-03
275
20
21
EW
Dec-03
200
20
0.9091
28
EW
Dec-03
199.81
20
0.9091
60
EW
Dec-03
378
44
EW
Dec-03
220
25
57
25
57
28
28
7
28
28
76
Rajastan
Madhya
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
65 Jhansi Shivpuri Km 91 - 50
25
Kasia Gorakhpur Km 319.8
28
66 - 279.8
UP/Bihar Border - Kasia
67 Km 360.9 - 319.8
28
Chittorgarh Bypass Km 253
68 - 213
76
Rajastan
54
69 140.7 - 164.08
Assam
Kota Chittorgarh Km 316 70 253
76
Rajastan
Kota Chittorgarh Km 381 71 316
76
Rajastan
Uttar
Shivpuri Bypass upto
25&76 Pradesh
72 MP/Raj Border
Palanpur Swaroopganj Km
73 264 - 340
14
Rajastan
Raj/MP Border - Kota Km
74 579 - 509
76
Rajastan
Uttar
Bara Orai Km 449-422 &
75 Km 255-220
2&25 Pradesh
Brahmaputra Bridge Km
31
76 1126 - 1121
Assam
34
Delay
Index
8A
58 Kota Bypass Km 406 - 381

76
Rajastan
Maibang Lumding Km 40 54
59 60.5
Assam
Maibang Lumding Km 83.4 60 111
54
Assam
76
61 509 - 449.15
Rajastan
Swaroopganj Bakaria Km
76&14 Rajastan
62 29-0 & 264-249.7
Assam/WB Border 63 Gairkatta Km 255 - 223
31
West Bengal
64 Chambal Bridge
ROB/RUB
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
276
Law & Order
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
Dec-03
Rains/Floods
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
EW
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Date of Approval
41
Utility Shifting
NHDP
Bihar
State
57
NH

Purnea Forbesganj Km 30938 268
Ringbunds Jhanjharpur Km
39 155 - 110
Deewanpur UP/Bihar
40 Border Km 402 - 360
Kotwa Dewapur Km 440 41 402
42 449.15 - 406
Siliguri Islampur Km 526 43 500
Garamore Bamanbore Km
44 254 - 182.6
45 126.45 - 140.70
Jetpur Bhiladi Km 117 46 52.5
Length (km)
TECHNICAL PAPERS
23
0.0000
0.0741
22
0.9091
1
1
0.0741
0.1103
1
0.5880
0.0000
0.5064
0.4167
0.0000
24
0.0000
1
0.0000
0.0000
32
EW
Dec-03
221.82
19
EW
Dec-03
275
10
41
EW
Dec-03
220
40
EW
Dec-03
242
24
41
EW
Dec-03
227
24
40
EW
Dec-03
384
24
EW
Dec-03
196
63
EW
Dec-03
440.5
65
EW
Dec-03
446
46
EW
Dec-03
360
76
EW
Dec-03
498
70
EW
Dec-03
311
62
EW
Dec-03
465
14
EW
Dec-03
217.61
0.0278
0.0278
0.0278
0.0000
1
0.0000
0.1103
0.0000
0.0000
1
41
0.0278
1
1.0572
0.0000
0.0278
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.1481
108 Agra Bharatpur Km 17 - 63
15
36
Gujarat
10
EW
Dec-03
265
0.0000
31
West Bengal
Uttar
Pradesh
25
EW
Dec-03
155
0.0000
28
EW
Dec-03
600.24
-4
17
Orissa
54
GQ
Apr-00
225
68
90
0.3834
Karnataka
13
GQ
Apr-00
83
60
81
0.2274
Orissa
62
GQ
Apr-00
227.25
58
82
0.3834
West Bengal
GQ
Apr-00
81
58
0.0773
Orissa
Uttar
Pradesh
51
GQ
Apr-00
263.27
57
15
GQ
Apr-00
89.5
56
Karnataka
56
GQ
Apr-00
241
55
71
30
GQ
Apr-00
140.85
53
74
Orissa
Uttar
Pradesh
77
GQ
Apr-00
372.4
53
69
Karnataka
64
GQ
Apr-00
260.93
51
Karnataka
18
GQ
Apr-00
104
50
GQ
Apr-00
155
47
Orissa
Uttar
Pradesh
72
GQ
Apr-00
286
45
0.3527
Karnataka
67
GQ
Apr-00
304
44
0.0598
Jharkhand
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
79
GQ
Apr-00
399.75
42
63
51
GQ
Apr-00
367.49
40
69
72
GQ
Apr-00
348.44
38
12
GQ
Apr-00
468
38
13
GQ
Apr-00
495.35
37
30
GQ
Apr-00
221.87
37
57
GQ
Apr-00
261.22
37
Bihar
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Uttar
Pradesh
Karnataka
28
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
11
115 Indore Kalaghat
Delay
Index
0.4508
0.1481
0.3279
0.3246
0.0000
1
0.3834
0.1481
0.0000
69
0.1765
0.0000
0.1006
1
0.6860
0.0000
63
0.4360
0.3527
0.0000
1
GQ
Apr-00
91.36
26
GQ
Apr-00
440.93
18
44
GQ
Apr-00
534.39
13
31
77
GQ
Apr-00
318
70
Punjab
49
III
Mar-05
263
14
TamilNadu
Uttar
Pradesh
64
III
Dec-03
263
16
46
III
Mar-05
195
36
III
Mar-05
298
49
III
Mar-05
190
16
81
III
Mar-05
565
24
57
III
Mar-05
250
Madhya
Pradesh
76
40
109 Ambala Zirakpur

21&22 Punjab
Aurang Raipur Km 232 110 281
6
Chattisgarh
Bangalore Hoskote
111 Mudbagal Km 237 - 318
Karnataka
Bharatpur Mahua Km 63 112 120
11
Rajastan
Elevated Highway
113 SilkBoardJn to Electronic
Karnataka
Maharashtr
Gonde Vadape (Thane) Km
114 440 - 539.5
3
a
Law & Order
418
Rains/Floods
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
Dec-03
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
EW
Utility Shifting
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
10
Land Acquisition
Date of Approval
Bihar
State
NHDP
90 Hubli Haveri Km 404 - 340

Chitradurga Bypass Km
91 207 - 189
Bridges Balasore92 Chandikhole Km 61-199
Handia Varnasi Km 24593 317
Chitradurga Sira Km 18994 122
Gorhar Barwa Adda Km
95 320-399
Agra Shikohabad Km 20096 251
Etawah Rajpur Km 32197 393
Varanasi Mohania Km 31798 329
Kanpur Fatehpur Km 47099 483
Sasaram Dehri-on-Sone
100 Km 110-140
Shikohabad Etawah Km
101 250.5-307.5
Allahabad Bypass Contract102 I Km 158-159
Allahabad Bypass Contract103 II Km 158-198
Allahabad Bypass Contract104 III Km 198-242
Harihar Chitradurga Km
105 284 - 207
Jalandar Amritsar Km 407 106 456
Tovaramkurchi Madurai Km
107 60 - 124
Length (km)
82 Tumkur Bypass Km 75-62

Balasore Bhadrak Km 13783 199
Bridges Dhankuni84 Kharagpur Km 17.6-136
Ganjam Icchapuram Km
85 233-284
Etawah Bypass Km 307.586 321.1
Haveri Harihar Km 340 87 284
Bhubaneswar Khurda Km
88 388-418
Fatehpur Khaga Km 3889 115
57
NH

Kosi Bridge incl approaches
77 Km 155 - 165
Rajkot Bypass-Gondal
78 Jetpur Km 185-175
Siliguri Islampur Km 551 79 526
Gorakhpur Bypass Km
80 251.7 - 279.8
Sunakhala Ganjam Km 33881 284
ROB/RUB
TECHNICAL PAPERS
0.6125
0.2315
36
1
1
1
1
0.1481
1
0.7694
0.1765
0.0000
0.2593
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
III
Mar-05
450
18
0.0000
100
III
Mar-05
579
13
0.0000
80
III
Mar-05
472
0.0000
35
117 Kurali Kiratpur

Mahua Jaipur Km 120 118 228
Meerut Muzaffarnagar Km
119 52 - 131
120 Nagpur Kondhali Km 9 - 50
Neelamangala Jn (NH4) to
121 Devihalli (NH48)
21
Punjab
11
Rajastan
Uttar
Pradesh
Maharashtr
a
58
ROB/RUB
Law & Order
Rains/Floods
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
212
Utility Shifting
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
Mar-05
Land Acquisition
Date of Approval
III
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
NHDP
50
Delay
Index
0.0000
61
III
Mar-05
309
108
III
Mar-05
483
15
0.0000
79
III
Mar-05
359
15
41
III
Mar-05
168
16
0.0000
Karnataka
55
III
Mar-05
441
30
0.0000
TamilNadu
40
III
Mar-05
285
30
0.0000
0.0000
0.1481
122 Pondichery Tindivanam

Salem Ulundrupet Km
123 0.313 - 136.67
Sitapur Lucknow Km 488 124 413
Six Laning Bangalore Hosur
125 Km 18.75 - 33.51
Thanjavur Trichy Km 80 126 135
TamilNadu
Uttar
Pradesh
136
III
Mar-05
941
30
0.0000
24
75
III
Mar-05
322
20
0.0000
Karnataka
15
III
Mar-05
110
67
TamilNadu
55
III
Mar-05
280
12
127 Trichy Dindigul
45
TamilNadu
88
III
Mar-05
576
16
0.0000
128 Trichy Karur

Dhule Pimpalgaon Km 380 129 265
Madurai Tuticorin Km 138 130 264
67
TamilNadu
Maharashtr
a
80
III
Mar-05
516
32
0.0000
115
III
Mar-05
556
-3
12
0.0000
45B
TamilNadu
126
III
Mar-05
629
-10
-5
Karnataka
20
Mar-05
445
-12
-3
Assam
10
Mar-05
33.78
12
Dec-03
480
11
31
44
131 Bangalore Neelamangala
68
TamilNadu
TamilNadu
45B
TamilNadu
61
34
West Bengal
Andhra
Pradesh
6
48
TamilNadu
55
TamilNadu
59
Assam
22
Kerala
86
III
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
132 Service road & Flyover

133 Chennai Bypass
Improvement of Access of
134 GQ within Chennai
135 Lalapet ROB
Trichy Bypass136 Tuvaramkurchi Km 0 137 Dhalkola Bypass
Islam Nagar to Kadtal Km
138 230 - 278
Kangayam Coimbatore Km
139 277 - 332
Karur Kangayam Km 218.2
140 - 277.4
Lumding Daboka Km 44 141 22
NH Connectivity to JCTT
142 Vallarapadam
Haryana Border - Mukaraba
143 Chowk Km 29.3-16.5
Panchi Gujran Sonepat Km
144 44-66
Thumpipadi Salem Km 180145 199.2
Nandhi Hills Devanahalli
146 Km 556-539
Kunjwani Vijaypur Km 80147 97
Devdhari Wadner Km 94148 123
149 Borkhedi Jam Km 36.6 - 64
Devdhari Kelapur Km 123150 153
151 Jam Wadner Km 64-94
Thopurghat Thummipadi
152 Km 163.3-180
Butibori ROB Km 22.85153 24.65
Agra Bypass Km 176/NH2
154 to Km 13/NH3
36
Maharashtr
a
Length (km)
State

Kondali Telegaon Km 50 116 100
NH
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4,5&4
5
TamilNadu
4
SH
32
0.0000
11
11
Dec-03
261
19
Mar-06
67
28
0.0000
Dec-03
546
0.0000
Feb-06
79.52
18
0.0000
Feb-06
63
14
0.0000
Dec-03
130
Apr-07
557
0.4028
Apr-00
71
65
NS
Apr-00
82
60
85
TamilNadu
19
NS
Apr-00
82.49
58
82
Karnataka
Jammu &
kashmir
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
17
NS
Apr-00
172.06
53
17
NS
Apr-00
110
48
29
NS
Dec-03
145
47
27
NS
Dec-03
110
45
30
NS
Dec-03
144
30
NS
Dec-03
145
TamilNadu
Maharashtr
a
Uttar
Pradesh
17
NS
Dec-03
92.54
NS
Dec-03
26
39
NS
Dec-03
348
37
41
0.2033
0.9091
10
NS
0.0000
22
0.2150
210
13
0.3657
1
24.19
Haryana
Jan-06
Delhi
0.2593
0.0000
Jan-05
0.2593
1A
0.0000
1
1
1
0.0185
1
0.0773
0.4028
0.0000
72
0.0000
1
0.0732
57
44
59
44
65
0.0732
40
56
39
57
0.0000
0.0732
0.0278
0.4028
0.0000
117 Kurali Kiratpur

Mahua Jaipur Km 120 118 228
Meerut Muzaffarnagar Km
119 52 - 131
120 Nagpur Kondhali Km 9 - 50
Neelamangala Jn (NH4) to
121 Devihalli (NH48)
21
Punjab
11
Rajastan
Uttar
Pradesh
Maharashtr
a
58
ROB/RUB
Law & Order
Rains/Floods
212
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
Mar-05
Utility Shifting
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
III
Land Acquisition
Date of Approval
50
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
NHDP
Maharashtr
a
Length (km)
State

Kondali Telegaon Km 50 116 100
NH
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Delay
Index
0.0000
61
III
Mar-05
309
108
III
Mar-05
483
15
0.0000
79
III
Mar-05
359
15
41
III
Mar-05
168
16
0.0000
Karnataka
55
III
Mar-05
441
30
0.0000
TamilNadu
40
III
Mar-05
285
30
0.0000
0.0000
0.1481
122 Pondichery Tindivanam

Salem Ulundrupet Km
123 0.313 - 136.67
Sitapur Lucknow Km 488 124 413
Six Laning Bangalore Hosur
125 Km 18.75 - 33.51
Thanjavur Trichy Km 80 126 135
TamilNadu
Uttar
Pradesh
136
III
Mar-05
941
30
0.0000
24
75
III
Mar-05
322
20
0.0000
Karnataka
15
III
Mar-05
110
67
TamilNadu
55
III
Mar-05
280
12
127 Trichy Dindigul
45
TamilNadu
88
III
Mar-05
576
16
128 Trichy Karur

Dhule Pimpalgaon Km 380 129 265
Madurai Tuticorin Km 138 130 264
67
TamilNadu
Maharashtr
a
80
III
Mar-05
516
32
0.0000
115
III
Mar-05
556
-3
12
0.0000
45B
TamilNadu
126
III
Mar-05
629
-10
-5
Karnataka
20
Mar-05
445
-12
-3
Assam
10
Mar-05
33.78
12
Dec-03
480
11
31
44
131 Bangalore Neelamangala
68
TamilNadu
TamilNadu
45B
TamilNadu
61
34
West Bengal
Andhra
Pradesh
6
48
TamilNadu
55
TamilNadu
59
Assam
22
Kerala
86
III
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
MORT
H
132 Service road & Flyover

133 Chennai Bypass
Improvement of Access of
134 GQ within Chennai
135 Lalapet ROB
Trichy Bypass136 Tuvaramkurchi Km 0 137 Dhalkola Bypass
Islam Nagar to Kadtal Km
138 230 - 278
Kangayam Coimbatore Km
139 277 - 332
Karur Kangayam Km 218.2
140 - 277.4
Lumding Daboka Km 44 141 22
NH Connectivity to JCTT
142 Vallarapadam
Haryana Border - Mukaraba
143 Chowk Km 29.3-16.5
Panchi Gujran Sonepat Km
144 44-66
Thumpipadi Salem Km 180145 199.2
Nandhi Hills Devanahalli
146 Km 556-539
Kunjwani Vijaypur Km 80147 97
Devdhari Wadner Km 94148 123
149 Borkhedi Jam Km 36.6 - 64
Devdhari Kelapur Km 123150 153
151 Jam Wadner Km 64-94
Thopurghat Thummipadi
152 Km 163.3-180
Butibori ROB Km 22.85153 24.65
Agra Bypass Km 176/NH2
154 to Km 13/NH3
4,5&4
5
TamilNadu
4
SH
32
0.0000
Dec-03
261
19
Mar-06
67
28
0.0000
Dec-03
546
0.0000
Feb-06
79.52
18
0.0000
Feb-06
63
14
0.0000
Dec-03
130
Apr-07
557
0.2033
0.4028
0.9091
10
Apr-00
71
65
Apr-00
82
60
85
TamilNadu
19
NS
Apr-00
82.49
58
82
Karnataka
Jammu &
kashmir
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
Maharashtr
a
17
NS
Apr-00
172.06
53
17
NS
Apr-00
110
48
29
NS
Dec-03
145
47
27
NS
Dec-03
110
45
30
NS
Dec-03
144
30
NS
Dec-03
145
TamilNadu
Maharashtr
a
Uttar
Pradesh
17
NS
Dec-03
92.54
NS
Dec-03
26
39
NS
Dec-03
348
37
41
0.0000
NS
0.2150
11
NS
0.3657
1
11
22
210
13
0.0000
24.19
Haryana
0.2593
Jan-06
Delhi
Jan-05
0.2593
0.0000
1A
0.0000
1
1
1
0.0185
1
0.0773
0.4028
0.0000
72
0.0000
1
0.0732
57
44
59
44
65
0.0732
40
56
39
57
0.0000
0.0732
0.0278
0.4028
0.0000
37
ROB/RUB
12
0.0000
49
NS
Dec-03
263
0.0000
38
NS
Dec-03
198
28
0.0000
55
NS
Dec-03
360
0.0000
72
NS
Dec-03
206.96
18
0.0000
42
NS
Dec-03
253.5
54
NS
Dec-03
469.8
47
NS
Dec-03
379.8
17
NS
Dec-03
62.96
24
47
NS
Dec-03
312.5
15
80
NS
Dec-03
546.15
-1
0.0000
68
NS
Dec-03
327.2
-1
0.0000
10
NS
Dec-03
270
-7
0.0000
31
NS
Dec-03
120
Other Mar-05
133
34
101 Other Apr-00
555
30
54
Law & Order
407
Rains/Floods
Time Overrun in Mar

2010 (months)
Dec-03
Poor Contractor
Performance
Termination of
Contracts
Late Conclusion of
Contracts
Time Overrun in Mar

2008 (months)
NS
Utility Shifting
Original Cost
(Rs in crores)
50
Land Acquisition
Date of Approval
196 Lalitpur Sagar Km 94-132

26
Mah/AP Border to Islam
197 Nagar Km 175-230
7
Sagar Rajmarg Choraha
198 Km 225-297
26
Salem Karur Km 207.05199 248.625
7
TamilNadu
Salem Kerala Border Km
200 203.96(NH7) - Km
47 TamilNadu
Salem Kerala Border Km
201 53-100
97 TamilNadu
Jammu &
Srinagar Bypass Km 2861A kashmir
202 303.8 Phase I
Thrissur Angamalli Km 27047 Kerala
203 316.7
Andhra
Kadloor Yellareddy
7
204 Pochampalli Km 367-447
Pradesh
Karur Madurai Km 305.6 205 373.28
7
TamilNadu
Panipat Elevated Highway
1
206 Km 96-86
Haryana
Kanyakumari Panagudi
7
207 Km233.6-203
TamilNadu
Chittorgarh Bypass Km 159
79&76 Rajastan
208 - 213
Delhi Gurgaon Expressway
209 Km 143 - 42
8
Haryana
Uttar
Hapur Garhmukteswar Km
24 Pradesh
210 58 - 93
Uttar
Garhmukteswar Muradabad
211 Km 93 - 149
24 Pradesh
Tindivanam Uiundurpet Km
212 121 - 192
45 TamilNadu
Padalur Trichy Km 285 213 325
45 TamilNadu
Uiundurpet Padalur Km
45 TamilNadu
214 192 - 285
NHDP
Madhya
Pradesh
Madhya
Pradesh
Madhya
Pradesh
Andhra
Pradesh
Madhya
Pradesh
Length (km)
State

Lakhnandon - MP/Mah
194 Border Km 547-597
Lakhnandon - MP/Mah
195 Border Km 596 -653
NH
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Delay
Index
0.0000
16
0.0000
0.0000
1
0.1780
0.0000
49
50
0.3987
0.0000
0.0000
35
Other Apr-00
220
15
45
56
Other Apr-00
275
39
71
Other Dec-03
480
-3
40
Other Dec-03
320
-5
93
Other Dec-03
460
-6
0.2879
0.2045
0.0000
11
0.0000
0.0000
215 Tuticorin Port Km 0 - 47.2
7A
TamilNadu
47
Port
Apr-00
231
40
216 Paradip Port Km 0 - 77
5A
77
Port
Apr-00
428
15
217 JNPT Phase II

Chennai Ennore
218 Expressway
54
Orissa
Maharashtr
a
14
Port
Apr-00
143
12
29
TamilNadu
Port
Apr-00
45.29
0.0000
17&48 Karnataka
37
Port
Apr-00
196.5
24
0.0000
TamilNadu
15
Port
Apr-00
76.76
219 New Mangalore Port

Chennai Ennore
220 Expressway
0.3987
0.0556
0.0278
0.0000
221 Cochin Port Km 348 - 358
47
Kerala
10
Port
Apr-00
106
44
0.0773
222 Haldia Port Km 53

Bharuch Surat BOT-II Km 0
223 - 65 (6 Laning)
Vadodara Bharuch BOT-I
224 Km 108-192 (6 Laning)
41
West Bengal
53
Port
Apr-00
273
66
0.0773
Gujarat
65
May-06
492
0.0000
Gujarat
84
May-06
660
0.0000
38
INFLUENCE OF RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED NYLON FIBERS

MIXED WITH FLY ASH IN BLACK COTTON SOIL
Deepak Gupta* and Mrs. Vandana Tare**
Abstract
This paper presents the influence of nylon fibers reinforced fly ash
soil mix for sub grade & embankments. The problem of disposal
of fly ash will also sorted out up to some extent. Nylon fibers are
used for reinforcing the soil. Soaked CBR tests are conducted on
soil, soil fly ash mix with &without reinforcement compacted to
Modified Proctor density. The soil is mixed with fly ash in varying
percentage of 20-80% and properties like grain size distribution,
atterbergs limit, free swell index, moisture-density relation and
CBR are studied. The optimum value of fly ash content in soil
is 35% & is selected for further modification with nylon fibers
content in the range of 0.5-1.5% with different aspect ratios 40,
50 and 60. The properties of soil like moisture-density relation
and CBR are evaluated. The investigation concluded that CBR
value of fiber reinforced fly ash soil mix increases with increase in
percentage of fiber content for particular aspect ratio but decreases
with increase in aspect ratio. For high aspect ratio balling of fibers
takes place & fibers are difficult to mix in soil. Also, CBR value
is found to be 7.2% for 1.5% fiber content for aspect ratio 40. The
regression equations are developed between different aspect ratios
& CBR values for particular fiber content and different percentage
of fiber content & CBR values for particular aspect ratio.
INTRODUCTION
Black cotton soil is highly problematic because of the

susceptibility of these soils to undergo large changes in
volume due to uctuations in the moisture content. In
monsoon seasons, soil imbibes water, swells become
soft, and capacity to bear water is reduced. In drier
seasons, this soil shrinks or reduces in volume due to
evaporation of water and they become harder. Due to
its peculiar characteristic of high plasticity, excessive
swelling, shrinkage and low strength when wet, the
soil is regarded unsuitable as construction material.
During the last two decades environmental hazards,
regulations and heightening of public awareness has
made it difficult as well as costly to dispose the waste
materials. Reinforced fly ash may have a promising
potential in the days to come where the fly ash will
provide the bulk of the mass and reinforcement will
provide the necessary strength to the geotechnical
system. The present investigation aims to explore the

influence of fly ash and nylon fibers mixed with black
cotton soil is used as sub grade or sub base material.
Following are the terms used in study.

MDD : The maximum density of a

material for a specific compactive effort
is the highest density obtainable when the
compaction is carried out on the material
at varied moisture contents.
OMC : The optimum moisture content

for a specific compactive effort is the
moisture content at which maximum
density is obtained
Aspect Ratio : It is ratio of length and

diameter of fiber.
The objectives of this work are to study the effectiveness

of optimum value of fly ash as an additive to stabilize
the black cotton soil with different percentage of fly
ash. Also to study effectiveness of the fly ash and
nylon fibers mixed as additives to stabilize the black
cotton soil and comparative study of black cotton soil
with and without fly ash & nylon fibers.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
P.K Jain et.al (2003) studied the inclusion of nylon
fibers to black cotton soil & found that it can minimize
the problem of swelling to a great extent. It is found that
the mixing of nylon fibers randomly in small quantity
can decrease the swelling pressure by about 40%.
Nylon fibers, commonly used in making rope, having
aspect ratio 20 were utilized in the study. Praveen
Kumar et.al (2005) performed number of tests on soil
fly ash with different percentages of polypropylene
fibers. The CBR value of fly ash increases with increase
in fibers content upto 1% & thereafter rate of increase
is very less in both soaked and unsoaked conditions.
P.G. Student, S.G.S.I.T.S., E-mail : deepakgupta.987@gmail.com
**
Professor, CE-AMD, E-mail : vtare4@gmail.com
S.G.S.I.T.S. Indore (M.P.)
39
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The addition of fibers to fly ash shows significant
improvement in CBR value, angle of internal friction
and modulus of sub grade reaction. A Kumar et.al.
(2007) conducted the experimental program on
geotechnical characteristics of y ash-soil specimens,
lime-soil specimens and lime y ash-soil specimens
mixed with different proportions of randomly oriented
bers. Lime and flyash were added to expansive
soil at ranges of 110% and 120% respectively
S Ayyappan et.al. (2010) explained the influence of
randomly oriented fibers on the engineering behavior
of soil. It is indentified and quantified the influence of
fibers variables (content and length) on performance
of fibers reinforced soil- fly ash specimens. Kar R.K.
et.al. (2012) studied behavior of fiber-reinforced fly
ash and fiber reinforced fly ash soil mix used as subbase material in low volume roads. In fly ash soil
mix, soil content was 10% & 20%. Fiber content was
varied from 0.1% to 0.5% by dry weight of fly ash
& fly ash soil mix with four different aspect ratio.
R.K. Sharma (2012) studied soil blended with fly
ash in range of 20-80%. The fly ash of 30% in soil is
selected for further modification with Recron fiber 3S
of length 12 mm and content in range of 0.5-1.5%.
Table 1 Properties of Soil

Test Results
IS Codes Used
Specific Gravity
Properties
2.3
IS:2720 (Part III)-1964
IS Classification Soil
CI
IS:2720 (Part IV)-1965
MDD (gm/cc)
Soil
The soil is used in the study was a Black cotton soil.

The soil was of CI type having approximately 52%
silt, 10.00% fine sand and 38.00% clay particles. The
grain size distribution of soil is given in Fig. 1 &
properties of soil are given in Table 1.
Fig. 1 Grain Size Distribution Curve of Soil
40
IS:2720 (Part VIII)-1980
OMC %
20
CBR %
2.4
IS:2720 (Part XVI)
Liquid Limit %
44
IS:2720 (Part V)-1985
Plastic limit %
21
IS:2720 (Part V)-1965
Plasticity Index %
23
Free Swell Index %
35
IS:2720 (Part XL)-1977
3.2
Fly Ash
The fly ash was obtained from Magliyagoan industrial

area near Indore (M.P.). The fly ash is non plastic
material. The fly ashes have low densities generally
useful for structural fills, highway embankments. The
laboratory test is conducted for lime content of fly
ash. As per results lime content is found 9.22%. Fly
ash is classified as Class F. The grain size distribution
curve of fly ash indicated that fly ash is having 80%
sand, 17.00% silt and 3.00% clay size particles.
Table 2 shows the properties of fly ash. Fig 2 shows
the grain size distribution of fly ash.
Table 2 Properties of Fly Ash
3 MATERIALS USED
3.1
1.25
Properties
Test Results
IS Code Used
Specific Gravity
IS:2720 (Part III)-1964
IS Classification of
Fly Ash
SP
MDD (gm/cc)
1.19
OMC %
24
CBR %
3.3
IS:2720 (Part IV)-1965

IS:2720 (Part VII)-1980
IS:2720 (Part XVI)
Fig. 2 Grain Size Distribution of Fly Ash
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.3
Nylon Fibers
Rope nylon fibers of 1mm diameter are used in the

study which was brought from local market. Photo 1
shows nylon fibers used in the study.
Fig. 3 Variation of MDD & OMC with % of Fly Ash

Content in Soil
Photo 1
4
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The soil is replaced with fly ash in different percentage
i.e. 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%. The MDD-OMC and
CBR values of soil fly ash mixture are determined.
The optimum value of soil & fly ash mixture is further
stabilized with nylon fibers with different percentage
0.5 %, 1% 1.5% & aspect ratio 40, 50, 60 and moisture
density relation, CBR values are evaluated. Table 3
shows properties of soil fly ash mixture.
Table 3 Properties of Soil Fly Ash Mixtures
% OF FLY
ASH
20
40
60
80
MDD
(KN/M3)
14.52
15.21
13.93
12.75
OMC
(%)
17
18
20
22
A graph is plotted between MDD-OMC & percentage

of fly ash in soil which is shown in Fig 3.
UNSOAKED SOAKED
(CBR)
(CBR)
5.2
2.9
6
3.8
5.9
3.1
4.9
2.32
The maximum dry density & optimum moisture

content in soil fly ash mixture is worked out. The
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content
were found to be 15 kN/m3 or 1.50 gm/cc and 18%
respectively for 35% fly ash in soil. Addition of fly ash
in soil also improves plasticity index of soil.
The optimum values of soil fly ash mixture i.e. 35%
of fly ash & 65% of soil is taken for further
stabilization of nylon fibers with different percentage
0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% & aspect ratio 40, 50, and 60.
The MDD, OMC, CBR unsoaked & soaked tests are
found out Table 4 shows properties of soil fly ash &
nylon fibers mixture for different aspect ratio and fiber
content.
Table 4 Properties of Soil Fly Ash Nylon Fibers Mixtures for Different Aspect Ratio and Fiber Content
Aspect Ratio
L/D = 60
L/D = 50
L/D = 40
Fibre Content %
0.5
1
1.5
0.5
1
1.5
0.5
1
1.5
Mdd (gm/cc)
1.55
1.34
1.27
1.51
1.42
1.33
1.56
1.47
1.37
4.1 Effects of Fly Ash on CBR Tests

From Table 3 a graph is plotted between percentage
of fly ash in soil & CBR% (Soaked condition) which
are shown in Fig. 4. CBR value initially increased
OMC (%)
23.3
25.2
27.0
24.3
26.2
27.8
25.4
27.6
29.8
Unsoaked CBR (%)

5.50
7.20
9.20
6.20
7.70
7.30
6.50
10.20
8.70
Soaked CBR (%)

3.30
4.10
4.40
4.30
5.20
5.70
5.60
6.80
7.20
with increase in fly ash content and then it started

decreasing at slow rate. The maximum CBR value
(soaked condition) was found for 65% soil & 35% fly
ash is 3.8%.
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 8. The strength in terms of CBR increases even with
decrease in MDD, this is due to soil fiber interaction
instead of interaction between soil grains. It was found
that increasing in fiber aspect ratio more than 60 is
difficult to mix in soil because balling of fibers take
place and fibers may not straight. But at low aspect ratios
length of fibers are insufficient to develop frictional
resistance.
Fig. 4 Variation of CBR Fly Ash Content in Soil
4.2 Effects of Fibers Content on MDD-OMC

With the addition of fiber content by weight in the blend
of soil with 35% of fly ash, the MDD value is decreased
for different aspect ratio. The fibers cross-section are
circular and surface area is more so when fiber content is
increased beyond optimum value more void spaces are
created resulting decrease in value of MDD. The value
of OMC is increased with increase in fiber content for
different aspect ratio. Figs. 5 and 6 shows Variation of
MDD and OMC with fiber content in soil respectively.
Fig. 7 Variation of CBR with Fiber Content in Soil
Fig. 8 Variation of CBR with Aspect Ratios in Soil

Fig. 5 Variation of MDD with Fiber Content in Soil
4.4
Development of Regression Equations between

CBR & Fiber Content
The regression equations for knowing the trends of the

variation of CBR for each type of mixed have been
found out to correlate CBR value with different fiber
aspect ratio. Regression Equations developed are given
in Table 5.
Table 5 Regression Equations between CBR & Fibers
Content for Different Aspect Ratio
Fig. 6 Variation of OMC with Fiber Content in Soil
4.3 Effect of Fibers in Soil Fly Ash Mixture on CBR

Tests
From Fig. 7 it is clear that CBR value increases with
increase in fiber content. On other hand for any particular
percentage of fibers, CBR value is decreasing with
increase of aspect ratio at slow rate which is shown in
42
S. No.
Aspect Ratio
Equations
40
CBR = 1.6P + 4.9
50
CBR = 1.4P + 3.666
60
CBR = 1.1P + 2.833
Where,
CBR = California Bearing Ratio, P = Percentage of
Fibers
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The regression equations for the trends of the variation
of CBR for each type of mixes have been found out to
correlate CBR value with different percentage of nylon
fibers. Equations developed are given in Table 6.
equations can also be used to find out CBR values of soil

for different percentages of nylon fibers and fiber aspect
ratios.
Table 6 Regression Equations between CBR & Aspect

Ratios for Different Percentage of Fiber Content
SCOPE OF FUTURE STUDY
CBR = California Bearing Ratio, A = Aspect

Ratio
This work can be further extended, by using fly ash and

nylon fibers in different types of soil. Also, the fly ash
can be replaced by lime, stone dust, sand and cement and
nylon fibers can be replaced by sisal, coir, jute (natural
fibers) or polypropylene, shredded rubber tire (artificial
fibers), geotextiles or geosynthetics. From the above
materials, mixes of different proportions or combinations
can be made for improving the properties of soil which
may be used for construction of embankment or soil sub
grade in highways.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
S. No.
% Fiber Content
Equations
0.5
CBR = -0.11A + 10.15
CBR = -0.13A + 12.10
1.5
CBR = -0.14A + 12.76
Where,
Based on the study following conclusions have been

drawn.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Addition of fly ash in soil improves the properties

of soil. The optimum content of fly ash in soil is
found to be 35%.
The maximum dry density is found to be
1.50 gm/cc & 18% OMC for 35% fly ash in soil.
CBR value is found to be 3.8% for 35% content
fly ash in soil which is more than virgin soil.
On addition of fibers in soil fly ash mixtures, for
different aspect ratio, MDD value decreases but
OMC value increases.
CBR value increases with increase in fiber
content for particular aspect ratio but CBR value
decreases with increase in aspect ratio, this is due
to increase in resistance to penetration.
CBR value is found to be 7.2% for 1.5% fiber
content and aspect ratio 40, when 35% fly ash is
added to soil.
The regression equations are developed between
different aspect ratio & CBR values for particular
fiber content.
The regression equations are also developed
between different fibers content & CBR values
for particular aspect ratio.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on study it is recommended that on addition of

35% fly ash and 1.5% fiber content of aspect ratio 40 in
soil, the CBR value is increased around 90%. Regression
1.
Shenbaga, R. Kaniraj, Gayathri V. (2003) Geotechnical

Behavior of Fly Ash Mixed with Randomly Oriented
Fibers Inclusions, Journal of Geotextile and
Geomebrane.
2.
Jain P.K, Rajeev Jain and Rakesh Kumar (2003) Behavior

of Expansive B.C. Soil Mixed with Nylon Fibers
Geotechnical Engineering for Infrastructural Development
Dec 18-20 Roorkee.
3.
Praveen Kumar and Singh S.P. (2005) Effect of

Randomly Distributed Fibers on Fly Ash Embankments
IE Journal-CV.
4.
Kumar A, Singh B, Walia, Asheet Bajaj (2007 ) Inuence

of Fly Ash, Lime, and Polyester Fibers on Compaction
and Strength Properties of Expansive Soil Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering ASCE, March 07.
5.
Ayyappan S, Hemalatha K and Sundaram M (2010)

Investigation of Engineering Behavior of Soil,
Polypropylene Fibers and Fly Ash -Mixtures for Road
Construction. International Journal of Environmental
Science and Development, June 2010.
6.
Kar R.K. and Pradhan P.K.(2012) Laboratory Tests of

Reinforced Fly Ash Mix for Use as Sub Base in Low
Volume Rural Roads Indian Roads Congress vol. 40
No.1.
7.
Sharma R.K.(2012) Sub Grade Characteristic of Locally

Available Soil Mixed with Fly Ash and Randomly
Distributed Fibers ICEES 2012 March 17-18, 2012
Bangkok.
8.
IS:2720 (part VIII) 1980 Methods of Test for Soil

Determination of Optimum Moisture Content &
Maximum Dry Density of Soil by Modified Proctor
Test.
9.
IRC:SP:58-2001 Uses of Fly Ash in Embankments.
43
Distressed Concrete Bridges in India-Problems

and solutions
R. Manisekar*, P. Sivakumar**, M. Kumarappan*** and G. Jayaraman***
Abstract
It is very well discussed among bridge engineers that large number
of existing concrete bridges is in distressed condition and they are
in increasing order. It is also known that poor maintenance leads
to distressing of bridges in a greater extent. It gives anxiety over
the performance of these bridges in near future and therefore it
still needs to be discussed in order to achieve an organized way of
planning, designing and construction of new concrete bridges so as
to prevent or minimize such distress in future, and also to improve
maintenance of concrete bridges in future. Secondly, retrofitting
is the only solution to restore any distressed bridge to service and
many bridges have been retrofitted in and outside India. External
prestressing is the main technique for strengthening distressed
bridges, which is becoming popular in bridge engineering field
and also being practiced in various countries. Strengthening of RC
beams using external prestressing by an experimental investigation
is also discussed in detail. This paper intent to discuss the issues
regarding distressed concrete bridges and solutions for the same.
INTRODUCTION
There are number of highway and railway bridges,

which have been distressed in India and other
countries. They are distressed due to various reasons
like ageing effects, increase in volume of traffic,
corrosion in rebars and prestressing steel, poor quality
of construction, and design deficiencies. Distressed
concrete bridges have been posing serious problems
to bridge engineers throughout the world, including
India. In fact 40% of the bridges in the US have
been reported (Mohamed Ali and Oehlers 2001) as
distressed and they need to be strengthened and
rehabilitated at the earliest. The US was to spend
around $200 billion for repair and rehabilitation of
distressed bridges and renovate schools. It is estimated
that Australia was to spend around US $300 million
per annum on the repair and upgrading of concrete
structures.
In India, large numbers of highway bridges have
been reported as distressed and need to be retrofitted.
Concrete bridges constructed during the recent
*
Senior Scientist, E-mail: rmanisekar17@yahoo.co.in
**
Chief Scientist,
decades, located particularly in coastal areas have

shown distress. Mainly distresses are in the form of
development of cracks in the girders, corrosion in
prestressing cables, improper function of bearings
and expansion joints, and spalling of concrete. While
minor damage affects the aesthetic appearance of the
bridge and long term durability, severe damage reduce
the structural capacity of the bridge. Although there
is no availability of specific report for identifying the
number of distressed bridges in the world, it could be
observed easily from the international literature that
considerable percentage of concrete bridges and other
structures are under distress in the world. Secondly,
retrofitting is the only solution to restore any distressed
bridge to service and many bridges in and outside
India have been retrofitted. External prestressing
has become popular in strengthening of distressed
concrete bridges and also being practiced in various
countries. Engineers are conscious about diagnosis
of existing bridges and restoration of required level
of load carrying capacity such as strengthening and
rehabilitation of existing bridges. However, they do
not care about the life of bridges after strengthening.
Some of existing bridges strengthened have shown
quick distress in the post-strengthening life, which
led to restrict the traffic and subsequent problems
regarding remaining service life. Therefore, it is
necessary to predict the post-strengthening behaviour
and thereby evaluating the credibility of strengthening
techniques in remaining service life.
2
DISTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES IN

INDIA
2.1
Distress in Super Structure
It is well reported in technical papers and media that

large number of highway bridges are in distressed
CSIR Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai
*** Senior Technical Officer,
44
TECHNICAL PAPERS
condition. Sometimes the distressed bridges fell with
calamitous failure and claimed lives. In many cases,
superstructure of the bridge is in distress. Particularly,
in girder bridges, main girders, cross girders and deck
slab are separated, which disturb the load distribution
of bridges. This resulted in receiving high magnitude
of horizontal movement and rotation at bearings. This
further lead to non functioning of bearings such as
toppling of bearings, shifting of bearings from their
original positions. Secondly, local damages such as
isolated concrete cracks, nicks and spalling up to
3 cm depth. These lead into damaging concrete cover
and cause corrosion of reinforcing steel. In case of
wide cracks and wide spalls, prestressing strand in
girders use to expose to environment. Though they
may not affect the structural capacity, they can reduce
the structural capacity due to corrosion. There are
severe damages such as corrosion damage in concrete
and prestressing strands. There may be severe pitting
or breaking of strand wires. This can cause losses
in prestress and reduction in load carrying capacity
of the member. Corrosion of prestressing strands is
much faster than that of rebar due to stress corrosion
phenomena. In some bridges, expansion joints are
not provided as per design. This cause damage to
the top surface of deck slab mainly at the junction of
two spans and leakages of rain water through gap led
to further deterioration of concrete and corrosion of
reinforcement. In addition, there are cracks in cement
concrete wearing course, and deck slabs have pot
holes and spalling of concrete.
2.2
Distress in Bearings
It is known that bearings transmitted the load from

super structure to the substructure and ensure that
the bearing stresses induced in the substructure
are within permissible limits. In addition, bearings
allow longitudinal and vertical movements from
girder to accommodate temperature variations and
sinking of supports. Also, it permits rotations due to
deflection of girder. When the bearings are becoming
non functional, it leads to various other types of
distresses. Distress of bearings consists of tilting
and shifting from its original position, and toppling.
Atul kumar et al. (2011) reported the rehabilitation
and replacement of bearings for Balaram Bridge in

Gujarat. It was constructed and opened to traffic in
1966 and shown distress after 43 years. The bridge
consists of RC T-beam girder comprises of 8 spans of
19.8 m, supported on RCC pier. The super structure
rested on metallic rocker and roller bearing. While
foundation and substructure are in good condition, the
superstructure was in severely distressed condition.
They also reported that bearings were severely
damaged such that roller bearing was tilted from its
original position and some places the bearing was
shifted from its original location. Bearings also were
toppled. So, the bearings are non-functional.
2.3
Reasons for Distress
Distress mainly occurs in superstructure of a bridge

such as girder, deck slab, cross girder, expansion
joints, bearing, and other components pertaining to
various types of bridges. Secondly distress occurs in
foundation of bridges across rivers and other water
resources. They are discussed in the following sections.
There are number of reasons for distress of a bridge.
They can be easily divided into two stages, namely,
i) construction of a bridge and ii) life of a bridge after
construction. The distress starts from the starting of
construction of a bridge. Although there are so many
men made mistakes at the construction stage, the main
mistakes account with lack of quality control during
construction, poor detailing of reinforcement and lack
of cover to the reinforcement. The second stage, which
is life of a bridge after construction is the important
stage, in which the role of users and the maintenance
engineers comes into picture. All the mistakes which
were done during construction stage expose only in
the second stage. This could be first of all noticed only
by routine maintenance. The major problem to all the
existing bridges is the lack of routine inspection and
maintenance. It is important to note that a distress
can be rectified only if it is noticed well in time. The
statistics and reports regarding distressed bridges
uniformly reveal that distress grow only because of
lack of timely noticing and repairing.
Unexpected loading of a bridge causes larger stresses
and strains in bridge components. These disturb the
overall load distribution system of the bridge and
45
TECHNICAL PAPERS
therefore the integrity of the bridge becomes highly
disturbed.
Distress in foundation happens only in river bridges
due to erosion and scouring. Mining of river near
foundation exposed the open foundation. In some
cases massive uncontrolled quarrying creates large
excavated trenches in downstream side of bridges.
This further leads to heavy scouring in the bed of
the river, which finally result in exposing of open
foundation and settlement of pier. Sheoran R.R and
Singla B.S. (2010) reported that Bridge over Markanda
River on SH-4 in District Ambala (Haryana), Bridge
on Trilokpur-Khetpurali Road in Panchkula district
(Haryana) and Bridge over Jhajjra River in Panchkula
dist (Haryana) were failed due to distress in foundation.
Also they suggested that only a bridge with deep
foundation is safe rather than open well foundation to
prevent damage from mining, scouring, exposing of
foundation and settlement of pier.
3
SOLUTIONS
3.1 Bridge Management System

This consists of a mechanism, which deal with
inspection, repair for maintenance, evaluation of the
bridge adequacy, strengthening and rehabilitation
and replacement or reconstruction of bridges.
Presently, the inspection and maintenance of bridges
are depending on the engineers-in charge of the
department concerned. However, it is reported from
various literature that these formal inspection and
maintenance do not fulfill the objectives and very
often lead to distress in a higher degree. The bridge
management system insists specific procedure for
inspection, maintenance, prioritization of distressed
bridges and suitable strengthening. Data for bridge
are collected in two forms such as Simplified Bridge
Inventory Form and Inspection Proforma, which are
given as appendix-3 and appendix-4 in IRC:SP:35.
The guide lines for inspection and maintenance of
Bridges may be followed for Bridge Management
System as per IRC:SP:35. IRC:SP:9 may be followed
for rating of bridges. The distressed bridges could be
prioritized or ranking on the basis of their performance,
46
available from the data set. If a bridge is assessed that

it cannot be restored either by strengthening or repair
measures, then the bridge would be replaced with a
new construction of bridge. As a whole, the Bridge
Management System facilitates a bridge engineer
to carry out a professional way of inspection and
maintenance and therefore it needs to be implemented
in India at the earliest.
3.2
Solution for Repairing
If the bearings are dislocated or toppled, replacing the

damaged bearings with new bearings is probably the
solution. Normally, placing new bearings are done by
lifting superstructure using hydraulic jacks.
As far as superstructure is concerned local damages
like cracks, spalling and nicks could be repaired using
known techniques such as grouting, filling cracks
through injection of grouting, additional reinforcement,
etc. These local repairs are applicable for bridge
components other than the Girders. However, the only
solution for repairing girders is strengthening using
strengthening techniques and restoring the flexural
load carrying capacity. In olden days plate bonding
technique were being used to increase the section and
moment of inertia and hence improving the stiffness
of the member. However, the deflection recovery was
not possible in plate bonding technique. In the same
way, strengthening is being done using FRP plating
techniques. Although the FRP plating technique is a
popular technique and it is efficient in improving the
behavior, it cannot recover deflection of an already
deflected member. However, deflection is being
recovered by means of jacking at first and then the
technique is being applied. External prestressing
is one of the prime techniques for strengthening,
which has all advantages regarding strengthening
including deflection recovery. In fact, deflection
recovery is the greatest advantage of the technique,
which is not available in any other technique. In
India, it was used for strengthening existing bridges
namely, Sharavathi Bridge, Nizzamuddin Bridge,
Thane Creek Bridge and Zuari Bridge. However,
it is reported from various countries that there was
TECHNICAL PAPERS
sign of distress even after strengthening using this
technique in some cases. Therefore, it is imperative
to study the behavior of strengthened member after
strengthening. An experimental investigation to study
the post-strengthening behavior of concrete members
strengthened by external prestressing is explained in
the following section.
3.3
Strengthening of RC Beams by External

Prestressing
It is well known that three types of tendon profiles are

possible in case of concrete members strengthened by
external prestressing, such as single-draped tendon,
straight tendon and trapezoidal tendon profiles. Out of
the three, trapezoidal tendon profile performs better
than other two, which can be understood from earlier
investigations [Thiru Aravinthan (2005), Ghallab
and Beeby (2002) and Aparicio (1996)]. Trapezoidal
tendon accommodates two deviators at the flexural
zone of the members, which resulted in improving
flexural and shear behaviours. Also it is reported that
stress in three segments of the trapezoidal tendon
profile vary each other and this turned into considerable
loss of prestress. This requires detailed investigation
at the time of strengthening process. In addition, it is
necessary to observe the influence of strengthening on
untensioned steel, friction at deviators, and recovery
of deflection while strengthening. Secondly, in
concrete members prestressed with unbonded posttensioning tendons, the stress-increase in unbonded
tendons happened after yielding of untensioned steel
and went up to the concrete crushing in the extreme
compressive fiber of the member. This phenomenon
leads to the presence of plastic hinge in internal
post-tensioned members, which were observed and
reported by researchers [Manisekar and Senthil
(2006), and Harajli (2006)]. In case of precracked
RC or prestressed concrete beams strengthened
by external prestressing, it could be observed that
failure of the member occurs immediately after the
yielding of untensioned steel and therefore, there is
only a little presence of plastic hinge [Harajli (1993),
Ghallab and Beeby (2002), and Elrefai et al.(2008)].
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the presence
of plastic hinge in concrete members strengthened by

trapezoidal profile of external tendons. In view of this,
an experimental investigation was carried out to study
the parameters listed above.
Rectangular RC beams have been tested before and
after strengthening by external prestressing. RC
beams of section size 150 mm x 275 mm with 4 m
length by monotonically increased static two-point
load at flexural zone and the crack was induced to a
limit in which strain in reinforcing steel was around
85% of the yield strain. Strengthening by external
prestressing using trapezoidal tendons was done while
the member was subjected to superimposed dead load
of a bridge girder, equivalent to 25% of the calculated
ultimate load of the specimen. Strengthened members
were tested by monotonically increased two-point
load. It was observed that ultimate flexural capacity
of the beam is increased by 59%. Around 10% of loss
was observed due to the friction between tendon and
deviators.
3.3.1 Testing of RC Beams Strengthened by

External Prestressing using Trapezoidal

Tendons
Specimens EPS B7 and EPS B9 were used for
strengthening with trapezoidal tendons. Tensile
reinforcement of 2-12 mm dia and prestressing steel
wire consists of 2-7 mm dia were provided. 2-8 mm
dia and 2-8 mm dia + 1-10 mm dia were provided as
compression reinforcement for specimens EPS B7 and
EPS-B9 respectively. The members were subjected
to two point monotonic loading using MTS system.
In first stage the beam was cracked by applying load
up to the maximum strain in steel obtained (limited
to around 85% of the yield strain), shown in Fig. 1.
In second stage the load was released up to 9.5 kN
which would simulate the dead weight of a bridge
girder. Strengthening was done by using external
prestressing with trapezoidal tendons, which is shown
in Fig. 2 while keeping the load of 9.5 kN. In third
stage, strengthened members were tested immediately
two point monotonic loading till failure, shown in
Fig. 3.
47
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 1 Test Arrangement for First Stage of Loading

(Pre-Strengthening)
The corresponding loadings were 38 kN and

21.1 kN for specimens EPS B7 and EPS B9
respectively and deflection were observed as
18.13 mm and 6.7 mm for specimens EPS B7 and EPS
B9 respectively. It was observed that the maximum
strain in reinforcing steel occurred under the two point
load. Strain readings observed throughout the length
of beam at 150 mm spacing were compared and then
the location of the maximum strain was identified.
Similarly the maximum deflection was also observed
under the same location at where the maximum strain
in reinforcing steel was observed. This observation
has replaced the earlier mindset that the maximum
bending and maximum deflection generally occur
at the mid span. At this stage there were around
12 cracks developed. Load-strain in reinforcing steel
is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 for specimens EPS B7 and
EPS B9 respectively. Similarly, Load-concrete strain
in extreme compressive fibre is shown in Figs. 6 and
7 for specimens EPS B7 and EPS B9 respectively.
Fig. 2 Strengthening by External Prestressing using

Trapezoidal Tendons
Fig. 4 Load-Strain in Reinforcing Steel for EPS B7 at

Pre-Strengthening Stage
Fig. 3 Test Arrangement of the Strengthened Beam
3.3.2 Pre-Strengthening Stage

Crack was induced in the beam such that the strain
in reinforcing steel was 2030 and 1850 micro strain
for specimens EPS B7 and EPS B9 respectively.
48
Fig. 5 Load-Strain in Reinforcing Steel for EPS B9 at

TECHNICAL PAPERS
60% and 86% of deflection recovered due to external
prestressing for EPS B7 and EPS B9. This is the
greatest advantage of the external prestressing when
it is applied for strengthening a distressed concrete
beam.
Fig. 6 Load-Concrete Strain for EPS B7 at

Fig. 8 Deflection Recovery Due to Strengthening

for EPS B7 and EPS B9
Fig. 7 Load-Concrete Strain for EPS B9 at

3.3.3 Strengthening by External Prestressing

In the next stage, strengthening was carried out by
applying external prestressing. Load was released
up to 9.5 kN in the pre-strengthening stage and the
same load was retained in the jack, so that the load
could simulate the dead weight of a bridge girder (as
a practical case). Prestressing was done by locking at
one end and pulling by another end. Strengthening
was performed while keeping the beam subjected to
9.5 kN. The effective prestress of 756 MPa and 582
MPa were given for specimens EPS B7 and EPS
B9 respectively, while keeping the load (9.5 kN) as
constant. The displacement mode of the MTS was
released. This provision has allowed the beam to
recover the deflection due to external prestressing,
while the load of 9.5 kN acts constantly. Accordingly
deflection of specimens was recovered from 8.87 mm
to 3.52 mm and 4.3 mm to 0.61 mm for specimens EPS
B7 and EPS B9 are shown in Fig. 8. It is observed that
Trapezoidal tendon profile system was used for

external prestressing. Two deviators were provided in
the flexural zone of the specimen and therefore tendons
were divided into three segments. Accordingly, there
were variations in stress level of tendon rather than
constant. Instrumentation was done in each segment
by using 5 mm electrical strain gauges. It was
visualised from the monitor that strain readings also
varied in three segments. This may be the reason that
prestressing was done by puling at one end by locking
other end. This has attributed to the loss of prestress
due to friction at deviators. It is calculated as around
10%. However, it can be presumed that applying
prestress at both the ends may reduce the variation in
stresses in segments of tendons. Also, applying grease
at both the sides of the deviators could minimize the
loss of prestress due to friction at deviators. As a
whole, the trapezoidal tendon profile performed well
in recovering the deflection, since two deviators are
fixed in the flexural zone.
3.3.4 Post-strengthening behaviour up to ultimate

state
Post- strengthening stage consists of applying load on
the strengthened beam till failure and examining the
behavior.
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Loading was started immediately after completing
the external prestressing process. The load started
from 9.5 kN, as this was the load retained and
applied external prestressing. Maximum strain in
reinforcing steel has occurred in the same location
in which the maximum strain occurred in the prestrengthening stage. Concrete crushing also occur in
the same location. The location was one of the two
point loads. At first, the old crack has opened and then
new cracks were developed. It was observed that the
stiffness of the beam is increased due to the effect of
external prestressing. The maximum load went up to
78 kN and 81 kN for specimens EPS B7 and EPS B9
respectively before they fail due to concrete crushing
in the extreme compressive fibre. The Load-deflection
behaviour at before and after strengthening is plotted
and shown in Figs. 9 and 10 for specimens EPS B7
and EPS B9 respectively. Strengthening by trapezoidal
tendon profile of external prestressing has increased
the ultimate flexural load carrying capacity by 53%
and 59% for EPS B7 and EPS B9 respectively.
Fig. 9 Load-Deflection Behaviour at before and after

Strengthening for EPS B7
Fig. 10 Load-Deflection Behaviour at before and after

Strengthening for EPS B9
50
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Poor quality of construction and supervision

cause many types of distresses such as cracks
in girder, separation of cross girder from
longitudinal girders, corrosion in concrete and
infiltration up to prestressing strands, lack of
cover to the reinforcement, spalling of concrete,
improper expansion joints, tilting and shifting
of bearings etc. Therefore, special care needs
to be taken for quality of construction and
supervision.
2.
Lack of maintenance and routine inspection is

the main cause for distress of existing bridges.
Since the distresses at beginning level are
unnoticed/undetected, many at times they
became vulnerable to an extent of massive
damages to the bridge components. Moreover,
this facilitates for intensive quarrying in river
bed at bridge locations, which resulted in erosion
and settlement of foundation. Finally they led
to failure of bridges. Therefore, maintenance
and inspection wings need to be strengthened
in such a way that they follow the procedure of
Bridge Management System.
3.
As the Bridge Management System is

recognised widely as the efficient mechanism
for inspection and maintenance of existing
bridges, it needs to be implemented throughout
the country at the earliest.
4.
External prestressing is a powerful technique

for strengthening of existing bridges.
Strengthening by external prestressing has
increased the ultimate flexural load carrying
capacity by 59%. However, concrete should be
good enough to receive the prestressing force.
5.
Trapezoidal tendon profile performed better in

recovering deflection than single-draped and
straight tendon profiles, since two deviators are
fixed in the flexural zone.
6.
Loss of prestress due to friction at deviators

was observed as 10%. Therefore, this needs to
be accounted in the design of prestressing force
for strengthening scheme.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
7.
Deflection recovery is the greatest advantage of

external prestressing technique. It was observed as
maximum of 86% even when superimposed dead
weight of a bridge was acting on the member.
5.
ACNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author is grateful to the Director, CSIR-SERC for

encouraging this research. He is much grateful to
Shri R. Ravichandran, Senior Principal Scientist and
Dr. K.N. Lakshmikandhan Scientist for their technical
suggestions and assistance in the investigation. Also,
he is grateful to Shri. V. Marimuthu Scientist and
Shri. M. Saravanan, Scientist of SSL Group of CSIRSERC for their helps in operating data logger system.
This paper is being published with the kind permission
of the Director, CSIR-SERC, Chennai.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Aparicio A.C, Ramos G (1996). Flexural Strength of

Externally Prestressed Concrete Bridges, ACI Structural.
Journal, 93(5) 512523.
Aravinthan T, Witchukreangkrai E and Mutsuyoshi H
(2005) Flexural Behaviour of Two-Span Continuous
Prestressed Concrete Girders with Highly Eccentric
External Tendons, ACI Structural Journal, 102(3)
402-411.
Atul Kumar, Goyal J.K., Devesh Tiwari and Shankh Das
(2011), Rehabilitation & Replacement of Bearings of
Balaram Bridge on NH-14 of East-West Corridor, Indian
Highways, Vol.39, No.4, April, pp.39-46.
Elrefai A, West J, Soudki K. (2008) Effect of Overloading
on Fatigue Performance of Reinforced Concrete-Beams
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13.
14.
Strengthened with Externally Post-Tensioned CarbonFibre-Reinforced Polymer Tendons, Canadian Journal of

Civil Engineering, 35 1294-1307.
Ghallab A, Beeby AW. (2002) Ultimate Strength of
Externally Strengthened Prestressed Beams, Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and
Buildings, 152(4) 395-406.
Harajli MH. (1993) Strengthening of Concrete Beams by
External Prestressing, PCI J., 38(6) 7688.
Harajli MH (2006). On the Stress in Unbonded Tendons
at Ultimate: Critical Assessment and Proposed Changes,
ACI Structural Journal, 103(6) 803812.
IRC:SP:35-1990 Guidelines for Inspection and
Maintenance of Bridges.
IRC:SP:18-1978 Manual of Highway Bridge Maintenance
Inspection.
IRC:SP:9-1972 Rating of Bridges.
Manisekar R, Senthil R. (2006) Stress at Ultimate in
Unbonded Post-Tensioning Tendons for Simply Supported
Beams: A State-of-the-Art-Review, Advances in Structural
Engineering, Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd, 9 (3)
321-335.
Mohamed Ali M.S. and Oehlers D.J. (2001),
Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Bridges by
External Plates, Journal of Indian Roads Congress,
vol. 62, pp. 235-258.
Sheoran R.R and Singla B.S (2010), Bridges in Semi
Hilly Areas- A Learning from Failures, Indian Highways,
vol.38, No.11, November, pp. 41-44.
Repair Manual for Concrete Bridge Elements,
Version 2.0, Bridge Engineering Section, Technical
Standards
Branch,
Alberta
Infrastructure
and
Transportation, October 2005.
ANNOUNCEMENT
Sales Centre of IRC Publications is being operational at Tripura State Centre, Agartala (Tripura West)
from 20th July, 2013. This is a collaboration as IRC endeavor to enhance its reach to the Engineering
Fraternity.
The esteem members of IRC in Eastern Region are requested to take advantage of this new initiative.
The contact address of Sales Centre of IRC Publications is the Institution of Engineers (India),
Tripura State Centre, Pandit Nehru Complex, Gurkhabasti, Agartala, Tripura (West), Pin- 799006,
Tel: (0381) 2304700.
OBITUARY
The Indian Roads Congress express their profound sorrow on the sad demise of Late Shri Baldeo Raj Salwan
resident of F.No.415, Type A3, Tower-6, Silver City, Purvanchal Society, Sector 93, Noida (U.P.). He was
an active member of the Indian Roads Congress.
May his soul rest in peace.
51
DEVELOPMENT OF PAY FACTORS FOR DENSE GRADED

BITUMINOUS MIXES BY RELATING CONSTRUCTION
QUALITY TO PERFORMANCE
Deepak Baskandi*, A. Veeraragavan** and Rajib B. Mallick***
Abstract
Construction quality affects the performance of pavements
significantly. A good specification should ensure that the key
properties of the materials and bituminous mixes are met
during construction, so that the pavement performs as expected.
Performance related or performance based specifications are
hence the most desirable, as they are developed relating the
measurable properties and performance of the pavements. This
study was conducted to investigate the relationship between
material properties and performance, and develop pay factors
for bituminous concrete and dense bituminous macadam mixes
that are typically used in India. Relationships were developed
between air voids, bitumen content and indirect tensile strength
of the bituminous mixes, and the properties were utilized to
estimate fatigue and rutting performance of pavements, using
the mechanistic empirical pavement design guide. Finally, using
the estimated lives and Monte Carlo simulation, two methods of
developing rational pay factors were demonstrated.
1 Background
The goal in any highway project is to construct a
pavement that is durable and performs satisfactorily
throughout its expected design life. Well-calibrated
design and good construction quality are the two most
significant factors contributing towards pavement
performance. Construction quality is a major factor
influencing the future performance of the pavements
under varying traffic loading and environmental
influences. Pavements are designed and constructed
to sustain a specified number of traffic loads. Ideally,
a pavement section that is designed with a particular
cross section for design traffic and constructed with
materials as per the specifications should perform
uniformly throughout the design life. However, road
pavements develop distresses randomly in different
sub-sections of the road length. Variability in
construction quality is one of the prime reasons for this
random development of distress. When a pavement is
not constructed to the desired specifications, it may
fail prematurely. As a result of such a premature

failure, the pavement must be rehabilitated earlier
than expected. The intention of the introduction of
performance based pay factors is to provide additional
payment as an incentive to contractors who provide
a superior quality of the finished product, higher
than the minimum desirable standards, while at the
same time penalizing sub-standard work by reduced
payments. Currently, full payment is generally made
if the quality of construction meets the minimum
standards for the quantity executed.
Material properties, smoothness and other
characteristics of the constructed pavement generally
vary somewhat from the specified design values as
construction operations are influenced by several
factors other than the assumed design factors. In
addition, the quality of the materials used for the
construction on ground may not exactly replicate the
quality of the materials considered during laboratory
testing. Such variance will affect the quality and
performance of the constructed pavement and,
therefore, will influence both the operational and
maintenance cost of the highway agency and road user
costs. Further, it is essential to establish a link between
construction parameters and the future performance
of the pavement. The bituminous layer in a pavement
is essentially made up of aggregate, binder, and air
voids. A number of past studies have used different
parameters to ascertain the variations of these three
components. These parameters include aggregate
gradation, binder content, Void in Mineral Aggregates
(VMA), Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB), air void
content, and density. The methodology developed
under the present study is an attempt to provide a
link between construction quality and performance.
Former M.Tech Student, E-mail: baskideepak@gmail.com
**
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, E-mail: av@iitm.ac.in
IIT Madras, Chennai
*** Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA,

E-mail: rajib@wpi.edu
52
TECHNICAL PAPERS
To establish a link between construction parameters
and pavement performance, it is necessary that one
understands the influence of various construction
parameters viz., both individual effect and their
interaction effects on pavement performance.
Performance based pay-factor adjustment approach is
difficult to develop, but provide complete means of
compensation for a developed product. Its purpose is
to establish a specification that would result in a better
quality product and in this, the quality characteristics
are related to the performance of the product. The
aim of performance based pay factor evaluation is
to optimize the pavement construction cost to its
performance. Considering the complexities involved
in its development which involves, establishing links
between quality characteristics (binder content, air
void content/density, layer thickness etc.), material
properties (modulus, tensile strength etc), and
performance (initiation and progression of pavement
distress), the performance based pay adjustment
approach has still not been successfully adopted in
India and hence the need for the present study.
Unlike in method related specifications or end result
specifications where, the quantity and quality of
work are well defined, in performance based pay
factor specifications, the onus of estimating the future
performance of the pavement lies with the contracting
agency. Prediction of future pavement behaviour to
reasonable accuracy based on the construction quality
achieved and quantifying the influence of those
construction and engineering properties is neither well
defined nor fully understood. Although several studies
have been carried out in other countries, there is a
need to understand the relationships between material
properties and performance as a first step towards the
development of rational pay factors for bituminous
mixes that are used in India.
2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
The objectives of this study are to:

1.
To assess the properties of dense graded

bituminous mixes that influence the
performance considering rutting and
fatigue cracking as the major pavement

distresses.

2.
To investigate the effect of deviation (in

the above identified properties) from job
mix formula that can affect, individually
and collectively, the performance
(rutting and cracking) of dense graded
bituminous mixes in the context of
construction variations through laboratory
investigations.
3.
To relate construction quality of dense

graded bituminous mixes to performance
(rutting and cracking) and suggest
development of pay factor adjustment.
The scope of work included investigations on the

properties of dense graded typical bituminous mixes
currently adopted in all major highway projects in the
country and their performance characteristics.
Methodology
The methodology adopted in the present investigation
is as follows:

1.
Investigate the effect of construction

and process control parameters such as
difference in bitumen content, air voids
content and compaction in typical dense
graded bituminous mixes on indirect
tensile strength (ITS);
2.
Estimate dynamic moduli of the mixes

using predictive model;
3.
Use mechanistic-empirical pavement

design guide to evaluate the fatigue and
rutting life for the dense graded bituminous
mixes (considering all the construction
and process control parameters mentioned
earlier) and develop predictive equations
relating fatigue and rutting life to ITS,
bitumen content, air void content and
layer thickness; 4. Conduct Monte Carlo
Simulation to evaluate the effect of change
in critical properties on performance of
pavements with the help of equations
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
derived in step 3; 5 development of pay
factor adjustments.
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
The long-term performance of a Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) pavement is significantly impacted by the
properties of the HMA mixture. Root1 observed
that many pavement failures are not caused by poor
mix design methods but are the manifestation of
poor specification control during production and
construction. Weed2 explained that pay schedules
are of two types, namely, stepped or continuous.
Weed3 stated that in order to achieve consistency,
and make performance based pay-factor adjustment
approach more effective and defensible, there is a
need for a method to relate as-built quality to expected
performance, which can then be translated into
monetary value by engineering-economic procedures.
Monismith et al.4 provided a rational and feasible
method for qualitatively establishing penalties/
bonuses for asphalt concrete construction and
described a procedure to establish pay factors for
asphalt concrete pavements. In a research carried
out by Sebaaly and Bazi5 to analyze the impact of
construction variability on pavement performance,
it was observed that construction variability
significantly affects the pavement performance
irrespective of the aggregate source and binder type.
Regardless of how well the mix design have been
prepared, the properties of the materials delivered
to the job site, such as gradation, binder content and
air voids will ultimately control the behaviour of
the pavement under the combined action of traffic
and environment. Abdallah et al.6 observed that
the methodology for development of performance
based pay factor evaluation needs to be based on
construction parameters which essentially comprise
of asphalt content, compaction, density and air voids.
The NCHRP Report 7047 is considered a true first
step to integrate asphalt mix design and pavement
structural design in the same methodology. The
methodology is based on relating the HMA dynamic
modulus, for the three major pavement distresses of
permanent deformation, fatigue cracking and thermal
54
cracking. This approach is considered the first step to

relate quality of construction to the performance of
pavement over the life of the pavement. Based on the
literature review, it can be concluded that a rational
pay factor system must be developed on the basis of
an understanding of the effect of key parameters on
the performance of pavements in India.
4 MATERIALS AND TESTING
Bituminous Concrete (BC) grading II and Dense
Bituminous Macadam (DBM) grading II were selected
to effectively represent both the wearing course and
binder course as these two mixes are widely used in
National Highway projects in India. Mid-gradations
of the aggregate composition recommended in
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH)
specifications8 were selected (Table 1). A VG 30
bituminous binder was used, with a mixing and
compaction of temperature of 160C and 150C,
respectively. Compactions were carried out with
75 blows of Marshall hammer. Samples with a range
of bitumen contents as well as air voids (by varying
compaction effort) were compacted for testing of
volumetric properties such as air voids, Voids in
Mineral Aggregate (VMA) and Voids Filled with
Bitumen (VFB, also referred to as VFA (asphalt) in
this paper) as well as Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) at
25C. Indirect tensile strength test was selected since
it has been shown to be a rational and practical test
procedure, and could be conducted using relatively
simple testing equipment generally available in
laboratories that conduct usual Marshall stability tests.
Prior to ITS testing, the specimens were conditioned
as per ASTM D6931-12. The specimen was taken out
from air bath, and tested immediately at a deformation
rate of 50 mm/min. IDT strength was calculated as
2000 P

St =
tD
Where,

S t
= IDT strength, kPa; P = maximum

load, N;
= specimen height immediately before

test, mm;
= specimen diameter, mm
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Aggregate Mid-Gradation for BC
Grading II and DBM II
IS Sieve Size
(mm)
Where;

|E*| = dynamic modulus, psi
BC II (Binder
Content = 5%)
DBM II (Binder
Content = 4.5%)
|G*| binder = binder dynamic modulus, psi
37.5
---
100
VMA = voids in the mineral aggregate, %
26.5
---
95
VFA = voids filled with asphalt, %
19
100
83
13.2
90
68
Pc
9.5
79
---
4.75
62
46
2.36
50
35
1.18
41
---
0.6
32
---
0.3
23
14
0.15
16
---
0.075
7.0
5.0
The dynamic moduli of the samples were computed

using the Hirsch model9, which is based on the
theory of composite material which combines series
and parallel elements of the phases. It is considered
relatively simpler than Witczak model10, 11 and relates
the dynamic modulus of the bituminous concrete
(|E*|) with binder modulus (G*), Voids in the Mineral
Aggregate (VMA), and Voids Filled with Asphalt
(VFA)9.

|E*| =

Pc

Pc [4,200,000 (1-VMA/100) +
3|G*|binder x {(VFA x VMA)/10,000}+
(1-Pc) x [(1-VMA/100)/4,200,000}
+ (VMA/VFA x 3|G*|) ]-1
[20 + VFA x 3|G*|binder/ VMA]0.58

=
650 + [(VFA x 3|G*|binder)/VMA]0.58
= aggregate contact factor
In these equations, the binder modulus can be

determined experimentally using the Dynamic Shear
Rheometer (DSR) or can be estimated through
mathematical models. The binder modulus should be
computed at the same temperature and loading time, as
that selected for the mixture modulus and in consistent
units11. If facilities are available, the dynamic modulus
values can be determined experimentally. If the
experimental facilities are not available, the above
empirical equation may be used.
5
TEST DATA
The data obtained during the study consisted of three

primary sets: 1. Bitumen test data; 2. Mix test data,
and 3. Data obtained through analysis of pavement
sections with the help of the Mechanistic Empirical
Pavement Design Software/Guide (MEPDS/G). The
test results pertaining to bitumen (VG 30) are shown
in Table 2. Note that the bitumen was also tested
with the dynamic shear rheometer for the complex
modulus data that were later utilized for predicting
dynamic modulus of the mixes. Tables 3 and 4 show
the summary of the mix test data.
Table 2 Conventional Bitumen Test Results
Test
Units
Aging Condition
Recommended Value
as per IS:73-2006
Result
Penetration
dm
Unaged
50-70
70.5
Softening Point
Unaged
47 (minimum)
49
Absolute Viscosity
Poise
Unaged
2400 (minimum)
2660.1
Kinematic Viscosity
cSt
Unaged
350 (minimum)
473.2
Centi Poise
Short Term Aged
Viscosity (Using Rotational

Viscometer)
Specific gravity
Unaged
544.44
0.99 (minimum)
1.051
55
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 3 Result of Test Performed on BC Grading II and DBM Grading II
Binder
Content
%
BC II
Air Voids of Laboratory
Compacted Samples %
(Range)
Average
ITS (kPa)
Coeff. of
Variation
CV, %
Binder
Content
%
DBM II
Air Voids of Laboratory
Compacted Samples %
(Range)
4.3
4.5
5.97 0.27
1206.44
2.72
3.8
4.69 0.29
1078.24
2.96
5.89 0.69
11.47.09
4.19
4.0
4.26 0.15
1107.77
2.15
4.7
5.0
4.52 0.85
1162.76
2.60
4.2
3.66 0.36
897.76
1.03
4.12 0.81
1075.77
1.44
4.5
3.25 0.08
897.77
8.40
5.3
3.16 0.19
1045.00
3.99
4.8
2.40 0.06
814.91
4.56
Average
ITS (kPa)
Coeff. of
Variation,
%
Table 4 Estimated Dynamic Modulus Values of BC-II and DBM-II Mixes

Binder Content %
BC-II
Air Void %
Dynamic Modulus
Binder Content %
DBM-II
Air Void %
(MPa)
At 45C
(MPa)
At 45C
4.5
5.0
1760
4.0
3.0
2283
4.5
5.2
1732
4.0
4.1
1965
4.7
3.4
2139
4.2
3.0
2212
4.7
3.7
2072
4.2
4.0
1952
5.0
3.6
1965
4.5
2.6
2245
5.0
4.4
1852
4.5
3.2
2080
5.3
2.1
2365
4.8
2.7
2144
5.3
2.5
2270
4.8
2.8
2120
Use of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design

Guide
The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
(MEPDG,12) provides a tool for the design and
analysis of new and rehabilitated pavement structures,
based on mechanistic-empirical principles. For given
pavement structure, material properties, environmental
conditions, and traffic loading characteristics, the
structural responses such as stresses, strains, and
deflections are mechanistically calculated using multi
layer elastic theory. Thermal and moisture distributions
are also mechanistically determined using an Enhanced
Integrated Climate Model. These responses are then
used as inputs to empirical models for predicting
pavement performance in terms of distresses such as
cracking, rutting, faulting, and smoothness. As the
requirement of this study was focused on estimating
the influence of construction parameters on bituminous
layer as well as on overall pavement performance, in
particular, its fatigue and rutting distress (initiation
56
Dynamic Modulus
and progression), the DARW in-ME v.1.0 (software

of MEPDG) was selected as a design tool. It provides
a direct linkage between construction variables and
pavement performance. The parameters utilized in the
use of MEPDG for this study are shown in Table 5.
The summary of data obtained from MEPDG analyses
are shown in Tables 6 and 7. Note that the pavement
age or cumulative traffic means that the pavement
will last upto that age or traffic without any major
rehabilitation for the structural strength; however,
it will require maintenance treatment that are nonstructure related. Also note that the range of air voids
was selected arbitrarily to demonstrate its effect on the
performance and these ranges are different from what
were obtained for laboratory compacted samples. The
air voids are indicated as as constructed to mean
that the model pavement in the MEPDG was assumed
to have that initial air void content. The pavement
structure was selected for 30 msa according to IRC;
however, since the analysis was done according to
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the MEPDG (whose models are different from those
used by the IRC) the number of repetitions to failure
(traffic) that is predicted by the MEPDG may not
match exactly with 30 msa. Hence, the absolute values

of the results (Nf and Nr in Tables 6 and 7) should not
be considered to validate IRC design.
Table 5 Design parameters

Parameter
Type/Data
Pavement type
New, Flexible
Pavement Structure
Based on IRC:37-2012; for 30 msa and subgrade CBR 10 percent; 250 mm thick Wet Mix
Macadam (WMM) base and another 200 mm of Granular Sub-Base (GSB).
Critical pavement
distresses
AC bottom-up fatigue cracking of 20 percent; Permanent deformation (AC layer only) of 10 mm;
Other distresses criteria have been taken as per default values provided in DARWin-ME. The
reliability limit has been set at 90 percent.
Terminal IRI limit
4 m/km
Traffic
29 msa of cumulative heavy trucks for a design life of 20 years
Climate
Miami Airfield, Florida, USA (equivalent location in US)

Table 6 Summary of Pavement Performance of BC-II Mixture (Estimated Using MEPDG)
Bitumen (%
Air Void
Measured Cumulative Number Pavement Cumulative Number Pavement
by Weight of
% (as
ITS (kPa) of Heavy Trucks to Age (Years) of Heavy Trucks to Age (Years)
Total Mix) Constructed)
Fatigue Cracking (Nf)
(Range) 10 mm Rut Depth (Nr) (Range)
4.3
5.67-6.63
1194-1251
1.91E+062.77E+06
2.00-2.83
1.04E+071.10E+07
9.08-9.50
4.5
5.42-6.69
1111-1201
1.91E+063.86E+06
3.67-3.83
9.39E+061.08E+07
9.33-9.42
4.7
4.10-7.70
1130-1199
6.69E+061.14E+07
6.25-9.75
1.04E+071.07E+07
9.17
5.0
3.17-5.10
1060-1094
7.42E+062.62E+07
10.25-18.67
9.84E+061.08E+07
8.67-9.33
5.3
2.95-3.31
1011-1031
2.73E+073.38E+07
1925-22.42
9.84E+061.01E+07
8.67-8.83
Table 7 Summary of Pavement Performance of DBM-II Mixture (Estimated Using MEPDG)

Bitumen (%
Air Void
Measured Cumulative Number Pavement Cumulative Number Pavement
by Weight of
% (as
ITS (kPa) of Heavy Trucks to Age (Years) of Heavy Trucks to Age (Years)
(Range) 10 mm Rut Depth (Nr) (Range)
Total Mix) Constructed)
Fatigue Cracking (Nf)
3.8
4.36-4.91
1042-1103
3.77E+065.58E+06
3.75-5.33
8.18E+068.39E+06
7.42-7.58
4.0
4.16-4.37
1090-1125
6.28E+067.42E+06
5.92-6.83
8.18E+06
7.42
4.2
3.37-4.06
887-905
9.62E+061.55E+07
8.50-12.50
7.42E+067.85E+06
6.83-7.14
4.5
3.16-3.31
832-980
2.02E+072.18E+07
15.25-16.25
7.21E+06
6.67
7.8
2.36-2.47
788-857
4.34E+074.72E+07
26.75-28.33
7.11E+06
6.58
57
TECHNICAL PAPERS
6
ANALYSIS
6.1 Effect of Air Voids and Bitumen Content on

Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS)
Treating bitumen content and air void content as
categorical variables having two levels, analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was employed to establish the
significance of both on the main effects and twofactor interactions on the single dependent variable,
viz., ITS values. ANOVA results indicated that air
void content and bitumen content influence the ITS
results significantly, both individually as well as
through their interaction. The results of tests from
BC-II and DBM-II mixes (conducted at 25C) are
shown in Figure 1. The regression equations that were
developed for these two mixes are shown below as
equations 1 and 2. Note that the use of the VFA values
in the case of DBM-II mix was found to increase the
R2 value of the regression equation appreciably and
hence was included.
For BC-II mixes:
ITS(kPa) = 2272.9 17.7 * AV 90.2Pb
Eq. (1)
For DBM-II mixes:

ITS(kPa) = 3281.1 424.7 * AV + 353.7 *
Pb 73.7 * VFA
Eq. (2)
Where,

ITS = indirect tensile strength, kPa
AV = air void content, percentage
P b
VFA = Voids Filled with Asphalt (bitumen)
= binder content, percentage
6.2 Material Properties and Performance

The repetitions to failure for both fatigue (Nf) and
rutting (Nr) criteria were evaluated separately for
the different mixes, and regression equations were
developed relating Nf and Nr to the significantly
affecting properties. Separation of the regression
equations into two categories, with respect to below
optimum and above optimum bitumen content was
found to be beneficial in improving the regression
coefficients and hence the strength of the regressions.
All of the regression equations are summarized in
Table 8. Note that the relevant factors, air voids and
bitumen content, and thickness are relatively easily
58
measurable, and ITS value has been treated as a

parameter that could be determined from air voids and
bitumen content (as discussed earlier).
6.3 Monte Carlo Analysis
Considering the fact that the properties are expected
to vary about mean values, a number of important
questions need to be answered to gain a clear
insight into quality control and develop appropriate
specifications:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Which factor has the most pronounced

effect, and to what extent?
What will be the combined effect?
What will be the effect of deviation from
the target mean for each property?
How can the as constructed data be
utilized to determine the quality of a job,
or, how to use the ascertained quality to
determine pay factors?
The answers to these questions can be obtained

through probabilistic analysis, whereby a large
number of samples of the different properties can
be taken consecutively and the distribution of the
calculated N values could be obtained. The reasons for
selecting a probabilistic approach are: 1. Variations in
materials and mix properties are expected and cannot
be avoided; 2. If we consider a single mean value for
each property, the values will be best guesses and
may not be appropriate; 3. The resulting values from
the models will exclude the probabilities of risk, and
hence will not help in the decision making process;
4. The exclusion of uncertainty and risk generates
unproductive debate and encourages division
among stakeholders13.
The tool of choice for such probabilistic analysis is
the Monte Carlo analysis technique14. This technique
generates a value of the dependent variable, based on
a random selection of data from the input variables,
which are prescribed by the user as a normally (or some
other type) distributed variable(s). The simulation
continues until all the requested samples (for example
1,000 simulations) have been conducted, and finally,
reports the expected distribution of the dependent
variable. The benefit is that the resulting distribution
shows the range of numbers that we can expect for
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the dependent variable and higher the number of
simulations, better is the prediction.
The mean and standard deviation values of the
variables considered in these analyses are indicated in
Table 9. Examples of results of simulation (Number
of simulation in each case was 10,000, conducted
with MATLAB, Statistics Toolbox15) are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 (for Nf and Nr, respectively). For brevity,
the results for BC-II mixes are shown only. First,
the results of simulation that were carried out for

fatigue life (Nf), with acceptable means and standard
deviations of the parameters are shown in Fig. 2 (a),
along with a fitted normal distribution (Fig. 2(b). In
the same figure, examples of results of simulation
with lower than optimum bitumen contents, lower
than specified thickness and higher than specified air
voids are shown. Similar data are presented in Fig. 3
for rutting life. Nr.
Table 8 Table of Equations

Mix
Property/
Performance
BC-II Indirect Tensile
Mixture Strength (ITS)
Fatigue
Equation
Condition
ITS = 2272.9-17.7* AV -90.2*Pb

ITs = indirect tensile strength, kPA
AV = air void content, percentage
Pb = binder content, percentage
Nf = 3.162E7-3699.621*ITS-5.125*AV-1.237*Pb+129655.333*Tk
Nf = 16.930-0.0011*ITS-3.976*AV-0.424*Pb+0.1056*Tk
Nr = 9.961E6+136.229*ITS-230433.35*AV313956.075*Pb+11128.533*Tk
Nr = 9.164+1.307E(-4)*ITS-0.196*AV-0.262*Pb+0.008*Tk
Rutting
DBM-II Indirect Tensile

Mixture Strength (ITS)
Fatigue
Rutting
ITS = 3281.1-424.7* AV+353.7*Pb-73.7*VFA

Nf = -2.881E8+91260.45*ITS9.452E6*AV+1.852E7*Pb+484823.14*Tk
Nf = -117.730+0.033*ITS-5.440*AV+8.291*Pb+0.260*Tk
Nr = 1.457E7+2261.613*ITS-5.965E5*AV-8.293E5*Pb+12244.1*Tk
Nr = 12.517+0.0017*ITS-0.446*AV-0.653*Pb+0.0095Tk
Note :
---
Lower than optimum

binder content
Higher than optimum
binder content
Lower than optimum
binder content
Higher than optimum
binder content
--Lower than optimum
binder content
Higher than optimum
binder content
Lower than optimum
binder content
Higher than optimum
binder content
Tk thickness of the bituminous layer in mm
Table 9 List of Variables (from Relevant IRC/MORTH Specifications; 8% has been

Assumed to be the as Constructed Void Content)
Mix
BC-II
DBM-II
Note :
Variable
Air Voids (AV)
Bitumen Content (Pb)
Thickness (Tk)
Air Voids (AV)
Bitumen Content (Pb)
Thickness (Tk)
Voids filled with Asphalt (VFA)
Mean
8%
5.4%
40 mm
8%
4.5%
75 mm
40%
Standard Deviation
0.5%
0.1%
3 mm
0.5%
0.1%
3 mm
2%
Where not available, standard deviations have been calculated from specified ranges
59
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 1 Indirect Strength Test (ITS) Results from BC-II (Top) and DBM-II (Bottom) Mixes at 25C; AV Air Voids
(a) Nf for Specified mean and Standard Deviations; (b) Fitted Normal Distribution: Mean = 30,722,458; Standard Deviation: 393,881
(c) Nf for BC = 4%; Mean = 30,263,359 (d) Nf for Air Voids = 12%; Mean = 30,982,811
(e) Nf for Th = 30 mm; Mean = 29,424,521 (f) Nf for Th = 50 mm; Mean = 32,010,040
Fig. 2 Examples of Results of Monte Carlo Simulation Effect of Lower than Optimum Bitumen Content and Thickness,
and Higher Air Voids on Fatigue Life, Nf
60
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(a) Nr for Specified Means and Standard Deviations; (b) Fitted Normal Distribution; Mean = 7,091,460; Standard Deviation = 126,083
(c) Nr for Bitumen Content = 4%; Mean = 7,548,096 (d) Nr for Air Voids = 12%; Mean = 6,158,046
(e) Nr for Thickness = 30 mm; Mean = 6,980,006 (f) Nr or Thickness = 50 mm; Mean = 7,199,567
Fig. 3 Examples of Results of Monte Carlo Simulation Effect of Lower than Optimum Bitumen Content and
Thickness, and Higher Air Voids on Rutting Life, Nr
61
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The decrease in Nf with a decrease in bitumen content
is clearly visible from the reduced mean values
(standard deviations have been considered to be the
same as the specified values). The effects of variations
in the means of the different parameters from the
respective specified means are also visible. However,
in many cases (as discussed in the next section), the
difference between the mean value of the distribution
of Nf or Nr that could be carried by the constructed
pavement, and the mean value of the distribution of
Nf or Nr that would have resulted if the construction
was done exactly according to specification may not
be significant, considering the variability (standard
deviation). This underlines the importance of using
appropriate standard deviations as well as confidence
limits for the development of quality control measures.
Furthermore, depending on the models, a decrease in
the same parameter can cause a decrease in fatigue
life and increase in rutting life for example, see
the effect of bitumen content (negative for fatigue
life and positive for rutting life). This has important
implication for the selection of the appropriate pay
factor, as discussed later.
6.4 Pay factors
6.4.1 Option 1: Based on Predicted Life from

Performance
Equations
(Deterministic

Approach)
The methodology of performance based pay adjustment
factors is developed, based up on the reduction/
improvement in fatigue and rutting performance.
The performance measure of the mix, and thus, of
the pavement is computed as the ratio of actual life
observed (till limiting distress) to the expected life.

PM =
Critical Pavement life

Expected life
Where,

PM = performance measure
ritical Pavement life = pavement age from

C
construction till first rehabilitation cycle
(advanced/delayed than initially proposed, due
to construction variability), age in years (for
specified traffic and growth rate)
62
Expected life = time since construction till

expected/specified first rehabilitation cycle, age
in years (for specified traffic and growth rate)
Cost shall be estimated by considering the expenditure/

savings incurred by the agency due to reduction/
advance in time to first rehabilitation cycle. It is
recommended that annual inflation of rehabilitation
costs and a discount rate representing the time value
of money should be included while estimating future
rehabilitation cost. The final pay factor shall be based
on the life associated considering both the fatigue and
rutting distress criteria. Further, it is proposed that
a full penalty be imposed or the work to be rejected
for inferior construction whereas, an upper limit of
5 percent can be awarded as the bonus for the good
quality work.
In the previous section, the performance models based
on these parameters and the critical values of air voids
and binder content influencing pavement performance
have already been discussed in detail. Tables 10 and
11 show examples of the influence of variation in these
parameters on the overall pavement life (expressed in
years in terms of critical pavement distress) for limited
BC-II and DBM-II mixes respectively and lists out
the ratio of estimated critical pavement life/expected
pavement life, which serves as the basis for pay factor
allocation. Critical pavement life refers to the least
pavement age when it fails/develops limiting distress
either in terms of fatigue cracking or permanent
deformation (whichever happens earlier). Here,
estimated critical life refers to the critical pavement
life estimated using performance models.
Thus, ratio of estimated critical pavement life to
expected pavement life would give a measure of the
overall pavement performance. Ratio of more than 1
means that the pavement would perform satisfactorily
even beyond its first scheduled rehabilitation whereas,
a ratio of less than 1 suggests that the pavement
would develop more than limiting distress before its
scheduled rehabilitation, thereby incurring loss to the
agency.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 10 Example of Influence of Various Construction Parameters on Pavement Performance for BC-II Mixture
ITS (kPa)
Air Voids
(%)
Bitumen Content (%) by

Volume of Total Mix
1200-1300
3.0
10.0
4.0
5.0
1150-1250
3.0
4.0
5.0
10.0
10.0
10.5
10.5
10.5
HMA Layer
Thickness (mm)
Estimated Critical
Life (Years)
Ratio of Estimated Critical

Life to Expected Life (Years)
132.5
7.16 (Nr)
1.432
135.0
7.18 (Nr)
1.436
137.5
7.20 (Nr)
1.440
132.5
4.17 (Nf)
0.834
135.0
4.89 (Nf)
0.978
137.5
5.60 (Nf)
1.12
132.5
Fail (Nf)
Nil
135.0
Fail (Nf)
Nil
137.5
Fail (Nf)
Nil
132.5
7.02 (Nr)
1.404
135.0
7.04 (Nr)
1.408
137.5
7.06 (Nr)
1.412
132.5
6.01 (Nf)
1.202
135.0
6.72 (Nf)
1.344
137.5
7.44 (Nf)
1.488
132.5
0.22 (Nf)
0.044
135.0
0.93 (Nf)
0.186
137.5
1.65 (Nf)
0.330
Table 11 Summary Highlighting Influence of Various Construction Parameters on

Pavement Performance for DBM-II Mixture
ITS (kPa)
Air Voids
(%)
1050-1150
3.0
850-950
Bitumen Content (%) by

Volume of Total Mix
9.2
4.0
9.2
5.0
9.2
5.5
9.2
3.0
9.6
4.0
9.6
5.0
9.6
HMA Layer
Thickness (mm)
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
132.5
135.0
137.5
Estimated Critical
Life (Years)
8.25 (Nr)
8.27 (Nr)
8.30 (Nr)
7.25 (Nf)
7.81 (Nr)
7.83 (Nf)
1.81 (Nf)
2.46 (Nf)
3.11 (Nf)
Fail (Nf)
Fail (Nf)
0.38 (Nf)
7.65 (Nr)
7.67 (Nr)
7.70 (Nr)
4.09 (Nf)
4.74 (Nf)
5.39 (Nf)
Fail (Nf)
Fail (Nf)
Fail (Nf)
Ratio of Estimated Critical

Life to Expected Life (Years)
1.650
1.654
1.660
1.450
1.562
1.566
0.362
0.492
0.622
Nil
Nil
0.076
1.530
1.534
1.540
0.818
0.948
1.078
Nil
Nil
Nil
63
TECHNICAL PAPERS
While exact penalty needs to be ascertained, projectwise (considering the monitory loss incurred by the
agency due to inferior construction of the bituminous
layer rendered by the contractor, in terms of increased
expenditure caused due to earlier than scheduled
rehabilitation, increased vehicle operation cost, traffic
delays due to frequent maintenance interventions
etc), it is emphasized that even though a single
pay factor cannot be applied for all the projects,

nevertheless, a pay factor for imposing a penalty
and bonus for bituminous mixes has been suggested,
based on the ratio of estimated critical pavement life
to expected pavement life and within the limitation
of a maximum of 5 percent bonus to contractor for
superior construction. Table 12 lists out the suggested
pay factors for BC-II and DBM-II Mixes.
Table 12 Performance Based Pay-Factors for Bituminous Mixes

Ratio of Expected to Estimated 1.4 and 1.2-1.4 1.0-1.2 1.0 0.9-1.0 0.8-0.9 0.7-0.8
Critical Pavement Life in Years
Above
0.6-0.7
Below 0.6
Pay Factor
Re-do
No Payment
1.05
1.04
1.02
1.0
0.95
6.4.2 Option 2: Based on the basis of confidence

limits over distribution of results from Monte

Carlo simulation (probabilistic approach)
0.90
0.85
during construction, conduct Monte

Carlo simulation with the same models
as were used for getting the distribution
of Ndesign, to obtain Nconstructed.
This approach differs from the earlier one in the sense

that the variability of the construction parameters and
hence that of the pavement life is taken into account.
The method is explained with examples, as follows.
PA for bonus: (Nconstructedmean - NUCL)/NUCL
PA for penalty: (NLCL Nconstructed

NLCL
6.
Calculate Pay Factor (PF) as follows:
PF =100*(1 PA);
1.
Use Fig. 2 (or Fig. 3, depending on

the failure criterion), and a pre-agreed
confidence levels to determine upper and
lower limits of the fatigue life (Nf) for
pay adjustments. For example, consider
40% on either side of the mean Nf (in
Fig. 2) are allowable, that is total
confidence level, area under the curve is
80%.
2.
Determine the corresponding z value

from the standard (z) normal distribution
table. For 80% of the area, z = 1.282.
3.
Determine Upper and Confidence Limits

as follows:
64
4.
5.
Calculate Pay adjustments (PA) as

follows:
mean
)/
So for example, for the available data, for pay adjustment

for a bitumen content of 4.0% for a specified optimum
bitumen content of 5.4%, the penalty pay factor for
fatigue life, Nf, will be calculated as follows:
PA for penalty =
(30,523,084) = 0.0073
(30,523,084-30,300,000)/
PF = 100*(1-0.0073) = 99.3% (penalty) (95 by the

ratio of life method)
Whereas, the pay adjustments for a thickness of
50 mm for a specified thickness of 40 mm, the bonus
pay factor will be calculated as follows:
NUCL = Ndesignmean + z*S, where S is the

standard deviation of the as designed N
distribution (Fig. 2, S = 138,000); Hence,
NUCL = 30,700,000 + (1.282)*(138,000)
= 30,876,916 ; NLCL = Ndesignmean z*S
= 30,700,000 (1.282)*( 138,000) =
30,523,084;
PF = 100*(1+0.036) = 1.04% (bonus) (1.02 by ratio

of life method)
Using the mean and the standard deviation

of the properties that have been obtained
Note that compared to the pay factors that were

developed on the basis of the ratio of the life method
PA for bonus = (32,000,000-30,876,916)/(30,876,916)

= 0.036
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(Table 12) those developed on the basis of MC analyses
compare well in the bonus case but not in the penalty
case (95% versus 99%). The difference is because of
the consideration of the expected variability in the
construction materials and methods. In the case of the
deterministic (ratio of life) approach, no consideration
of the variability is considered; however, when it
is considered in the probabilistic approach, and a
confidence interval is specified, then the effect of the
lower than specified Nf becomes less harsh in terms
of penalty. One can argue that this is too lenient; the
authors do not disagree they simply intend to point
out the utility of the method, and that any discrepancy
can be resolved by adopting a good standard deviation
and an acceptable confidence limit, that are based
on reliable data. Furthermore, in this case, as the
constructed standard deviation has been considered to
be the same as the specified values- they will probably
be different in reality. The effect of that difference can
only be reflected through the probabilistic approach. It
is to be noted that not considering the variability will
be unfair for the contractor, where a penalty is likely,
and unfair for the tax paying public where a bonus is
likely.
mode, and hence a lower AC content

results in a penalty in the fatigue mode;
obviously, the most critical case will
prevail there will be a penalty in this
case (the overriding case is presented in
bold font in Table 13).

3.
The pay factors are results of simulation

with the models that relate properties to
performance; hence the pay factors are
only as good as the models themselves;
if the models are not sensitive enough,
the pay factors will not be affected
significantly by a significant change in
critical properties; on the other hand, if
the model is wrong, then the pay factor
will be affected in a wrong way; of
course the last option is less likely, as
the test of reasonableness should help
the researcher to pick out such wrong
models.
4.
The discrepancy between the laboratory

and field data must not be overlooked.
For example, in this case, a lowering of
binder content results in an improvement
in rutting life. While that is a case that
can be observed in the laboratory, where
compaction is carried out in moulds,
in the field, a lower AC content will
certainly lead to lowering density, which
will actually lower the stiffness, and
lower the rutting resistance.
5.
Fig. 2 shows that the use of an air

void content of 12% (compared to a
specified air void content of 8%) results
in a higher than expected Nf value
(30,982,811 compared to 30,722,458).
This observation goes against common
wisdom a pavement with higher air
voids (and hence lower density) should
have a lower fatigue life. However, a
look at the fatigue equations for BC-II
mix in Table 9 shows that ITS values
decrease with an increase in air voids,
and Nf values increase with a decrease
The pay factors that were developed for the lower

than specified bitumen contents and air voids, and
lower and higher than specified thicknesses are shown
in Table 13. Several interesting factors are noted, as
follows.

1.
2.
The use of the specific confidence limit

(40% on either side of the mean) in this
case has a significant effect on the pay
factors; often, even if the mean value for
the constructed pavement is lower (or
higher) than the mean, there will be no
penalty (or bonus) (as indicated by None
in Table 13) since the mean will still be
within the confidence limit envelope
A variable can cause a bonus in one mode
and a penalty in the other mode; for
example, a lower AC content improves
resistance against rutting, and hence
results in bonus; however, it lowers the
number of repetitions to failure in fatigue
65
TECHNICAL PAPERS
in ITS values. Is this rational? If each of
the equations is studied separately, both
of them make sense a higher air voids
lowers stiffness, and a lower stiffness
means more resilience and resistance to
cracking, and hence higher Nf. So where
is the discrepancy? Perhaps there is none,
there is an optimum air voids level that
is good for fatigue life, or the models
need to be improved. Nevertheless,

common sense tells us that, with higher
air voids, permeability increases, and the
potential of moisture ingress and damage,
increases. But, as a whole, this exercise
forces us to think about the relationships
between different factors, which are so
significant in the correct prediction of
performance of pavements.
Table 13 Pay Factors based on the Results of MC Simulation
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
On the basis of work that has been carried out in this

study, the following conclusions and recommendations
can be made.
66
1.
The significant effect of material and mix

properties can be captured through performance
related properties that can be easily determined
in the laboratory in India. This was shown in
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.
Weed, M.R. (1998). A Rational Method for Relating

As-Built Quality to Pavement Performance and Value.
Proceedings of the 77th Annual Meeting, Transportation
Research Board, Washington D.C.
4.
Monismith, C.L., Popescu, L., Harvey, J.T., and Hoover,

T.P. (2004). Performance-Based Pay Factors for Asphalt
Concrete Construction. Proceedings of the 8th Conference
on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa, ISBN
Number: 1-920-01718-6, Sun City, South Africa.
5.
Sebaaly and Bazi (2005). Impact of Construction

Variability on Pavement Performance. Final Report,
Nevada DOT, Construction Division, Carson City, NV.
6.
Abdullah, I., Narayan, S. (2005). A Tool for Estimating

Impact of Construction Quality on Life Cycle Performance
of Pavements. Report TX FHWA/TX05/0-4046-4, the
University of Texas at El Paso, Texas.
7.
Moulthrop, J., Witczak, M.W., et al (2011). Beta Testing

and Validation of HMA PRS. Technical Report National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, NCHRP Report
704, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council: Washington D.C.
8.
MORTH, Specifications for Road and Bridge Works,

Fourth Revision, 2001.
The use of the models to develop pay factors

represents a rational method of using the link between
properties and performance models for the benefit of
the society. It is recommended that appropriate effort
be made to develop better models through research,
and calibration with field data.
9.
Christensen, D., Pellinen, T., and Bonaquist, R. (2003).

Hirsch Model for Estimating the Modulus of Asphalt
Concrete. Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt
Paving Technologists, Vol. 72, 97-121.
10.
Bari, J., and Witczak, M.W. (2006). Development of a

New Revised Version of the Witczak E* Predictive Model
for Hot Mix Asphalt Mixtures. Journal of the Association
of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol.75, 381-423.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
11.
The authors are grateful to Dr. J. Murali Krishnan.

Mr. A. Dhanasekaran, Mr. A. Pugazhenthi,
Ms. Neethu Roy and Ms. Nivitha for their help with
testing and analysis of data, support, suggestions and
encouragement. The authors also thank Dr. Adriana
Hera for her help in developing the codes for analysis
with MATLAB.
Witczak, M.W., and Fonseca, O.A. (1996). Revised

Predictive Model for Dynamic (Complex) Modulus of
Asphalt Mixtures. Transportation Research Record 1540,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
12.
NCHRP. 2002 Design Guide for New & Rehabilitated

Pavements (Final Report). Part 2-Design Inputs, Chapter
2 Material Characterization, 2.2.2 Input Characterization
for the Asphalt Material Group, NCHRP Project 1-37A,
March 2004. <http: //www.trb.org/mepdg/guide.htm>.
13.
David Lewis, The Future of ForecastingRisk Analysis

as a Philosophy of Transportation Planning, TR News
177, April 1995.
14.
Walls, J. and M. Smith. Life-Cycle Cost Analysis in

Pavement Design- In Search of Better Investment.
Publication No. FHWA-SA-98-079, Federal Highway
Administration, US Department of Transportation,
September 1998.
15.
MATLAB. The Mathworks, Inc. 2012.
this study through the relationship between

indirect tensile strength and air voids and
bitumen content.
2.
The link between the performances related

properties and performance, in terms of critical
distresses (rutting and fatigue) were established
with the help of mechanistic-empirical
analysis.
3.
The performance-properties relationships were

utilized for the development and suggestion of
appropriate pay factors.
4.
The specified mean and standard deviation

values of the different variables were utilized
to conduct Monte Carlo simulations to predict
distributions of fatigue and rutting lives of
pavements.
5.
Pay factors were developed on the basis of both

deterministic (ratio of life) and probabilistic
(distributions from Monte Carlo simulation and
confidence limits) approaches.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Root, R.E. (1989). The Effects of Testing and Production

Procedures on Mix Design Results. Proceedings,
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Volume 58,
(1989).
Weed, R.M. (1994). Additional Pay Schedules: New
Concepts and Provisions. Transportation Research
Record 986, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C.
67
EXPERIENCES ON HILL ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN MIZORAM

K. Lalsawmvela*, Jayadeep Nayak** and Satyajit Parija***
Abstract
The problems encountered in the implementation of Hill road
have given rise to many disputes between the parties as well as
great difficulties in contract administration and construction
management. The substantial time and cost overruns mean that
experience has been gained at great cost.
Practically almost all the DPR drawings have been superseded
by revised drawings or new construction drawings. The standard
work specifications had not been sufficiently amended to cater to
the particular needs of hill road construction and upgrading of
existing roads. It would also appear that due to lack of adequate
site investigation details and inadequacies in the design, the Bill
of Quantities which is to be taken as the original scope of work,
was found to be inadequate.
Incorrect implementation of the design and construction practices
has given the technology a bad name and adverse opinions are
already being aired among the implementing authorities, which
needs to be corrected.
Introduction
The World Bank Funded Mizoram State Roads

Project (MSRP) is the first ever mega road project
implemented in the State of Mizoram. The Project
comprises the construction of Aizawl Bypass
(13.500 km), Major Improvement and Upgradation
of about 170 km of priority road between State
Capital Aizawl and Lunglei, the second largest town
in the south and Rehabilitation and Maintenance of
about 300 km of seven selected roads scattered at
various places. The overall original construction
period was from August 2002 to April 2006 but the
project was completed in December 2010. While
major improvement of priority road was implemented
through ICB contracts, rehabilitation and maintenance
roads were executed through NCB contracts.
The project implementation of priority road, which
was initially packaged into 2 contracts of phase 1 and
phase-2, has been beset with problems right from the
start. The 2 contracts suffered from varying degrees

of delay due to various reasons. The Contract on
Phase-1 had to be terminated in June 2005 and in its
place, 3 contracts were awarded in December 2005.
This notwithstanding, the Project still suffers from
substantial time delay, resulting in substantial cost
overrun. During the course of construction, numerous
problems have been encountered. With the benefit of
hindsight, it is now clear that some of the problems
are structural in nature and had not been addressed
adequately at the pre-bidding stage. On hindsight, it
is clear that many impediments encountered in the
execution were so overwhelming that the undesirable
outcome was only to be expected, but because of time,
financial and other constraints no measure could be
taken to adequately address them. There are yet other
problems associated with the contractors lack of
experience in hill road construction. Finally, problems
such as extended monsoon and shortage of construction
materials including diesel are beyond the Employer's
and Contractor's control. In the following section, the
various problems and difficulties experienced during
the project implementation are explained (not in
particular order).
2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
2.1
Inadequate Engineering Design and Deficient

Contract Documentation
By their very nature, hill roads are narrow, winding

and with steep gradients at numerous locations, short
straights and alternating hill and valley sharp curves
of short length. Other than settlement areas, they are
generally bordered by high and steep hill slopes on
one side, and deep and steep valley slopes on the other
Former M.Tech Student, E-mail: baskideepak@gmail.com
**
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, E-mail: av@iitm.ac.in
IIT Madras, Chennai
*** Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA,

E-mail: rajib@wpi.edu
68
TECHNICAL PAPERS
side. High volume of surface runoff from the hill side
tends to discharge with high velocity down the slope
during the monsoon season, carrying with it substantial
amount of erodible material and causing most of the
cross drainage structures to be choked with debris.
Due to poor soil strata, slopes are inherently unstable
at many locations and are susceptible to failure during
the monsoon season.
At the initial survey stage during construction, it was
found that designed horizontal road alignment would
not fit the ground conditions at numerous locations,
primarily at settlement areas and locations passing
through steep valley. Construction in accordance
with the designed alignment would entail substantial
high embankments and very substantial amount of
retaining walls which in many cases were too costly
and technically not feasible. There were a number of
sharp curves which posed safety problem and needed
to be improved.
Similarly, designed vertical alignments with long
straights and minimum vertical curves would
conceivably result in excessive cutting and filling.
The alignment design appeared to be purely softwarebased without detailed site investigation and taking
into account the existing topographical features.
Substantial realignment has to be carried out during
construction stage to "best-fit" the existing ground
topography and to avoid construction of high retaining
wall, which is not only costly but is also technically
not feasible at many locations. Improvements to
sharp curves for safety reason have also been made
at several locations. Similarly, vertical alignments
has been modified at many stretches to "best-fit" the
existing ground levels in order to minimize formation
work. The inherent instability of high hill slopes and
demanding hill road drainage requirements had not
been addressed in the original design. In particular,
specific designs for tackling vulnerable areas had not
been provided for.
Drainage requirement in settlement areas which
invariably traversed over long flattish stretches,
were without any existing drainage and prone to
water logging during the monsoon season, and had
not been catered for. Compounding the construction
problem was the lack of design for overcoming the

unique problems of hill side seepage and technical
requirements of treating sub-grade in large number of
shady and damp stretches.
Last but not the least, basic designs for fulfilling
the expressed requirements in the EIA and EMP
with regard to protection of freshly cut slopes and
rehabilitation of disposal areas were found lacking.
Much time has been expended during the construction
stage in carrying out detailed site investigation,
redesign and dedicated designs, revising contract
drawings and providing new construction drawings
to the Contractors. Standard drawings contained in
the Detailed Project Report (DPR) are found to be
irrelevant or grossly inadequate for construction
purpose. Contract documentation has been found to
be basic and deficient in several aspects, due in large
part to the inadequacies in the engineering design.
Practically almost all the DPR drawings have been
superseded by revised drawings or new construction
drawings. The standard work specifications had not
been sufficiently amended to cater to the particular
needs of hill road construction and upgrading of
existing roads. It would also appear that due to lack
of adequate site investigation details and inadequacies
in the design, the Bill of Quantities which is to be
taken as the original scope of work, was found to be
inadequate. Scope of work with respect to side drain,
cross drainage and slope protection works had not
been identified in the documents.
2.2 Problems Associated With Mobilization of
Construction Plants and Equipment
Construction plants and equipment are not available
for lease or hire in Mizoram. The appointed contractors
therefore, need to source all the required plants and
equipment from outside the State. This has given rise
to several problems like:
a)
Key construction plants and equipment

are manufactured in states far away from
Mizoram, such as Gujarat. Taking into
account the manufacturing lead time, it
will take at least three (3) months from
the date of award of work before a piece
69
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of equipment is ready for delivery unless
the contractor takes advance action for
mobilization.

b)
c)
As mentioned in (a) above the plants and

equipment will need to be transported
from the state of manufacture to Mizoram
over long distances. Logistical problems
are compounded by the need to traverse
stretches of narrow roads with small
bridges from Silchar to Mizoram and
in Mizoram itself before reaching the
sites. Delay due to bandhs and social
disturbances in other states also not
uncommon.
a)
Lack of quarry sources with significant

yield of stone meeting specifications:
Rock in Mizoram are of relatively young
geological formation. They' are mostly
sedimentary deposits, highly foliated
and laminated, and hard rock strata are
interspersed with the soft rock and soil
strata. Samples tested show that the
stones are generally having high water
absorption, high Los Angeles Abrasion
Value and, high combined flakiness and
elongation index. These rules out most of
the rock deposits as suitable sources of
aggregates. Suitable sources are few and
far in between and the search has proven
to be laborious and time-consuming.
b)
Long lead time required to develop

quarry sources: It takes at least 3 months
to develop a quarry source and even much
longer time if the source is located away
from the project road corridor. In some
cases, quarry approach road up to 6 km
long has been constructed. The difficult
terrain, thick overburden and occurrence
of soil and bad rock strata amongst good
rock strata also mean that it will take
much longer time before stone extraction
can start.
c)
Ownership Issues: In some quarry

sources for which development work
has been completed, disputes due to dual
land ownership had resulted in stone
extraction being stopped and the sources
being abandoned for long period of time.
d)
Extraction and logistical problems: Stone

extraction has been slow due to difficult
Due to limited level space available

in Mizoram, the selection of suitable
sites, site preparation works and on-site
installation of crusher, WMM and hotmix plants have been found to take up
much time.
2.3 Problems Associated With

Construction Materials
Supply
of
Key construction materials such as cement, steel and

bitumen are not produced in Mizoram and need to be
procured from outside the State. Such procurement
and delivery of the materials on site require substantial
lead time and are subject to logistical problems
explained in the preceding Section 2.2. Even though
certain materials such as stones, aggregates and sand
are available in the state, they are not available in
processed and 'ready-to-use' form in any significant
quantities. The contractors need to identify suitable
sources with appreciable yield and deploy the required
manpower and equipment for extracting and processing
the materials. The difficulties are compounded by the
lack of adequate suitable sources. Much time has been
expended in identifying and developing different
sources of materials with low success rate. Such
a scenario has not been foreseen by the contractors
during the bidding stage and, the additional resources
deployed and extra time expended have exerted great
pressure on the contractors' financials, leading to lack
of physical work progress and low progress billings.
70
In particular, the sourcing of pavement aggregates has

proven to be most challenging and time consuming.
There are no established quarries in Mizoram from
which aggregates can be purchased. The contractors
are compelled to devote much time and resources for
identifying and developing suitable quarry sources
along the project road corridor. Some of the difficulties
encountered are: -
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terrain and restricted working space.
Transporting of stones to the crusher plant
over bad road takes up much time and
has to be suspended during the monsoon
season. Multiple handling has greatly
limited the production of aggregates.
The production of adequate aggregates
meeting specifications is deemed crucial
to the successful implementation of the
projects.
2.4
Difficulties in Sourcing for Experienced

Project Management Staff, Site Execution
and Supervisory Staff and Skilled Manpower
The contractors have encountered great difficulties

in sourcing for staff at project management, site
execution and supervisory levels with adequate
experience in hill road construction. The supervision
consultants face similar problems. Such manpower is
not readily available in Mizoram and the contractors
are compelled to source it from outside the State.
Problems encountered include lack of adequate skilled
manpower experienced in hill road construction
and long lead time in identifying, negotiating and
mobilizing labour gangs to site. These are compounded
by the high labour turnover rate due to inability to adapt
to local conditions, lack of communication facilities,
late payments by the contractors and other problems.
The difficulties in sourcing for experienced staff and
workers to work in Mizoram can be attributed to the
following:
1.
The present pool of experienced project

management
personnel,
engineers,
supervisors and skilled manpower in
the country appears to be inadequate
to support the large scale road projects
currently under implementation across
the country.
2.
Mizoram State Roads Projects is the first

large scale road project implemented in
Mizoram and construction personnel
experienced in major hill road
construction appear to be limited. They
are hard to come by and most of the staff
and workers recruited are inexperienced

and need to be trained. The learning
curve tends to be long and gentle.

3.
Working conditions in Mizoram are

perceived to be harsh, rightly or wrongly.
Anecdotal evidence suggests the
following: -
a)
Living conditions on site are

perceived to be tough due to lack
of adequate basic amenities, lack
of social amenities and difficulty
in adapting to local conditions.
b)
Lack of communications facilities

on site.
c)
Commuting almost daily on

narrow, winding and steep hill
roads with potholed and undulating
road surface is perceived by some
to be tiring and unsafe.
d)
Security situation in Mizoram

has been wrongly perceived by
some staff and workers to be not
conducive due to isolated cases
of social disorder in Mizoram and
abduction in certain North-Eastern
States. It is the most peaceful state
in the country; the people are
simple with open mind.
2.5
Climatic Conditions
The monsoon season in Mizoram is taken as from

June to October, although in certain years, monsoon
starts early in mid-May. Sporadic rainy spells can
also be expected in the months of March, April
and November. This limits the dry working season,
essential for pavement work, to not more than
6 months in a year. The monsoon season hence, is
much longer than 4 months stated in the DPR. With
the time for completion fixed at 30 months and
considering that at least one working season will be
taken up for mobilization of equipment and materials,
this leaves only two working seasons for the work
execution. Past experience shows that practically,
only about 15 km of road pavement can be completed
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
in a working season. The packaging of contracts and
determination of time for completion thus have to take
into account the climatic conditions.
Monsoon rains invariably trigger landslides, causes
soil erosion and sedimentation as well as result
in valley side slope failure. Clearing of landslide
debris as well as debris from filled up drains and
catch pits, implementation of erosion control and
slope stabilization measures, and construction of
slope protection structures would increase the scope
of works and construction time. In fact, monsoon
rains were identified as one of the major causes for
premature deterioration of the completed pavement.
2.6 Land Issues
The contractors have often raised the issues of not
being given full site possession or construction land
free from encumbrances. This is found to be true to
some extent, as evidenced from the several cases of
work stoppage imposed by the landowners.
To start with, there is no land acquisition plans made
available for the road land to be clearly staked out on
the ground, although the Employer states that land
acquisition has been completed. It is learnt from the
Employer that land had been acquired on the hill side
at majority of the stretches while only a few stretches
on valley side had been taken. It is found that while
the Contractors stake out the road land in accordance
with approved cross section drawings, the boundaries
do not coincide with the extent of land acquisition at
several locations. On numerous occasions, purported
landowners step forward and stake their claims for
land compensation. There are also numerous other
cases in which purported landowners claim ownership
of valley side land where culvert outlets and slope
protection structures are to be constructed.
Land issues arise due primarily to the land acquisition
process not being carried out in accordance with the
road land requirement. Factors such as varying width
of land required for matching varying height of cut
slopes, land required for embankment construction
as well as land required for culvert outlets and slope
protection structures had not been considered. This
in part is also due to the various land reserves not
72
being marked out in the DPR drawings to enable land

acquisition to be carried out properly. Much survey
has been carried out during the course of construction
to enable further land to be acquired. This has caused
work disruptions to some extent.
2.7
Work Encumbrances and Interference by

Other Parties
The contractors have notified numerous incidents

of physical encumbrances during the course of
construction. These include obstructions due to
presence of shallow depth water pipelines, standing
electrical and telephone poles, urinals and other
temporary structures in the roadway. The need
for shifting of residential buildings too close to
the roadway also arises. Some local residents in
settlement areas have also been unreasonably posing
obstructions to construction of drainage and slope
protection structures.
Much time has been expended in carrying out site
investigation, conducting dialogue with relevant
departments, NGOs and local residents, issuing
instructions and removing the encumbrances. Work
encumbrances posed by unauthorized roadside
quarrying are yet another cause of delay. Such
encumbrances could not have been foreseen during
the DPR preparation but the manner in which the issue
is being handled during the course of construction
leaves much to be desired.
The contractors have also reported numerous
incidences of interference by NGOs, local residents
and other interested parties. These include demands
for compensation for land and properties purportedly
damaged during construction, demands for works
to be subcontracted to certain parties, demands for
protection structures and improvement to private
access, demands for priority of work in villages as well
as demands for additional payment, most of which are
made directly to the Contractors. The demands are
often accompanied with the threats of work stoppage
or physical harm if they are not met. Some of the
demands have been found to be unreasonable and
ignored by the Contractors but the Contractors are
subject to constant harassment and in a few instances,
ugly incidents actually occurred.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.8 External Factors
As most of the plants and equipment as well as
construction materials are sourced from outside
Mizoram, certain external factors have a direct impact
on the project implementation. Such factors include
bandhs, road blocks and strikes in other states, national
strikes by truckers and periodical shortage of diesel.
2.9
Contractor's Inexperience and Lack of

Adequate Resources
While many of the problems encountered during the

construction are beyond the control of the Contractors,
the Contractors themselves have also contributed to
the delay. Some of the Contractors may have prior
experience working in Mizoram but this proved to
be inadequate in handling the Mizoram State Road
Project. For "first-timer" Contractors, the MSRP
experience proved to be a long and painful learning
curve.
For reasons stated in the preceding section 2.4, the
Contractors' work planning and site management are
found to be grossly lacking. Being the "Doers" as
opposed to the Employer's and Supervision Consultants'
roles as "Sayers", the Contractors' inexperience in
hill road construction shows up conspicuously and
has a direct significant adverse impact on project
implementation. Most if not all, the Contractors
have grossly under estimated the complexity of road
construction in Mizoram. Lack of thorough insight and
advanced work planning has led to the initial works
programme being rendered unachievable within the
first working season. The Contractors have also failed
to appreciate the long period of mobilization and large
initial working capital required, to their own peril.
While the Employer has recognized the various
constraints impeding project implementation and
generously granted extension of time and provided
all possible assistance, the Contractors' willingness to
fully grasp the constraints and overcome the same is
puzzling.
3 LESSONS LEARNT
Implementation of MSRP had gone through much
trials and tribulations. While numerous setbacks were
suffered during the execution of the works, problems
and challenges had also been partly overcome.

Crucially, the implementation revealed certain hard
facts which one has to come to grips with when
implementing any major road project in Mizoram, as
well as certain shortfalls and weaknesses which need
to be addressed comprehensively at the procurement
stage for mitigating the risk. There are obviously
valuable lessons to be learnt from the implementation
of MSRP, few of which may be enumerated below:3.1
High Execution Risk
Having identified the many impediments that almost

derailed the implementation of the project, it may
be stated that the implementation of any major road
project in the State would face similarly high execution
risk. This is because of certain external factors and
ground realities which are beyond everybodys control
and cannot be mitigated even with detailed planning
and comprehensive engineering design. If one were to
look at the big picture, the high execution risks must
be the first fundamental lesson to be drawn from the
MSRP.
3.2
Trade-Off Between Time, Cost and Quality
Another fundamental lesson learned from the

implementation of MSRP is the need for trade-off
between time, cost and work quality if any major road
project is to be completed in Mizoram. One needs to
accept the hard fact that conditions in Mizoram are
far from ideal for constructing good quality roads.
The conditions include long monsoon seasons, lack of
good quality stones and many other impediments.
The supervision consultants held several discussions
with PWD top management and while appreciating
the problems, it was stressed that work progress was
critical and that something was better then nothing.
In the ultimate analysis, it has to be accepted that a
project could not go on forever and must be wrapped
up at some point. In a similar vein, costs also could
not keep on escalating and there is a limit to which
substandard works could be rejected. In the context
of MSRP, the trade-off between time, cost and quality
was found to be inevitable or else the project would
never be completed. This is another fundamental
lesson to be learnt from the project.
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.3
Adverse Impact of Monsoon Season
The long monsoon season is one of the external factors

and ground realities that adversely impact progress and
quality of road works. The impact is so extensive and farreaching that its mechanism must be clearly understood.
This may be rated as one of the major lessons to be learnt
from MSRP.
3.4
Detailed Site Investigation and Comprehensive

Engineering Design
One of the bitter lessons learnt was the inaccuracies,

omissions and discrepancies in the originally designed
horizontal and vertical alignments which were the
main disputes persistently raised by the contractors, so
much so a re-design had to be done for major sections
of the alignment. The DPR drawings were not good for
construction and had to be abandoned ultimately. The
supervision consultants were burdened with re-design
of the works which was too tough a call due to time
constraint. The lesson learnt here is that a comprehensive
engineering design and complete documentation would
go a long way in smoothening out the execution of the
works and minimizing disputes from the contractors.
3.5 Long Time for Completion and High Cost of
Construction
Questions had always been asked about the substantial
extension of time granted to the contractors and large
increase in construction cost. External factors like
adverse climatic conditions, topographical restriction,
geographical limitations, long rainy season and problem
of sourcing of good stones will not go away and cannot
be mitigated. The lesson to be learnt here is that the
time of completion cannot be fixed arbitrarily without
due regard to the several external factors and many
impediments likely to be faced during work execution
and that provisions have to be made for the likely increase
in scope of works and construction cost.
3.6 Procurement of Adequate Good Quality Stones
Though, securing substantial source of good deposits
of stones within manageable lead distance is necessary
for timely completion of major road project, this is not
possible in Mizoram because good quality stones, even
if available, are in small deposits which are few and far
in between. Therefore, the three key lessons to be learnt
are:

74
a)
Availability of substantial source of good

quality stone is a fundamental issue in road
construction in Mizoram
b)
The non-availability of substantial source

of good stones will leave the time for
completion indeterminate, which leads to
(c) below
The use of certain quantities of substandard aggregates is unavoidable and has
to be accepted or, else no major roads can
be constructed.
c)
3.7
Specific Design Consideration for Hill Roads
Because of its typical topographical condition and heavy

& long rainy season, Mizoram roads need specific design
considerations which include, inter alia, the following
requirements:

a)
Adoption of different pavement composition
at different sections to cater for different
sub-grade conditions.

b)
Emphasis on sub-grade drainage.

c)
Careful selection of bituminous base and
wearing courses to ensure the overall
stability and durability of the pavement.

d)
Particular emphasis on selection of binder
and binder content to take care of likely
thermal stresses and brittleness in bitumen
as well as use of porous stones which tend
to absorb bitumen

e)
Complete sealing of shoulders to prevent
ingress of water into the pavement layers
and sub-grade.

f)
Careful selection of type of wearing course
at sharp bends and/or stretches with steep
gradient

g)
Need for an efficient sub-surface and
surface drainage system for ensuring road
stability.

h)
Comprehensive measures for slope stability,
erosion control and landslide correction.
The key lesson to be learnt here is that engineering
design for Mizoram road is a very complicated matter
and people entrusted with the design must have the
requisite hill road experience.
3.8
Shortage and Disruption in the Supply of Key

Consumables and Construction Materials
This refers to diesel, critical plant spare parts, bitumen

and cement which are critical to the timely completion
of the works but had to be sourced entirely from outside
the State and hence extremely vulnerable to disruption
in the supply chain. Supplies of these materials were
TECHNICAL PAPERS
disrupted by bandhs, hartals, road blocks etc in the
neighboring States. In order not to affect progress of
works, contractors need to have sufficient stock of key
consumables to last at least for a month. The key lesson
to be learnt here is that shortage and disruptions are
the norms rather than exceptions and will continue to
affect future major road projects, thus adding the time
for completion.
3.9
Availability of Water for Construction and

Other Uses
Water availability is likely to be a major problem in areas

where there are no perennial water sources, bearing in
mind that future water requirement will be huge on
account of much larger size projects. The key lesson to
be learnt here is that the problem of non-availability of
adequate water cannot be brushed off as a minor one and
left to the contractor to fend for themselves, but has to
be carefully considered in the planning of future major
road projects.
3.10 The Contractors Unpreparedness
In MSRP and other NH projects, the contractors bided
and actually got awarded contracts in Mizoram without
knowing the risks entailed. Soon after commencement

of works, they found themselves unprepared and mired
in big problems and resorted to raising many disputes
in order to cover up their own weaknesses. It was hence
not surprising that they claimed to have suffered huge
losses. If recent bidding trend is anything to go by, new
contractors who are unaware of the risks will bid low
in order to secure the contracts first while experienced
contractors will be left out in the cold. The lesson learnt
here is that the execution risks must be explained clearly
to the bidders during pre-bid meeting to enable them to
price in, and that the lowest bid may not necessarily be
the best competitive bid.
4
CONCLUSIONS
The problems encountered in the implementation of MSRP

have given rise to many disputes between the parties as
well as great difficulties in contract administration and
construction management. The substantial time and cost
overruns mean that experience has been gained at great
cost. While the past cannot be undone, valuable lessons
must be drawn for the benefit of implementation of future
road projects.
75
Accidents on Roads - A Way Forward

Kuldip Singh* and Arun Kumar Sharma**
Accidents do take place on all categories of roads due
to increase in number of vehicles on roads, increase
in size of road network and availability of modern
vehicles throughout the country. With the use of
modern technology for vehicles, and improvement of
roads, speed of vehicles has increased which is one of
the main cause of accidents and fatalities. Accidents
involve both motorized and non-motorized vehicles
as well as pedestrians and animals. Vulnerable road
users are pedestrians, riders of two-wheelers, bicycles

and animal drawn vehicles which do not provide
adequate occupant protection. Number of accidents
may be more than given in Table 1 below, as road
users avoid registration of road accidents with police.
Accident data given in this paper is taken from
Road Accidents in India 2012 Report compiled
by Transport Research Wing of Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways, Government of India.
Table 1 Number of Accidents, Persons Killed & Injured as per Road Classification during the Year 2012
Road Classification
No. of Accidents
No. of Person Killed
No of Person Injured
National Highways
1,42,694
48,768
1,53,502
State Highways
1,18,835
37,711
1,32,170
Photo 1 Vehicles Involved in an Accident
Road Safety Efforts Decrease

in Number of Accidents
Road safety cell and engineering wing of the Ministry

of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH), Indian
Road Congress (IRC), International Road Federation
(IRF), National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),
Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) and Transport
Departments of State Governments are making
Total
4,90,383
1,38,258
5,09,667
continuous efforts to reduce the number and severity

of road accidents. Some NGOs too have successfully
brought awareness among road users and public in
this regard. These initiatives and efforts made by these
institutions are effective in the areas where action has
been taken on their recommendations. Table 2 shows
number of accidents fatalities and injuries from the
year 2010 to 2012.Though there is increase in number
of vehicles and growth in road network even then
the no of accidents, fatalities and no of injured in
year 2012 has decreased as compared to year 2011.
Number of accidents and injured is decreasing since
2010. No. of fatalities in 2012 are less than that in the
year 2011.
Table 2 No of Accidents, Fatalities and
Injured 2010 to 2012
Year No. of Accidents No. of Killed No. of Injured
2010
4,99,628
1,34,513
5,27,512
2011
4,97,686
1,42,485
5,11,394
2012
4,90,383
1,38,258
5,09,667
Retd. Chief Engineer, Punjab PWD, B&R Banch
**
Retd. CE MORTH and is Presently a Specialist Consultant with NATRIP
76
Other Roads
2,28,854
51,779
2,23,995
TECHNICAL PAPERS
2
Two wheelers a safety hazard
Most of us find, two wheelers at very high speed bypassing

vehicles on city roads. The drivers of two wheelers are in
the age group of 20 to 35 years. They get thrilled with the
speed and are not aware of risk of high speed travel in mixed
traffic conditions. While making risky man overs they get
involved in accidents. There is an urgent need to construct
high speed tracks one the lines of motor/race tracks, where
they can improve their skills and drive at high speed.
Alternatively some city roads can be closed for traffic for

some hours on certain days in a week, and allow only two
wheelers to practice their thrilling stunts. Once Rajpath in
Delhi was closed to allow Formula-1 car drivers to show
their motor driving skills to public. Table 3 show the share
of various vehicles categories in total road accidents, fatal
accidents, persons killed and persons injured during the
year 2012.
Table 3 Share in Percentage of Different Vehicles Primarily Responsible for Road Accidents,
Fatal Accidents, Persons Killed and Person Injured During the Year 2012
Parameters
Accidents
Fatal
Accidents
TwoAutoWheelers Rickshaws
25.1
21.1
6.8
4.2
Cars,
Jeeps &
Taxis
21.6
18.3
Buses
8.8
9.1
Trucks, tempos, tractors

and other articulated
vehicles
22.7
28.6
Other Motor
Vehicles #
8.7
10.2
Persons
20.3
4.2
18.6
9.7
28.8
9.8
Killed
Persons
23.1
7.6
21.9
11.4
21.9
8.2
Injured
* Others vehicles/objects: include pedestrians, bicycles and manually drawn vehicles/objects.
# Other Motor Vehicles: include Auto rickshaws, other motor vehicles and manually drawn vehicles/objects.
*Other
Vehicles/
Objects
6.3
Total
100.0
100.0
8.5
8.6
100.0
5.9
100.0
and the need for effective policies for curbing road accidents
make it imperative to study the causes of road accidents.
Causes of road accidents during the year 2012 are given in
Table 4.
Table 4 Causes of Road Accidents during 2012
Causes of Accidents
No. Injured
No. Killed
Accidents
3,98,965
1,01,211
3,85,934
Fault of Cyclist
5,192
2,449
5,864
Fault of Pedestrians
10,441
4,737
12,185
Drivers Fault
Photo 2 Showing Illegal Stunt by a Two

Wheeler Driver in Mixed Traffic
On busy streets in cites two wheeler drivers risk their lives

and lives of others. Fatalities among two wheeler driver
are 20.30% which is highest for any category of vehicles.
There is a need for all of us to find ways and means to tackle
reckless driving among two wheelers. Every day, nearly
100 two wheeler riders loose their lives and equal number
get badly injured.
Howsoever wider roads we may make, under the mixed
traffic conditions, two wheelers will continue to risk their
lives. It is clearly a case of law enforcement to be tackled
by the concerned authorities. Traffic police in their wisdom
may tackle the nuisance of two wheeler drivers. They need
to be calmed on the roads by deterrent fines, confiscation of
vehicles or suspension of driving licence etc.
Cause of Road Accidents: The high socio economic cost of
the injuries and fatalities, occurring due to road accidents
Defect in Motor Vehicles
8,227
2,739
7,037
Defect in Road Condition
74,32
2,346
6,796
Weather Condition
5,621
1,900
4,530
##All other Causes
73,789
22,876
68,037
5,09,667
1,38,258
4,90,383
TOTAL
##
All other causes includes fault of drivers of other

vehicles, poor light condition, falling boulders, neglect
of civic bodies, stray animals, other cause and causes
not known.
In the year 2011 and 2012 it has been clearly established

that better educated drivers perform better on roads. They
are more law abiding and are aware of risk of rash driving.
The analysis of road accidents in terms of casual factors
reveals that drivers fault is the single most important factor
responsible for accidents, fatalities and injuries. Drivers
fault accounted for 78.7 percent of total accidents. Table 5
below details out various reasons where driver fault result
in accidents.
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There is a need to impart training to drivers, educating them
about the dangers of driving at very light speed and to have
discussion with them, so as to reduce number and repetition

of accidents at the same locations.
Table 5 Other Causes of Accidents which were Reported in the Year 2012
S. No.
Causes
1.
Intake of Alcohol/Drugs
Exceeding Lawful Speed
Accidents due to Over Speeding/Over
Crowding
Accidents Load Protruding
No. of Accidents
23,979
2,23,902
99,854
No. of Persons Killed

7,835
60,720
30,552
No. of Persons Injured

23,403
2,35,779
1,15,570
28,217
3,75,952
9,087
1,08,194
2,950
3,77,702
Scientific Study at Accident Spots
In case of fatal accidents, the practice in general is to

register a case in police station, remove the vehicles from
accident spots and to take the accident victims to hospitals
for treatment. In the police records we generally write cause
of accident - fault of driver/drivers.
Accidents do happen on account of certain reasons.
Invariably efforts are not made to find out causes of
accidents? There is a possibility of being wrong in adopting
remedial measures at accident black spots without scientific
accident analysis. Since basic causes of accidents are not
attended properly so whenever in future these causes again
appear, vehicles get involved in accidents. Efforts should
be made to bring out cause of accidents and then take
appropriate remedial measures. Sir Issac Newton thought
of theory of gravitation after an instance of apple falling
from a tree. Causes of accident should be brought out with
a view to make improvements and to avoid recurrence of
accidents and not to implicate the road users. There is a
need to study accident conflict diagram, visit accident black
spot, observe the movement of traffic, have discussion with
road users and then make recommendations. Fortunately
Consultants in highway sector have gained useful
experience and are capable of developing blue print for
improvements at accident black spots. Based on accident
analysis, rectification measures should be finalized and
implemented in a time bound manner.
5
Change in Attitude Towards Drivers and Accident

Victims
It is customary in our country to blame drivers of

heavy commercial vehicles for accidents irrespective
of investigating who is actually at fault. No driver of
commercial vehicles wants to get involved in accidents. Due
to certain factors, vehicles get involved in accidents. Factor
leading to accidents may be inadequate sight distance,
poor road geometrics, inadequate width of pavement,
narrow culverts/bridges, inadequate friction of the roads
surface etc. Drivers at wheels have to take decision with
information received through visual observation of road,
78
Remarks
pavement marking, delineators and sign boards etc. Have

road designers ever tried to understand what information
driver gets at the road junctions and pavement markings?
With inadequate information about road safety hazards,
drivers makes manuvers and get involved in an accident.
It is wrong to blame drivers for road accidents without
undertaking detailed analysis of accident site and
surroundings. Criticality of the situation can be aptly
understood from the similarities given in Fig. 3 below.
(Cricket Player)
(Lorry Driver)
Fig. 3 In Cricket Batsman and a Lorry Driver Get Fraction of

Seconds to Decide the Action to be Taken. Cricket Batsman
Misjudges the Ball can Loose his Wicket. While
a Driver Misjudges the Situation on Road
may get Involved in an Accident
High Priority for Improvements at Accident Black

Spots
Recently Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has

identified the spots on National Highways where accidents
take place again and again. Such accident spot are termed
as black spots. At accidents black spots, accidents happen
time and again. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Government of India, has started allocation of 20% of funds
under Annual Plans for remedial measures for accidents
black spots on National Highways. This is definitely a very
laudable step. Black spots on NHs, in 13 States, have been
identified and are available at Ministrys web site www.
morth.com. Remedial measures to improve the black spot
in the State of Haryana and Karnataka have been identified
through a Consultant. There is a need to get the accidents
TECHNICAL PAPERS
black spots on NHs in other States examined to finalize
engineering measures for improvement Similar initiative is
required by the State Governments for State Highways and
Major District Roads. It is unfair to accord low priority to
remedial engineering measures at accident black spots. In
countries such as UK and Japan, Engineer in charge working
at different levels are given targets to reduce accidents in
their area of jurisdiction. Engineers after study at accident
sites suggest and implement engineering measures and
achieve reduction in accidents.
7
To Study Effectiveness of Measures Taken at Black

Spots
At accident locations the measures generally implemented

for reducing accidents are provision of speed breaker
and installation of traffic sign boards, improvement in
sight distance, remodeling of junctions, construction
of pedestrian over bridges, widening/reconstruction of
culverts and removal of other traffic hazards etc. After
the remedial measures are implemented there is a need
to monitor whether the remedial measures are showing
desired results or not. In case the remedial measures are not
effective, then after site visit some alternate improvements
works need to be undertaken. Till the accident black spot
becomes accident free, efforts should continue to implement
remedial measures.
8
Accident Black Spots Versus Road Safety Audit
For BOT projects, Road Safety Expert is deployed during

design, construction and operation stage of projects to
ensure adequate measures are in place for safety of road
users. While on existing roads, inspection as well as safety
audit (which tells us deficiencies in the road network)
should form a basis for remedial measures to remove
deficiencies on the roads. Road accidents do point out that
there are deficiencies at accident spots which are generally
not attended with desired vigour. In addition to road safety
audit of existing roads, there is a need to attend to accident
black spots on priority. There is justification to allocate
separate funds for both Road safety Audit and remedial
measures at accident spots.
9
Necessity by Road user to Apprise the Road

Authorities
Traffic hazards can be equally identified by road users in

terms of having faced hazardous location while driving. In
developed countries, road users apprise the road authorities
as and where they come across hazards while travelling
on road network, who in turn take an immediate action
in inspecting the site and undertake necessary remedial
measures, which helps the road authority in removing
causes of accidents and savings on likely civil liabilities,
which unfortunately does not exist in our country till date.
It would be equally important to apprise the road users

as regard appropriate measures being taken by concerned
authorities. Road authorities may have toll free number to
encourage road users to part with information regarding
difficulty they faced while driving on roads. Ministry of
road transport and highways, GOI have face book on which
road users can register their views regarding deficiencies
in roads.
10
Recent Initiatives by Central Government
MORTH has launched cashless scheme for accident

victims on NH-8 in Haryana and Rajasthan. Under the
cashless scheme, the road accident victims who make use
of ambulance provided by the MORTH and get treatment at
MORTH designed hospitals, will get free medical treatment
upto Rs 30,000.00.
Under pilot project of MORTH, IIT Delhi and
Accident Data Analysis Centre (ADAC) of NATRIP
(National Automotive Testing and R & D Infrastructure
Project), have jointly started Accident Data Collection and
its analysis. Accident study team, at accident spot, locate
the vehicles involved in an accident, study evidence such
as skid marks, fluid spills and broken parts of vehicles
etc. photograph them, measure the accident damage to
the vehicle and occupants and identify interior locations
occupied by the passengers. The investigators will follow
up their on-site investigations by interacting with accident
victims and other involved parties and by studying medical
records to determine the nature and severity of injuries.
Accident data collection and field study shall also include
interview of eye witnesses and accident victims which will
be conducted at their discretion and will be kept confidential.
Data collection and analysis teams are interested only in
information that will help them understand the nature and
causes of accidents. The study will bring out causes of
accidents and remedial measures at accident spots.
Conclusion
For NHs, SHs and other roads in the country there is a
need to identify accident black spots. Concerned engineer
in charge should visit the accident site, watch movement of
traffic, have discussion with traffic police, local residents/
road users and decide improvements in a time bound
manner. After implementation, study the effectiveness of
implemented measures.
Adoption of intelligent Highway systems, traffic safety
measures, and variable message signs etc help in enhancing
road safety. With scientific accident analysis and
implementation of remedial measures and adoption of speed
monitoring devices, enforcement, number of accidents each
year will further come down.
79
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82
Circular and Annexure-1 is available on Ministerys Website (www.morth.nic.in) and same is also available in Ministerys Library.
83
84
Circular and Annexure is available on Ministerys Website (www.morth.nic.in) and same is also available in Ministerys Library.
85
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

From the Editors Desk - Research & Development in Road Sector

Meet the Office Bearers of the Indian Roads Congress

Announcement of International Seminar-2014

Just Released Publications of IRC

10-17 Highlights of 203rd Mid-Term Council Meeting of IRC

Distressed Concrete Bridges in India-Problems and Solutions

Experiences on Hill Road Construction in Mizoram

Accidents on Roads - A Way Forward

80-85 Circular Issued by MoRT&H

Tender Notice, NH Salem

Tender Notice, NH Madurai

The Indian Roads Congress

Founded : December 1934

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

From the Editors Desk

Research & Development in Road Sector

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

MEET THE Office Bearers OF THE INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS

SHRI SUNIL BHOWMIK

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

SHRI S.N. Das

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Meet The Office Bearers of The Indian Roads Congress

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

SHRI Ajoy Chandra Bordoloi

Shri Nalini Kanta Pradhan

Shri N.K. Pradhan did B.Sc Engg. (Civil) with

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Meet The Office Bearers of The Indian Roads Congress

SHRI SHYAM SUNDER PORWAL, VSM

SHRI Mohit Verma

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Themes of the Seminar

For IRC Members from India and SAARC Countries

Rs. 4000/- per participant

Title of the Publication

Specifications for Readymade Bituminous Pothole Patching Mix using

Guidelines of Road Drainage (First Revision)

Manual of Specifications & Standards for Four Laning of Highways

Interim Guidelines for Warm Mix Asphalt

Guidelines for Design and Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE 203rd Mid-Term COUNCIL MEETING

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shipping

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways,

The Indian Roads Congress organized its 203rd

IRC & Engineer-in-Chief, PWD Tripura Shri Sunil

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting

Lighting of Traditional Lamp during the 203rd Council Meeting

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting

A View of the dais

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting

Address by Secretary, Govt. of India, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, September 2014

Highlights of 203rd Council Meeting