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BY VINCENT E. SAGAN AND MICHAEL L. BRAINERD

Sagan

Brainerd

Evaluation and Rehabilitation

OF OLDER, CIRCULAR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TANKS
ircular, prestressed concrete tanks have a
long history of providing dependable
service to the water and wastewater
industries. Many tanks have been in
service for more than 50 years, exposed to conditions that can cause deterioration of the tank
concrete and reinforcement (prestressed wire,
reinforcing bars, welded-wire fabric, and lightgauge steel diaphragms). The exterior surfaces
of tank roofs and walls are exposed to weather.
Many tanks are at least partially buried, thereby
exposing the tank walls to soil and to groundwater and/or surface water. The interior surfaces

designed and -executed concrete repairs and

protection measures. Newer tanks are less likely
to be subject to deterioration than older tanks
because they are designed and constructed to
more rigorous, tested standards such as
ANSI/AWWA D110 and ACI 372.

PHOTOS: SIMPSON GUMPERTZ & HEGER INC.

CIRCULAR, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TANK

CONSTRUCTION

Horizontal cracking often occurred in older tanks because of the restraint provided by the continuous foundationwall joint commonly used on Type II tanks
and the continuous domewall joint used when the wall was prestressed.

of tank walls are exposed to the tank contents,

which is usually potable water or wastewater.
The interior surfaces of tank roofs are exposed
to the condensate of the tank contents. Some
older tanks are now showing the effects of exposure to the elements in the form of delamination
and spalling of concrete over corroded reinforcement and freezethaw deterioration of the concrete. The service lives of older, deteriorating
tanks can be extended by implementing well28

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A prestressed concrete tank is primarily a

concrete cylinder with a relatively thin wall
that is wrapped with prestressed wire or strand
and covered with shotcrete (Figure 1). The
equipment and methods to apply and prestress
high-strength wire in a continuous spiral on the
outside of the tank wall were developed in the
early 1940s. This method of wire-wrap prestressing remains essentially unchanged. Tank
wall construction varies. AWWAs
ANSI/AWWA D110-95 defines four types of
prestressed concrete tank corewalls: Type I
cast-in-place concrete with vertical prestressed
reinforcement, Type IIshotcrete with a steel
diaphragm, Type IIIprecast concrete with a
steel diaphragm, and Type IVcast-in-place
concrete with a steel diaphragm. According to
ACI 372, vertical wall prestressing was introduced in the 1930s. Shotcrete tanks incorporating a light-gauge steel diaphragm (Type II
corewall) were first built in 1952. By the early
1960s, nearly all shotcrete tanks used Type II
corewalls. In 1966, the first tanks with precast
concrete walls incorporating steel diaphragms
(Type III corewall) were constructed.
The tank wall is supported on a strip concrete
footing that is usually cast monolithically with
the floor slab. The floor is typically a reinforced
concrete slab on ground. There may also be isolated or strip footings to support columns or
interior walls.
Tanks may be left open at the top, but that is
rare for potable water storage. Tank roofs can
consist of a flat-profile concrete slab supported
on columns or a thin concrete dome with a pre-

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stressed dome ring. The prestressed

dome ring creates a state of compression throughout the dome. Although
flat roofs are typically constructed of
cast-in-place concrete, dome construction varies. From 1950 to 1970,
tanks up to about 125 ft (37.5 m) in
diameter were commonly built with
most dry-mix shotcrete domes whereas other tanks were built with cast-inplace concrete domes. Domes are
currently constructed of cast-in-place
concrete or precast concrete panels.
Structural members inside a tank
may include concrete columns, depending on the roof type, and concrete
walls. Concrete walls are used to create
mixing chambers, longer flow times,
and separate treatment chambers.

COMMON TYPES OF DETERIORATION

AND DISTRESS
Corrosion. Concrete normally provides excellent corrosion protection
for the embedded reinforcement in
tanks (prestressed wire, reinforcing
bars, welded-wire fabric, and the
light-gauge steel diaphragm).
However, chlorides and carbonation
break down this protection.

If a new concrete dome is applied, the existing dome may remain. If an aluminum geodesic dome
is applied, the existing dome must be removed.

Chlorides, present in the precipitation

of coastal environments, permeate the
concrete surface. Carbonation occurs
when carbon dioxide in the air, with
moisture, permeates the concrete and
lowers the pH. The depth of chloride

and carbonation penetration increases over time and with the relative permeability of the concrete or shotcrete.
When the amount of chloride at the
depth of the reinforcement reaches
about 1.25 lb/cu yd (0.74 kg/m3) or

FIGURE 1 Section/elevation of a tank with dome

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FIGURE 2 Sample of condition survey field notes

when the carbonation front reaches

the reinforcement, corrosion will likely occur if moisture and oxygen are
present. Corrosion produces rust and
may cause delamination and spalling
of the concrete.
The onset of corrosion depends on
the permeability of the concrete, the
depth of cover, and the degree of
exposure. The higher the permeability, the thinner the cover, and the
harsher the exposure, the sooner corrosion and the resulting delamination
and spalling will begin. Once delamination and spalling begin, air, moisture, carbonation, and chlorides can
more easily attack the reinforcement
surface and the deeper regions of the
concrete, and the deterioration
process accelerates. Corrosion of the
reinforcement leads to section loss
and prestressed wire breakage (see
photograph on page 32).
In older tanks, multiple layers of
prestressed wire were not always
spaced properly to allow adequate
shotcrete encasement. Multiple layers
of wires are required at the dome ring
to support the dome and at the lower
portion of the wall to carry the higher
pressures that occur at the base of the
tank. With such congestion, the shotcrete usually did not fill all the voids
between the wires, allowing water to
flow more easily in and among the
layers of wire. Because some wires
were not encased in shotcrete, they
were not fully protected by the pas30

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sive protective layer that can be

achieved with full encapsulation.
Thus, the time to corrosion was significantly reduced.
Cracks. Cracks, which effectively
increase the permeability of the concrete and reduce the depth of cover,
also accelerate the deterioration
process. Cracking is a result of the
restraint of volume changes in the
concrete because of moisture
(shrinkage and swelling) and temperature change and because of the
restraint of movement caused by
prestressing. Horizontal cracking
often occurred in older tanks
because of the restraint provided by
the continuous foundationwall
joint commonly used on Type II
tanks and the continuous domewall
joint used when the wall was prestressed (see photograph on page
28). Most tanks are now designed
and constructed with a flexible joint
at the bottom of the wall and either
a flexible joint at the top of the wall
or a more robust upper wall to minimize cracking in these areas.
Cracks may also occur at construction joints. Construction joints are
locations in a concrete structure
where the structure is intended to be
continuous and the concrete is placed
at two different times. Contractors try
to minimize the number of joints
because they are weaker than the surrounding concrete even though special
details are used to provide continuity.
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The shotcrete cover on the prestressed wires sometimes exhibits

map cracking (see photograph on
page 32). This cracking is the result
of restraint of shotcrete shrinkage
with respect to the underlying prestressed wires and the structure to
which it is bonded.
Water within cracks can cause them
to widen as a result of freezethaw
action. The sources of water include
precipitation, the adjacent ground,
water vapor transmission and condensation, and leaks. Signs of leakage
or migration of external moisture
into or out of cracks includes wet
areas and efflorescence (see photograph on page 32).
Freezethaw durability. Although
delamination and spalling of concrete
are usually associated with the corrosion of steel, poor freezethaw durability can result in delamination and
spalling, especially in older shotcrete
domes. Dry-mix shotcrete domes,
common in tanks constructed before
1970, have a history of less-than-adequate freezethaw durability. Sand
lenses (lenses of shotcrete with little
cement) sometimes formed at construction joints, and the spray application process sometimes created
weak interfacial zones between the
multiple shotcrete passes. Water
entering and freezing in these areas
often caused delamination of the
shotcrete. Furthermore, the dry-mix
shotcrete typically lacks a protective
air void system. Design and
Construction of Circular Wire- and
Strand-Wrapped Prestressed Concrete
Structures (ACI 372) no longer
approves the use of dry-mix shotcrete
for domes located in areas subject to
frequent freezing and thawing cycles.
Aggregate durability. The coarse and
fine aggregate for the concrete usually
come from sources close to the site of
the tank, and consequently the characteristics of these materials will differ from location to location. The
available aggregate may be susceptible to alkali-aggregate reaction,

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Corrosion of the reinforcement (left) leads to section loss and prestressed wire breakage.
Signs of leakage or migration of external moisture into or out of cracks (center) includes
wet areas and efflorescence. The shotcrete cover on the prestressed wires (right) sometimes exhibits map cracking.

which creates expansive forces within

the concrete. The aggregate may contain trace amounts of shale that can
leave rust stains and pop-outs in the
concrete. These deterioration mechanisms require moisture to progress.
Abrasion. Shotcrete deterioration
also occurs on the inside surface of
Type II tanks where a relatively thin
layer of shotcrete covers the
diaphragm on the inside of the tank.
In cold climates, ice can form on the
top of the water inside the tank. The
cold and water can result in
freezethaw deterioration. If the ice is
allowed to form a solid piece, the ice
layer can abrade and wear the shotcrete surface.

EVALUATING DISTRESS
AND DETERIORATION:
THE CONDITION APPRAISAL
Developing a rehabilitation program requires a thorough understanding of not only the types and
extent of distress and deterioration,
but also the cause of these conditions.
Without proper knowledge, money
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may be spent repairing the symptoms

without addressing the cause.
A condition appraisal involves the
tasks described in the paragraphs
below, and its objective is to collect
sufficient information to form a
rational basis for identifying and analyzing options for remedial work
intended to repair existing distress
and deterioration and extend the useful life of the tank.
Document review. The original construction drawings and specifications
and the as-built drawings contain
important information on the design
and construction of the prestressed
tank, including design loads, dimensions, material properties, and prestressing forces. This information is
useful for a structural review and for
planning the condition survey.
Reports of previous tank condition
appraisals contain information about
the past condition of the tank. A
comparison of these snapshots in
time often provides information that
is useful in estimating the rate of deterioration. Construction documents
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for previous repair and protection

work contain information not only
about the past condition of the tank
but also about the material and
workmanship requirements for previous repairs.
Interviews. Operations personnel
usually have special knowledge of the
tank. Through interviews, they can
provide important historical information on tank performance, repair, and
maintenance.
Condition surveys. The condition
survey involves inspection of the tank
to spot-check the as-built construction against the design and/or as-built
drawings and to identify the location
and extent of distress and deterioration. The extent of the survey can
vary widely, depending on the condition of the tank and accessibility. Full
access to the tank interior is often not
possible. Scheduling condition surveys at times of regular maintenance
(such as for removal of sediment or
during periods of low demand) could
allow access to the tank interior.
Inspection of the underside of the

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tank roof, upper portions of the

walls, and other interior components
can be done from an inflatable raft.
Internal tank inspection requires
careful planning, including the following important considerations:
structural implications of draining the tank (such as the potential for
and effect of groundwater hydrostatic
uplift pressures on the tank floor),
need for a confined-space entry
program, and
need for equipment to access the
tank components (such as ladders,
movable staging, and an inflatable
raft).
Inspection of the exterior surfaces
of buried portions of tank walls
requires excavation of inspection pits.
Inspection of the exterior of the tank
for near-ground distress and deterioration and wet ground might identify
suspect areas for excavation and
inspection.
The condition survey involves visual observations (to document the
location and extent of readily visible
distress, deterioration, and leakage)
and sounding of the concrete surfaces (to detect hollow-sounding
areas that usually indicate delamination of the concrete as a result of corrosion of the reinforcement or
freezethaw action). Supplementing
the sounding with exploratory openings to inspect hidden conditions at
hollow-sounding areas allows determination of the cause of delamination
and, in the case of corrosion, the condition of the reinforcement.
Several nondestructive-testing
(NDT) techniques provide additional
information concerning tank construction and condition: (1) pachometer (reinforcement locator) and/or
ground-penetrating radar surveys to
locate reinforcement and estimate the
amount of concrete cover, (2) impact
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echo and/or impact response surveys

to estimate the concrete thickness, the
extent of delamination, and the
extent of freezethaw damage, and
(3) galvanostatic pulse surveys to
assess the probability and rate of
ongoing corrosion.
All survey results should be documented on scale drawings showing the
types, locations, and extent of distress
and deterioration, the locations of
NDT surveys, the locations of
exploratory excavations, and the locations of material samples (Figure 2).
Material testing. Understanding the
structural integrity and durability features of the concrete is crucial to
identifying and analyzing rehabilitation options. In some cases, this may
require testing the in-place strength of
the concrete. Concrete strength can
be determined by testing concrete
cores. The general quality, extent of
internal distress and deterioration,
and general durability features of the
concrete can be evaluated by petrographic analysis of concrete cores.
Structural review. The structural
design of the tank should be reviewed
to confirm the adequacy of the original design, check the adequacy of the
design for changes in loading since
the original design, and assess the
effect of deterioration on structural
adequacy.

REHABILITATION CAN BE A VIABLE

ALTERNATIVE TO REPLACEMENT
The intent of tank rehabilitation is
to repair existing distress and deterioration and extend the useful life of
the tank. Depending on the cause
and extent of deterioration and distress, there are usually several rehabilitation alternatives that meet this
intent.
Repair of distress and deterioration.
Leaks. Leakage can occur through
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joints and cracks. At cracks and

joints not subject to significant movement, epoxy injection is a viable
repair option if leakage is localized.
Elastomeric interior coatings can
also be effective in mitigating leaks.
These liquid-applied coatings can
bridge cracks and joints, but special
attention is required at flexible
joints. Surface preparation to ensure
a good bond for the coating is challenging because of the confined
nature of tanks. The curing time for
these coatings may be long because
of the moist and cool environment in
tanks. NSF 61 certification is
required for coatings on the inside of
potable water storage tanks.
NSF/ANSI Standard 61, Drinking
Water System ComponentsHealth
Effects covers every product and
material in the water delivery system
from the intake to the faucet.
Materials not certified to NSF 61
may contain contaminants that could
leach or migrate into the drinking
water above acceptable levels.
Corrosion damage. Shotcrete, concrete, and specialty products can be
used to repair damage caused by the
corrosion of reinforcement. A variety of specialty products with different properties can be used
depending on the application, such
as overhead repairs. If a specialty
repair material is in contact with
potable water, it may require NSF
61 certification. Several specialty
repair materials are certified. If
there is doubt about whether a
product is certified, apply an NSF
61 certified coating.
The repair material must possess
characteristics similar to those of the
existing base concrete or shotcrete.
Similar permeability will reduce the
development of condensation at the
interface between the repair material

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and the original substrate as water

vapor is transmitted through the
structure. If the condensation freezes,
the repair is stressed where it is the
weakest. Similar stiffness and thermal
characteristics will allow the repair to
move the same amount as the rest of
the structure.
Repair of corrosion damage consists of the following:
removing the deteriorated concrete and enough sound concrete to
expose uncorroded reinforcement, to
clear a space around reinforcing bars
(not prestressed wire), and to provide
square edges around the perimeter
of the removal area (extra care is
required when working next to prestressed wire to prevent damage to the
highly stressed, small-diameter wire);
cleaning the corrosion from the
reinforcement and applying a rust
inhibitor coating;
replacing and supplementing
severely corroded reinforcement
where required (if a significant number of prestressed wires are severely
corroded and broken, wires can be
added either locally by splicing in
new sections of wire or completely
around the perimeter of the tank to
restore the integrity of the prestressing); and
applying the repair material, typically shotcrete, over prestressed
wires (repair material is finished to
match the existing tank).
Noncorrosion damage. Localized
concrete damage not caused by corrosion, such as shotcrete sand lenses
and abrasion, can be repaired in a
manner similar to corrosion-induced
damage. Repair of noncorrosion
damage caused by inadequate
freezethaw durability will not be
successful if the inadequate durability is widespread (e.g., extending
over most of the dome exterior sur-

face and extending through its

thickness).
One option, short of replacing the
tank, is to install a new concrete or
aluminum geodesic dome. The walls,
floor, and piping of the tank remain.
For new concrete domes, the existing
dome can remain or be removed (see
photograph on page 29). The existing
dome is removed when an aluminum
geodesic dome is installed.
Protection. Exterior coatings can
improve aesthetics, provide a protective barrier on the concrete, bridge
cracks, and reduce permeability. ACI
372 recommends that exterior coatings be breathable; this eliminates
products such as urethanes and
epoxy coatings with low permeability ratings. Coatings on horizontal or
low-sloping surfaces must be resistant to prolonged moisture contact,
such as snow and ponded water; this
precludes many acrylic coatings.
Cement-based coatings are breathable and are not affected by prolonged moisture content, but they
are less aesthetically pleasing
because of a tendency to have a mottled appearance.
The new coating requires proper
surface preparation, and this may be
one of the most expensive aspects of a
rehabilitation project. At a minimum,
surface preparation includes detergent
and water cleaning to remove organics such as moss and lichen and any
loose material. The preparation may
be as extensive as sandblasting. If the
new coating is compatible with an
existing coating on the tank, the existing coating may remain if it is sound
and breathable. Otherwise, it may
need to be removed. After surface
preparation, a detail coat should be
applied on all cracks before applying
the coating on all the surfaces according to the manufacturers instructions.
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Appurtenances. It may be time to

replace the dome vent, roof access
hatches, or ladders. Unless it is
accounted for in the original
design, there is usually no good
place to connect new appurtenances to the exterior surface of
the wall and the dome ring and
avoid the prestressed wires. A similar condition exists on the interior
of some tanks. The vertical prestressing system in Type I corewalls is sometimes placed near the
inside surface to help keep the tank
watertight.
New ladders that conform to
Office of Safety and Health
Administration requirements will
usually require a larger opening in the
roof structure. Enlarging existing roof
openings and installing a double-leaf
hatch is possible. The larger opening
accommodates new ladders and
makes future access easier. A larger
opening is often necessary for dome
repair, shoring, installation, and
removal.
Rehabilitation alternatives analysis.
Usually there are several technically
acceptable rehabilitation options, each
with different costs and service lives.
One option that should be considered
with a significantly deteriorated tank
is the construction of a new tank. Each
rehabilitation option should include
an engineering estimate of both initial
and long-term costs and a service life
estimate. With this information,
together with an understanding of the
importance of the tank, the owner can
select the most suitable rehabilitation
strategy.

REGULAR UPKEEP IS A NECESSITY

All tanks require some regular
housekeeping. At a minimum, the
following should be performed once a
year:

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Remove the accumulated debris,

including leaves and branches from the
top of the dome and along the wall.
The debris traps moisture on the tank
surface, which can promote concrete
deterioration.
Clear and clean drainage channels
and pipes around the tank. Keep the
ground sloped away from the tank.
Remove vegetation from the base of
the tank. This helps keep excess water
away from the tank. And if there is a
leak, it will be easier to detect.
Check the integrity and security of
hatches and vents. This will discourage
vandals and adventurers from dropping debris in the tanks.
During the winter, vary the elevation of the water in the tank to break
up the ice and mitigate ice abrasion on
the inside surface of the tank wall.
Because tanks are exposed to conditions that can cause deterioration of
the tank concrete and reinforcement, a
condition inspection is recommended
at least every five years. Regular
inspections will catch a problem while
it is still minor and can be corrected
more easily.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Although some older circular prestressed concrete tanks are now showing the ill effects of exposure after many
years of dependable service, their service
lives are not over. Through condition
appraisal, the cause of the deterioration
and distress can be identified. Common
types of deterioration and distress
include cracks, leaks, spalling, and
delamination caused by corrosion and
inadequate freezethaw durability. After
the condition appraisal, rehabilitation
strategies can be developed and evaluated. Implementing a cost-effective rehabilitation plan and performing regular
upkeep can extend the service life of circular prestressed concrete tanks.
Vincent E. Sagan is a senior associate
with Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates,
1869 E. Aurora Rd., Ste. 300,
Twinsburg, OH 44087. Sagan can be
contacted at vsagan@wje.com or
(330) 487-1100. Michael L. Brainerd is
a principal with Simpson Gumpertz &
Heger Inc., 41 Seyon St., Building #1,
Suite 500, Waltham, MA 02453.
Brainerd can be contacted at
mlbrainerd@sgh.com or (781) 907-9000.

Heger, F.J. 1990. Concrete Domes for Water and Wastewater Tanks. ACI

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACI (American Concrete Institute ), 2003. Design and Construction of
Circular Wire- and Strand-Wrapped Prestressed Concrete
Structures (ACI 372R-03), ACI, Farmington Hills, Mich.
AWWA Standard for Wire- and Strand-Wound, Circular, Prestressed
Concrete Water Tanks (ANSI/AWWA D110-95), 1995. AWWA, Denver.
Crowley, F.X., 1976. Maintenance Problems and Solutions for Prestressed
Concrete Tanks. Jour. AWWA, 68:11:579.

Structural Jour., 87:4:445, July/August.

NSF/ANSI (American National Standards Institute) Standard 61. Drinking
Water System ComponentsHealth Effects. NSF Intl., Ann Arbor,
Mich.
Sagan, V.E. & Pinelle, D.J., 2002. Construction Savings With
Coating Analysis. Concrete Repair Bull., 15:5:8.

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