How Designers Think-090406

DECO1006 - UNDERSTANDING DESIGN AND COGNITION
How designers think

HMMM!!
REFLECTIVE
CONVERSATION
Paul Murty
Design Lab - Faculty of Architecture Design & Planning,
University of Sydney . Australia April 2009
Part 0
Story so far

Design Lab . Faculty of Architecture Design & Planning . University of Sydney . Australia April 2009
Story so far
Introduction & Design and Society
Philosophy in Design
Language of Design
Models of design
AI in design / Knowledge-based design
How designers think
Could be overlapping or different views

Feel free to ask questions or interject
Be prepared to speak, as thinking designers
This is about you as much as anybody else

How designers think

Today - Concepts
1A
1B
1C
Designing and Thinking

Models and paradigms
Ways of studying design thinking
Tomorrow - Research
2A
2B
2C
Process oriented research

Content oriented research
Future research directions

Aims
Understanding
o
How Design differs from Science, Art activities
Knowledge and processes involved in design
Methods of studying design thinking
Issues involved in design thinking research
How (some many) designers think

Design Lab,Faculty of Architecture Design & Planning . University of Sydney . Australia April 2009
Part 1
Concepts

1A Designing and Thinking

When we consider design as an activity
let's call it designing
o There is a growing general interest in designing as
a distinct and vital form of dynamic intelligence
o Driving this is a view that designerly ways of
knowing, thinking and acting may be identified and
developed as a natural intelligence of design
o So, what are designerly ways and what is their role
in the creative experience of designing?

Discussion
The ways designers think ?
o What are your experiences of designing?
o How have earlier lectures influenced thoughts about design?
o Have you observed the ways people design?
o How does your way of designing compare with others?

What do we know about designing?

o Intentional: aims to change something
o Strategic: directed towards a representation, or
prescription of a future end product or condition
o Communicated: to others, to act upon
o Situated - many actions and other factors may
influence or assist the designing, or production of
the end product

How is designing different from Science and Art ?

o Science - ing? - scientific method
o Art - ing? - creative expression
How does designing differ across disciplines?

o
o
o
o
Architectural design?
Planning?
Product design?
Digital design?

Why study design thinking?

o Challenge - major research frontier
o Understanding - of who and what we are
o Paradigm - applied intelligence in dynamic situations
o Raise design standards - improve quality of life
o Restore damaged world - a sustainable existence

Research Aims
o Explore and develop understanding of design thinking
o Formalise knowledge in theories, models, methods
Long term Objectives

o Improve education of designers
o Augment practice - develop tools to assist designers
o Facilitate wider application of design

1B Paradigms and Models

of Designing
Paradigm
o Model, or a clear and typical example of something
o Conventional way of doing or thinking about something
Model
A representation of something
eg. a smaller physical object, or a simple description
Computational model
System having similar functions and relationship structure,
to the process it models

1B Paradigms and Models of Designing
Design Paradigms
or alternate conceptions of designing
Broadbent (1973)
o Pragmatic directly shape the materials of the artefact
o Iconic - adopt successful solutions as ideal forms (icons)
o Canonic formalise rules (canons) from icons
o Analogical use analogue medium, to represent design

Paradigms - alternate conceptions of designing contd.

Gero (1990)
o Routine - proceeds from existing prototypes
o Innovative - proceeds from prototype, but with
freedom to change (eg. stretch) some variables
o Creative new variables, from a variety of origins
Bi-polar alternatives
o Top down - conjecture an overall design first
o Bottom up - commence with design of parts


Top Down design
Iconic design
Routine design
Treats successful solutions (prototypes) as:

1.Templates for new structures
2.Accepted form for structures of a type.
Proceeds from existing prototypes
Canonic design
Innovative design
Builds upon iconic design by providing

rules, or components, as design resources.
Proceeds from prototypes, with freedom to

change the ranges of prototype variables.
Analogical design
Creative design
Analogue medium, such as a drawing, is

used to simulate or represent an invented
design.
Pragmatic design
Employ and manipulate materials directly
until a suitable solution is created.
New variables used, producing new types.

Provides capacity to produce a paradigm
shift
- Combination
- Transformation
- Analogy
- Emergence
- First Principles
Bottom Up design

Early models of designing

o were based on problem solving analogy
o viewed design situations as problems
Asimow (1962)
o Analysis Synthesis - Evaluation
o Iterative: not a simple A - B - C process
A NA LY SIS
SYN T HES IS
E VA L UA TION

Design Problem view

o Problem-solving analogy has been criticised as being
simplistic, negative, mechanical
o Many designers view a new project as an opportunity
o Requirements are often created during designing
The view of architect Denys Lasden. cited by Nigel Cross

(Cross 1999) hints at something more:
.. our job is to give the client not what he wants, but what he
never dreamed he wanted ..

Designing is problematic
Designing and Problem solving are prompted by the
presence of the unwanted or absence of the wanted.
o Design situations, or problems, are variously described as:
- ill-defined or ill-structured: ill meaning insufficient
- wicked: meaning complex and hierarchical, many interactions,
eg. where you need to propose a solution in order to understand
the problem (Rittel 1984)
o Designing has also been described as rhetorical, exploratory,
emergent, opportunistic, abductive, reflective, ambiguous, risky
(Cross 1999)
o Necessary to clarify or identify the real problem(s)
o Uncertainties tend to require subjective interpretations

and: designing is situated

Situated = being in and a part of a dynamic context
o The design and the designer are both situated

- The design has a context, the designer has an agenda
- The problem (barrier or unknown) always exists relative
to the problem solver. Mayer (1989)
o The situated view recognises the dynamics of designing

- Design is experienced as a situation which the designer
inhabits. (Schon 1983)
- First person view - interactive, adaptive (Gero 2006)
o Design solutions
- Possibly no right solution, just better or worse (Rittel 1984)
- Designs may consist of part solutions, or be holistic concept
depending on many indeterminate and situational factors

Discussion
What do we understand by design thinking ?
o Do architects, other designers, artists, scientists, or people in
other professions think differently in some systematic way?
- In what ways might they differ?
o Which activities are the most designerly?
- Client meetings or site inspections?
- Sketching, drawing, modelling?
- Individual or group activity?
o Any comments on your designing and experiences of:

- Different stages?
- Different activities?
- Your own style?

1C Ways of studying
design thinking
Early developments
o The study of design thinking began almost before design as
we know it today.
o Creative, expressive, analogical designing was a rarity

before modernism became dominant
o The study of thinking was part of an evolving modernism

- Structuralism - focused on mental structures (W.Wundt 1880s)
- Functionalism - focused on what people do and why (W.James)
- Pragmatism - knowledge validated by usefulness (J.Dewey)
- Associationism - how experiences, near in time, become
associated and bring about learning. (H.Ebbinghaus, E.Guthrie)
- Behaviourism - proposed associations are related to satisfaction,
not just contiguity. (E. Thorndike)
1C Ways of studying design thinking
Conflicting Views
In 1927 Philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote of a consistency in
behavioural studies, of animals:
- The observed animals confirmed the philosophy believed by the observer
before his observations began
- Animals studied by Americans rush about frantically, with an incredible
display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance
- Animals observed by Germans sit still and think, and at last evolve the
solution out of their inner consciousness
Russell (2007) For background see: http://forum.dcc.ac.uk/viewtopic.php?t=164
What makes this more than a funny story is that:

- Learning theory, the American perspective, developed from
behaviourism dominated human psychology for several decades
- Gestalt theory, part of the German perspective and a vital part of the
study of cognition became unfashionable until the 1950s

Gestalt Theory
o Gestalt psychologists
- Focused on process and organisation
- Had a systematic perspective on
wholes, having particular properties,
that are not evident in the parts
- Rejected the Behaviourist view of thinking as simplistic
- Studied novel problems, requiring a qualitatively different approach
- Argued, solutions to such problems unlikely to arise by chance
Mayer (1995)
o Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) proposed:

- Solving a non-routine problem requires insight into the problem,
or recognising how parts of a problem fit together, typically in a
way not previously appreciated
- Grasping the internal structure of a problem situation is the
central component of what he termed productive thinking, as
distinct from normal reproductive thinking.
Wertheimer (1959)

Gestalt Theory contd

Gestalt theory focuses on process and organisation
o Preparation - when the problem is investigated or confronted
o Fixation when barriers to solution are encountered
o Incubation - a mulling over stage, when the problem solver ceases to
work on the problem, typically after getting stuck or experiencing
some form of mental block
o Restructuring - changes in awareness of the problem or goals, or
or a reinterpretation, leading to insight
o Illumination - The sensation of welcome and gratifying surprise
marked by the feeling, summed-up by, "Aha!"
Gestalt theory has had a long association with design perception but
its influence in relation to design cognition is less apparent

Cognitive Science
A fresh approach to psychological research in the 1950s:
o Combined elements from different sources
- Experimental research methodology
- Recognition of learning and memory as keys to cognitive processes.
- Combined concepts and techniques from German (Gestalt &Wurzburg)
theorists, computer science, information theory and linguistics.
o
Rejected the Behaviourist view

Viewed humans as active, information-seeking and information- using
organisms, rather than passive receivers of stimulation.
o Focused on information processing

Viewed cognition as being fundamentally computational in nature
- brain corresponds to hardware
- mind corresponds to software
Refs: Reynolds & Flagg (1983), Mayer (1995), Simon (1999)

Design thinking research

Has developed at the same time as cognitive science
o Features of design thinking research

-
Vigorous field, developing quickly internationally

Beyond anything goes - becoming more rigorous
Draws on cognitive science and contributes to it
Wide range of research options available
Methods have different strengths and weaknesses
o Research Methods
-
Introspection
Interviews
Questionnaires
Input-output experiments
Protocol studies
Brain studies

Design Research - Options

Introspection reflection
o Default method research typically starts this way

o Long tradition of introspective research
o Quick, intuitively satisfying to author
o Author reliability may be an issue
o Tends to generate un-testable conjectural theories
o Limited without other forms of validation

Design Research Options contd

Interview studies
o Direct means of acquiring first-hand information from source

o Strong indicative capability unexpected detail, new findings
o Reliability issues:
- Based on respondent memory
- Questions may lead the respondent
- Interviewer may bias results
o Reliability enhancement:
-
Quality and quantity of respondents

Semi structured, open ended questioning
Clearly specified coding, allowing replication
Multiple interviewers and coders


Questionnaires
o Popular means of investigating large numbers

o Strong indicative capability, but limited follow up
o Reliability affected by being:
- memory-based
- biased by questions
- biased by expectations
o Reliability enhancement:
-
Rigorous pilot study process

Large, objectively selected populations
Rigorous coding and data analysis
Statistical significance
Follow up interviews, focus groups or other research


Inputoutput experiments
o Method
Basic behavioural experiment: subject-task-action
- Designer (subject) regarded as a black box
- Change input (Brief), measure change
in output (Product)
- May be carried out on humans or by
computational methods
o Example - study of fixation among designers, found:

- Exposure to existing design influences current designing
- Different forms of fixation affect different designers
- Fixations occurred with both analogical (deep) and
superficial (surface) features. (Purcell and Gero 1996)
o Applicability
- Indicative of possible process (ie.fixation) causing a result
- Doesnt explore reasons or provide model of designing, only
models the process that produces a behavioural change
- Computational models are strong proof of working processes

Protocol studies
o Procedure
- Video+audio record designer while designing
- Collect recorded data from:
. concurrent/think-aloud and/or
. retrospective verbal utterances
- Convert utterances or events into codes
- Analyse codes graphical or statistical
o Research may be process-oriented and/or content-oriented

- Think aloud reports better for process analysis
- Retrospective more informative for content analysis


Protocol study of expert v novice designers
o Respondents are given a design task

o Analysis - distributions are identified by coding
- event durations
- micro strategies
- drawing versus other activities
% Function & Behaviour
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
0:00:00
0:10:00
0:20:00
0:30:00
0:40:00
0:50:00
1:00:00
1:10:00
Averaged Over 10 Minutes
Novice designer
Expert designer

Protocol study of expert v novice designers contd.
o Analysis - key differences are identified

- Productivity
- Rate of cognitive activity
- Structure of concurrent actions
- Strategic knowledge
o Key finding
- Shows importance of strategic knowledge
- Experts work with bigger chunks of knowledge


Brain studies
o Fast developing research area

Technology exists to correlate brain activity
with other behaviour
o Avenues of investigation include

- Neurophysiology - study of the
functioning of the nervous system
- Brain scans
. fMRI - magnetic resonance imaging
. PET - positron emission tomography

How designers think
End of Part 1
Concepts

How designers think
Part 2
Research
2A Process oriented research
2B Content oriented research
2C Future research directions
What follows next is a review of a variety of studies which

all contribute, in different ways, to a better understanding
of design thinking
2A Process oriented research

Examples
Computational research
A computational model of curiosity
Protocol studies
Solution driven versus problem driven design
To sketch or not to sketch?

2A Process oriented computational research
A Computational Model of Curiosity

Saunders & Gero (2001)
Overview
Study involved development of a curious design agent
Key ideas
o Curiosity - is the motivation to discover new knowledge when
faced with an unfamiliar situation. It can be used to guide the
search and exploration of unfamiliar design spaces to find new
knowledge and better understanding of a non-routine design task
o Curious processes
. Curious search can be used to guide problem solving
. Curious exploration can be used to guide problem finding
Novelty detection
The curious design agent uses a computational process called
novelty detection to guide its search during the course of a design
session.
Interestingness based on novelty depends upon the knowledge of the
agent and its computational abilities; things are boring if either too
much or too little is known about them
2A Process oriented computational research
A Computational Model of Curiosity - Saunders & Gero

Experiment
To illustrate the behaviour of a curious design agent the researchers
developed a computational model of a children's Spirograph design
generator
The goal of this experiment was to examine the behaviour of a
curious design agent as it searches the space of patterns that can be
generated using the simulated Spirograph.
The results from the experiments suggest that providing design

agents with a sense of curiosity confers significant advantages in the
search of ill-defined design spaces.
2A Process oriented protocol research
Solution driven v problem driven design

Kruger & Cross(2006)
Overview
Data from protocol studies of nine experienced industrial designers,
performing the same task, were analysed to develop an expertise
model of the product design process
Method
Protocol statements and the expertise model were used to identify
four cognitive strategies employed by the designers:
- problem driven - High frequency data gathering and identifying constraints
- solution driven - High frequencies in generating and assembling solutions

- information driven Very high frequency of data gathering, low frequency
solution generating.
- knowledge driven - High frequency modelling activity (utilising knowledge)

Solution driven v problem driven design

The strategies and processes were then related to task
outcomes, such as solution quality and creativity
Findings
The different strategies were not related to overall solution
quality in a simple, better or worse, way. Instead:
o Designers using a solution driven strategy tended to have
lower overall solution quality scores, but higher creativity
scores.
o Designers using a problem driven design strategy tended to
produce the best results in terms of the balance of both
overall solution quality and creativity.

To sketch or not to sketch?

Bilda, Gero & Purcell (2006)
Overview
Researchers conducted think-aloud experiments with expert
architects to test whether sketching is essential for conceptual
designing.
Procedure
The experiment required the respondents to design in two
ways, in two sessions;
1. Respondents not allowed to sketch
2. Respondents allowed to sketch
The second sessions took place about 1 month after the first
The protocols were then analysed

It was expected that the two modes would require different processes

To sketch or not to sketch? - Bilda (2006)

Findings
No significant difference between sketching and not sketching
based on three criteria:
1. design outcome
2. cognitive activity
3. idea links
Conclusion
Sketching is not an essential activity for expert architects
in the early phases of conceptual designing

2B Content oriented research

Examples
Interview studies
The primary generator
Discovery processes in designing
Protocol studies
Quantifying coherent thinking in design

2B Content oriented research Interview study
The Primary Generator

Darke (1978)
Overview
- Research involves a series of insights about designing, emerging
while Darke was reviewing some earlier interviews she had
recorded with skilled architects
- Darke discovered that many architects were able to design more
rapidly by initiating a relatively simple idea, she referred to as a
primary generator, early in their design process.
Conclusion
- Designing can be viewed as a process of variety reduction, where
potential solutions are filtered by the designer's knowledge and
capacity to structure the problem in solveable terms
- Conjectures of approximate solutions need to be proposed early,
as many decisions cannot be taken unless a solution-in principle is
known

Discovery Processes in Designing

Murty (2007)
o Overview
Study of discovery experiences of 45 skilled architects and designers
o Findings
- Most respondents (near 80%) make insightful discoveries which
assist their designing
- Discoveries are rarely out of the blue
- Designers adopt distinctive methods for achieving breakthroughs
during conceptual designing and are insightful in different ways
- Discoveries after not working, ('cold' discoveries) are important
- Widespread evidence of latent designing (latent preparation)

Discovery Processes in Designing - Murty (2007)

Focusing strategies

Orienting: Solution Process - Wholistic

Scoping : Generic - Specific
Framing - Influence of values
Action Styles

Progression mode Fluctuate Steady - Both

Incessancy Always on Need to switch off
Reactivation Most discontinue

Different types of discovery experiences

Ideas Solution/generator - Aha! discovery (19/45)

Fluency - Succession or flow of ideas (5/45)
Clarity Revelation or awareness of new relations (10/45)
Recognition - Item seen but not appreciated earlier (5/45)
Apparently different levels of insight

Incremental Methodical or not clearly insightful (6/45)

Insightful design - Hot discoveries, designing (14/45)
Cold discovery - Not designing (15/45)
Cold discoveries more insightful than hot (10/45)


Latent Preparation

Like incubation associated with discoveries

Includes background activities - not entirely unconscious
- Ideas continuing to tick over
- Several problems percolating away at the same time
- Chewing over letting things float around for a while
- Like friends - chattering away, in my head
Conclusions

Many different ways of being a good designer

The natural intelligence of designing may be interpreted
as a combination of many adapted individual attributes
Becoming a good designer is a design problem

2B Content oriented research Semantic analysis study
Quantifying coherent thinking in design

A computational linguistics approach
Dong (2004)
o Overview
Study evaluates a method for measuring coherence of communication in
design team conversation, based on latent semantic analysis
Patterns of interrelations between individual ideas and the groups
ideas are also revealed by this analysis
o Key ideas
- Design team conversations reveal thinking patterns and behaviour as
participants communicate their thoughts through verbal communication
- The study applies computational techniques that have been successfully
applied to design communication in text, to conversational mode.

2B Content oriented research Semantic analysis study
Quantifying coherent thinking in design - Dong (2004)
o Method
Transcripts of four engineering/product design teams
communicating in a synchronous, conversational mode during a
design session were analysed
o Conclusion
- Teams verbal communication offers a fairly direct path to their
thinking processes
- Link between coherent conversations and coherent thinking

2C Future research directions

Future Trends
Computational research
- Generally - closing in on human thought
- More sophisticated modeling of cognition
- Computational modeling of brain functions
Human research
- Growing need for and utilisation of, design
- Greater diversity of design studies
- Greater need to integrate research

2C Future Research Directions Computational Research
Literal the Blue Brain project

Markram (2009)
Overview
Supercomputer (named Literal) with 8000 interlinked processes, each
designed to replicate a real neuron in a real brain
Director of the project, neuroscientist Henry Markram

Describes it as: the first model of the brain... built from the bottom-up.
I wanted to model the brain because we didn't understand it," he says. "The best way to
figure out how something works is to try to build it from scratch... There are lots of models
out there, but this is the only one that is totally biologically accurate. We began with the most
basic facts about the brain and just worked from there
The system accurately simulates a neocortical column, a tiny slice of brain
containing approximately 10,000 neurons, with about 30 million synaptic
connections between them.
"The column has been built and it runs... Now we just have to scale it up... In ten years, this
computer will be talking to us."
x
2C Future Research Directions Human Research
Design research
A revolution-waiting-to-happen - Dorst (2007)
o Overview - Dorst advocates a new wholistic design research,
connecting the process and content of design activity with a model
of the designer and the context in which designing is taking place
o Key points
- Design research remains pre-scientific.
- Research needs to address design activity as a whole
. Design activity beyond the design project overlooked
eg. higher-level activities, like work of senior designers
- Proposed methods need testing and informed guidance on:

. Where, when and how they are applicable
. The designers who will apply them
. An explanatory framework or manual, of how to apply them
o Proposal
Deeper understanding of designing
based on consideration of all aspects of design activity
- A new kind of design research.

Questions

References
Significant sources
Cross, N. (1999) Natural intelligence in design. In Design Studies 20, 1, 25-38.
Darke, J. (1978). The primary generator and the design process. In W. E. Rogers and W. H. Ittleson
(eds), New Directions in Environmental Design Research: proceedings of EDRA 9 (pp.325-337). Also in
N. Cross (Ed.) (1984) Developments in Design Methodology, New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Lawson, B. R. (1997) Design in Mind. Architectural Press, Oxford.
Lawson, B. R. (1997) How Designers Think. Architectural Press, Oxford.
Rittel, H. W. J. (1984) Second-generation design methods. Horst W.J. Rittel, interviewed by Donald P.
Grant and Jean-Pierre Protzen. In Developments in Design Methodology, Cross, N. (Ed.) The Open
University. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1984. Originally published in The DMG 5th Anniversary Report:
DMG Occasional Paper No. 1 (1972), pp.310.
Rowe, P.G. (1991) Design Thinking. Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press
Schon, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. New York, Basic Books.
Simon, H. A. (1996) Sciences of the Artificial. Third Edition. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass..
References contd
Other cited or useful sources
Bilda, Z, Gero, J.S., and Purcell, T. (2006) To sketch or not to sketch? That is the question. In Design
Studies 27, pp.587-613.
Bilda, Z, and Gero, J.S. (2007) The impact of working memory limitations on the design process
during conceptualization. In Design Studies 28, pp.343-367.
Broadbent, J. (1973) Design in Architecture; Architecture and the Human Sciences. John Wiley &
Sons, London.
Cross, N. (2004) Expertise in design: an overview. In Design Studies 25 (2004) 427441
Dong, A. (2004) Quantifying coherent thinking in design: A computational linguistics approach. In JS
Gero (ed), Design Computing and Cognition'04, 521-540. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
Dorst, K. (2007) Design research: a revolution-waiting-to-happen. In Design Studies 29 (2008) 4-11
Dorst, K. and Dijkhuis, J. (1996) Comparing Paradigms for Describing Design Activity. In Cross, N.,
Christiaans, H. and Dorst, K. (Eds.) Analyzing Design Activity. John Wiley & Sons, New York
Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), whole no.270.
Gero, J. S. (1990) Design prototypes: A knowledge representation scheme for design. In AI Magazine
11(4): 26-36.
Gero, J. S. (1997). Concept formation in design: towards a loosely-wired brain model, in L. Candy and
K. Hori (eds), Strategic Knowledge and Concept Formation Workshop, Loughborough University of
Technology, Loughborough, pp.135-146.
Gero, J.S. (2006) Understanding Situated Design Computing and Constructive Memory: Newton, Mach,
Einstein and Quantum Mechanics. Unpublished?
Gero, J.S. & McNeill, T. (1997) An approach to the analysis of design protocols. Design Studies 19
(1998) 21-61
.
References contd
Goel, V. (1995) Sketches of thought. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Goldschmidt, G. (1991) The dialectics of sketching. Creativity Research Journal, 4, 123 -143
Hillier, W., Musgrove, J., and O'Sullivan, P. (1972), Knowledge and design, in Mitchell, W. J. (ed.)
Environmental Design: Research and Practice, University of California.
Jansson, D. G. and Smith, S. M. (1991) Design fixation. Design Studies, 12,3-11
Koestler, A. (1976) The Act of Creation, London, Hutchinson.
Kohler, W. (1969). The task of Gestalt psychology. Princeton, NJ: Prince-ton University Press.
Kruger, C. & Cross, N. (2006) Solution driven versus problem driven design: strategies and outcomes.
In Design Studies 27, pp.527-548
Lloyd, P. & Scott, P. (1994) Discovering the design problem. Design Studies 15 (1994) 125-140.
Mayer, R. E. (1989) Human Nonadversary Problem Solving, in Guhooly, K.J. (Ed.) (1989) Human and
Machine Problem Solving, Plenum Press . New York
Mayer, R.E. (1995) The search for insight. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson(Eds.), The Nature of
Insight. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1995
Purcell, T. and Gero, J. S. (1996) Design and other types of fixation. DesignStudies 17, 363-383.
Reynolds, A. G and Flagg, P. W. (1983) Cognitive Psychology. Little, Brownand Company, Boston.
Russell, B. (2007) An outline of philosophy. readcountrybooks.com . This is a re-print of what looks
like the original version. There are many earlier printings dating back to 1927.
Simon, H. A. (1999). Karl Duncker and cognitive science. From Past to Future: The Drama of Karl
Duncker, Vol.1(2), pp.1-11. Frances L. Hiatt School of Psychology, Clark University.
Saunders, R. and Gero, J. S. (2001) A curious design agent: A computational model of noveltyseeking behaviour in design, in Proceedings of of the Sixth Conference on Computer Aided Architectural
Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA 2001), Sydney, pp. 345350.
Sternberg, R.J. (1995) In search of the human mind. Harcourt Brace, Fort Worth.
Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Row.
References contd
Images
Slide15
Slide22
Slide32
Slide34
Slide39
Asimow Model - Gero, J.S. How Designers Think3 - lecture

Gestalt images - Bilda, Z. How Designers Think1 - lecture
Novice and Expert Designer images - Bilda, Z. How Designers Think1 - lecture
Brain images - Bilda, Z. How Designers Think1 - lecture
Novelty detection image - Bilda, Z. How Designers Think1 - lecture

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DECO1006 - UNDERSTANDING DESIGN AND COGNITION