PROJECT REPORT

(Project Semester January May 2014)

Analysis of Defects in Tube Mill Process

Submitted by Vaibhav Gupta
STUDENT ID 11108037

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Sanjeet

Mr. R N Saini

Dept. of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering

Senior Engineer

PEC University of Technology

Bhushan Steels Ltd.

Chandigarh

Sahibabad

Department of Materials and

Metallurgical Engineering
PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh
January to May, 2014

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled To Analyse the defects in various grades of steels in
the tube mill process is an authentic record of my own work carried out at Bhushan Steels
Ltd., Gurgaon as requirements of sixth semester project for the award of degree of B.E. (Materials
and Metallurgical Engineering),

PEC

University

of

Technology

(Deemed

University),

Chandigarh, under the guidance of Mr. Vikrant singh (Industry Coordinator) and Mr. Shalom
Akhai (Faculty Coordinator) during January to May,2014.

Vaibhav Gupta
Date: ______________

11108037

Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our knowledge and
belief.

Mr. Shalom Akhai

Mr. Vikrant Singh

Dept. of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering

Senior Engineer

PEC University of Technology

Bhushan Steels Ltd.

Chandigarh

Sahibabad

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me a great pleasure to take this opportunity to thank Bhushan Steels Ltd. for giving me an
opportunity to work in their esteemed organization. I deem it my privilege to have carried out this
dissertation work under this well-known quality conscious organization.
I would like to thank Dr. Manoj Arora (Director, PEC University of Technology) and Dr. Uma
Batra (Head of Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering) for providing me the
cognitive base required to undergo my semester training. I want to express my sincere gratitude to
my guide Mr. Vikrant Singh, Project Leader for all his guidance. He was with me throughout the
term of the project and rendered me all the help required.
My gratitude also extends to all those people, apart from the above, who met me during this
endeavor and enriched me with their support and knowledge, in one way or the other and gave a
helping hand for the project.
I would also like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to my faculty cocoordinator, Mr. Shalon Akhai, for his constant guidance, valuable suggestions and moral support.

NO OBJECTION CERTIFICATE

(To Whomsoever It May Concern)

This is to certify that Mr. Vaibhav Gupta, STUDENT ID: 11108037, student of PEC University
of Technology, Chandigarh, has successfully completed his PROJECT Training at Bhushan
Steels Ltd., Sahibabad from 10th January 2014 to 24th May 2014.
His report does not contain anything that can endanger the secrecy and the working of the
company. We have NO OBJECTION for the matter and drawings contained in the report.

__________________________

Vikrant Singh
Senior Engineer
Bhushan Steels Ltd.
Sahibabad

ABOUT BHUSHAN STEEL LTD.

Bhushan Steel Ltd is engaged in the steel business. The company has portfolio of flat products,
which are manufactured at steel processing facilities at Sahibabad, Uttar Pradesh. The company is
producing cold rolled close annealed coils (CRCA), galvanized sheets, precision tubes, high tensile
steel, hardened and tempered steel strip (H&T strips), wire-rods, color-coated sheets and galume.
They also produce, sponge iron, pig iron, billets, slabs, HRC and power. Bhushan Steel Ltd was
incorporated on January 7, 1983 with the name Jawahar Metal Industries Pvt Ltd. In January 14,
1987, Brij Bhushan Singal and his sons Sanjay Singal, Neeraj Singal and associate companies took
over the management of the company by acquiring the entire stake. In the year 1989, the company
became a deemed public limited company. In the year 1992, the company was renamed as Bhushan
Steel and Strips Ltd after diversifying into wide-width cold-rolled (CR) steel strips. Also, they
completed the cold rolling plant during the year. In the year 1993, the company came out with their
first public issue to finance their forward integration project for the manufacture of 1,00,000 tpa of
continuous annealed/ galvanized steel strips. In January 1994, the company commissioned the
galvanising plant with a capacity to manufacture 120000 tonnes per annum of wide width cold rolled
steel strips and 100000 tonnes per annum of galvanised sheets.

HISTORY OF THE COMPANY

Year events 1983 - The company was incorporated on 7thJanuary, under the name of Jawahar Metal
Industries Private Limited for the manufacture of cold rolled steel strips and steel ingots at
Sahibabad Industrial Area, District Ghaziabad.

1987 - On 14th January, Brij Bhushan Singal and his sons Sanjay Singal and Neeraj Singal and
associate companies took over the management of the company by acquiring the entire share capital
of the company.

1989 - The company undertook the setting up of a new plant for the manufacture of wide width Cold
Rolled Steel Strips with integrated plant facilities.

1992 - The name of the company was changed to the present name of Bhushan Steel & Strips
Limited and fresh Certificate of Incorporation was issued on 9th June.

1993 - The company made its maiden Public Issue of 22 lakh equity shares of Rs.10 each at a
premium of Rs.55 share aggregating Rs. 1430 lakh in September/October.

1994 - The galvanizing plant was commissioned in January. Presently the company has facilities for
the manufacture of 1,20,000 tones per annum of wide width cold rolled steel strips and 1,00,000
tones per annum of galvanized sheets.

1995 - The Cold Rolling Expansion the Company is installing state of the art 1600mm width 6HI
combination Universal Crown Mill (UCM) of Hitachi, Japan with sophisticated features for shape
control and surface finish to cater to the requirements of the automobile and white goods sector.

1996 - The Part B of 68,94,800 14% unsecured fully convertible Debentures aggregating Rs 8375
Lakhs have been converted into Equity Shares w.e.f. 1st April.

1998 - With the commissioning of the new plant recently set up at company's existing site at
Sahibabad (UP), the company is now exploring further growth possibilities of setting up a modern
Cold Rolling cum Galvanizing Unit at West Coast of the Country.

1999 - During the year, the company has set up a dedicated service centre for large OEM customers
at Sahibabad so as to ensure supplies to them on 'just in time' concept.

2000 - The Delhi-based Bhushan Steel and Strips' to set up a Rs 750 crores cold rolled steel plant is
likely to hit a road block.

2002-Strikes an important position in the market for cold rolled steel for automobiles, feeding over
70% of demand for car bodies.

2003-Enters into a strategic alliance with Sumitomo Metal Industries of Japan under which, the latter
has further extended process know-how for the manufacture of automotive steel sheets for a period
of six years

2004-Bhushan Steel awards Rs 36 crore order for BHEL

2006-Bhushan Steel & Strips Ltd has informed that Sh. Sanjay Singal, has ceased to be a Director of
the Company w.e.f. October 18, 2006.

2007-Company name has been changed from Bhushan Steel & Strips Ltd to Bhushan Steel Ltd

2008-Bhushan Steel Ltd has informed that w.e.f. September 23, 2008, Sh. B B Tandon has been
appointed as an Additional Director on the Board of the Company as a Independent Non-Executive
Director.

2009-Bhushan Steel buys Aussie exploration firm

2010- Bhushan Steel Ltd has informed that Life Insurance Corporation of India has appointed
Smt. Sunita Sharma, their representative as a Nominee Director on the Board of the
Company.

COMPANY PROFILE

Type: Private
Founded in: 1987
Headquarters: India
Key persons: Brij Bhushan Singhal (Chairperson)

Neeraj Singhal

(Managing Director)
Industry: Steel
Website: www.bhushangroup.com

VISION OF THE COMPANY

The key to Vision is to use rigorous conceptual framework and to understand how that framework
connects to the underlying DNA of enduring great companies.
A well-conceived vision consists of two major componentsCORE IDEOLOGY and an
ENVISIONED FUTURE. A good vision builds on the interplay between these two complementary
Yin-and-Yang forces; it defines What we stand for and Why we exist that does not change the
Core Ideology and sets forth What we aspire to become, to achieve.
It is true to say that most of our vision statements express an element of ambition. BSLs vision of
total integration is a lot closer to realization today. Through seamless backward integration, BSL is
consolidating its position on the entire steel value chain from iron ore to specialized is surging ahead.

POLICIES OF THE COMPANY

Integrated Quality, Environment, Occupational Health & Safety Management System Policy
Bhushan Steel Ltd. commits to produce cold rolled and galvanized steel sheets of world class quality
in a safe, healthy and clean environment by involving employees with continual improvements in

system implementation, technological advancement, operational integration, prevention of pollution

& hazards maintaining legal compliance and satisfying needs & expectations of Customers.

For environment management system we have ISO 14001:2004 certification

For quality system we have ISO/TS 16949:2002 certification

For safety management system we have OHSAS

MAJOR CUSTOMERS

Manufacturing Sites

PRODUCTS

The automotive industry in India is booming, and there is a growing requirement for PT Tubes
across the industry. Bhsuhan Steel has been producing automotive grade steel for decades and has
established itself as a preferred manufacturer, supplier and technology leader.
Bhushan Steel is amongst the most prominent manufacturers of automotive tubes to the 2/3 wheeler
industry in India. Our constant focus on innovation, customer satisfaction and widening our product
offering has enabled us to win the trust of all major manufactures in India, and expand our customer
base further.
India has the largest production and consumer base for motorcycles. This segment is an important
part of our growth strategy. In the two-wheeler category we focus on all three segments
Motorcycles, Scooter, and Mopeds. We constantly work to improve our product offering and jointly
work with our customers to develop new products for their upcoming model ranges, as per their
requirements. We are also prominent suppliers of automotive tubes to the three-wheeler industry.
We supply all kind of frame tubes, head pipes, telescopic front forks and other ERW or CDW tubes
for two and three Wheelers

Applications

Frame

Handle Bar

Saree / Leg guard

Stand pipe

Seat Frame

Hood Pipe

Attributes

Superior flexibility & bend-ability

Higher strength

Excellent surface finish

Closer Dimensional Tolerances

Uses of tubes in cars

Precision Tubes division has specialized product offerings for passenger and commercial vehicles.
We are constantly working to expand our product base to fulfil the emerging needs of customers. We
have dedicated teams to work with our customers right from the inception of a particular model, and
best serve their tubes component requirement.
We supply propeller shaft tubes, steering linkage tubes, shock absorbers, chassis tubes etc for
passenger and commercial vehicles.

Applications

Steering Linkages

Steering Column

Shock Absorber

Propeller Shaft

Tie Rod

Axel Tube

Bush Pipe

The Process of Manufacturing pipes

There are two main types of pipes for industrial use. One is the seamless pipe and the other is
produced in the form of a pipe by welding. The most widely used categories of welding methods for
pipe-making are gas metal submerged arc welding and electric resistance/induction welding. The
work presented in this report is particularly focused on the steel pipes produced by high frequency
induction welding. It needs to be mentioned here that this technology is also suitable for tubing made
of other metals for different purposes.
The same process is described in phases here under :
a) The strips will be available is 60/80 feet folded lengths. The folded raw materials will be available
in bundles. The bundles will be open and straightened to facilitate welding for joining the strips to
have a continuous feeding to the machine.
b) Then the joined strip will be feeded to machine in the first stage the machine will remove the
bends and straighten the strip for the correct formation of pipe. The pipe making mill will be
connected to a slippering motor to have movement to the various rolls and to the raw material feeded
to the machine. The speed of the movement will depend upon the feeded Raw Materials width the
thickness. Because of this movement there will be friction between the rolls and strip. Because of the
friction the Rolls and some parts of the machine gets heated. Hence the mill will be connected by an
efficient and continuous water circulation system to cool the rolls and machine parts.
c) The next phase in the passage of raw materials through slitting zone to remove the excess and
uneven edges.
d) The next phase is the passages of raw materials through various rolls to convert into open seem
pipe.
e) The next phase is the passage of open seem pipe through welding rolls where the mill will be
connected to an automatic electrical welding unit which releases required heat to melt the edges of
the open seem pipe and through the pressure from rolls the edges and gap will be closed and
becomes closed pipe. Then by using a special cutting tool the weld flash will be removed.

f) The welded pipe/tube will be made to pass through cooling zone where there will be a continuous
cool water supply to control the heat caused by automatic electrical welding. The manufacturing
process requires continuous cool water supply to control the heat arises due to manufacturing
process.

g) The next phase will be the sizing and straightening of the Pipes/Tubes. Here the pipes and tubes
will be made to pass through rolls to control the bends of pipes/tubes.

h) The next phase will be the passage of pipes/tubes through cutting machine where the pipes/tubes
will be cut into required sizes and removing the pipes /tubes from machine bed with the finished
goods.
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF THE PROCESS:

PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF PARTS OF TUBE MILL:

Cold Saw Machine:

A cold saw is a sawing machine that uses a circular saw blade to cut metal. The name "cold saw"
comes from the cutting process they employ. These sawing machines transfer the heat generated by
cutting to the chips created by the saw blade. Therefore, the blade and material being cut
remain cold, unlike an abrasive saw, which abrades the metal and creates a great deal of heat in the

metal and cutting blade. Cold saws use either a solid high speed steel (HSS) or tungsten carbidetipped, resharpenable circular saw blade. They are equipped with an electric motor and a gear
reduction unit to reduce the saw blade's rotational speed while maintaining constant torque. This
allows the HSS saw blade to feed at a constant rate with a very high chip load per tooth. A cold saw
cut produces minimal burr, no sparks, no discoloration and no dust. The material being cut must be
mechanically clamped to prevent movement during the cutting process. Extra care should be taken to
choose the appropriate number of teeth, saw blade type, cutting speed and feed rate. All of these
variables are based on the type and size of material being cut. Cold saws are capable of machining
most ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Cold saws are intended to be used with a flood coolant system
to keep the saw blade teeth cooled and lubricated.
Horizontal uncoiler
The horizontal uncoiler was developed to suit special ways of coil storage. The coil handling of the
horizontal coil can be fully automated. Using the horizontal uncoiling version reduces the risk of
accidents and avoids the damage of strip edges.
High frequency induction welding
High frequency induction welding is a modern manufacturing method, by which hot-rolled plates of
high strength steels can be made into pipes for long distance gas and oil transportation. Both
longitudinal and spiral seam scan be welded by this technology.
The hot rolled steel plates are curled into a tube shape by pressure rolls, the two abutting edges of the
plate are heated up during their passage through the induction coils, and pressed together by the
welding station pressure rolls. The convergence point and the separated abutting edges in front of it
forms a V shape.
This point is called the Vee apex, which defines the onset of the joint formation that leads to a
weld. The high frequency current flows along the outside surface of the tube and along the edges of
the Vee, so that the electrical circuit is completed. This circuit is formed in the context of three
principal features of high frequency induction heating. This circuit is formed in the context of three
principal features of high frequency induction heating.

1. An induction effect allows the contactless transmission of power to the work piece with the
aid of an alternating magnetic field. The induction coil generates this alternating field
according to:
Pi=k f A 2
Where Pi is the induced power (kW cm2), k is a constant, A2 represents the Ampere-turns
per cm of the inductor and f is the frequency (Hz).
2. A skin effect occurs because at high frequencies, electrical currents and magnetic fields can
exist only in a thin layer at the conductors surface. The thin layer is defined as a skin depth
in cm:
=5030

Where is the specific resistance (# cm), and is the relative permeability of the material of
which the conductor is made.
3. The proximity effect means that the high-frequency currents always flow along the path of
least resistance. Two currents flowing in opposite directions on the same material are
mutually attracted. The position of welding should be within 6 to 14 mm upstream from the
centreline of the induction coils, so that Vee angle is kept within an acceptable range.

Only the heating along the edges of the Vee is useful for welding. The temperature rise is localized
there because of the combination of the skin and proximity effects. The current flowing at the tube
periphery gives rise to a heat loss which must be kept small. This is achieved by reducing the
resistance at the tube circumference through substantially broadening the current path. A suitably
designed induction coil is essential. The distribution and penetration of heat from the high frequency
current are controlled by the skin and proximity effects together with the frequency of the power
supply and the mill speed, so the welding frequency and mill speed must be chosen carefully.
Although the proximity effect makes the two abutting edges mutually
attract, it can be impeded by

1. Roughness on the contacting surfaces.

2. An oxide layer or foreign matter.
3. A thin layer of absorbed gas on the oxide surface.
4. Relative positions of the abutting edges during the introduction of the high frequency
current to achieve heating.

By applying pressure from the rolls, the melted material with relatively high content of impurities is
expelled from the joint. The metal at the junction flows towards the inner and outer surfaces of the
pipes. The quantity expelled is defined as the difference between the circumferences measured at the
Vee angle in front of the rolls and at pipes at the rear of the rolls, which is usually 1 to 5 mm. The
extent of squeezing can affect the weld strength and toughness. After welding, the rejected materials
are mechanically trimmed off from both the inner and outer surfaces of the pipe.
Certain mill adjustments and roll designs also determine the quality of the welding. Figure below
shows five different configurations of the pressure rolls used in the welding station. Some criteria
were followed in the design, such as, the fact that the top flange must be large enough in diameter to
fully contain the top edges, and the head rolls located on top should be as thin as possible since they
should not do any edge forming in bending. The top head rolls can be used to correct only minor
edge mismatches.

The ideal disposition of the abutting edges, their melting and two kinds of mismatch are shown in
figure below. both vertical and angular mismatch result in uneven heating and heat distribution.

In figure above
a) Ideal relationship is to have the two abutting edges parallel
and matched in the vertical direction
b) The electro-magnetic force rejects hot metal during the high frequency pipe welding.

c) Two edges are mismatched in the vertical direction.

d) Two edges are mismatched angularly
The narrow weld joint and heat affected zone resulting from high frequency induction welding is
stronger than the wider weld from many other welding processes because of the absence of cast
structure and the minimization of the distortion of the joining parts. In order to guarantee the quality
of the welded joint, a lot of details need to be controlled.
Reasons for HF Welding
High-frequency welded pipes are widely applied due to advantages such as
1. no weld filler needed
2. small heat-affected zone (HAZ),
3. high-precision pipe forming
4. high-efficiency continuous production.

Different Parameters that effect the Weld

1. Effect of Magnet Radius on Heating Time Required

the effective magnetic flux concentrated inside the pipe increases with an increase of the magnetic
bar radius, the time required for the minimum temperature in the directionof wall thickness at the Vshaped weld cross section to reach the welding temperature is gradually reduced, and the heating
efficiency gradually increases.

2. Effect of Magnet Position on Heating Time Required

as the coil becomes smaller, the distance between the coil and pipe is reduced, and the missing
magnetic flux between the coil and tube is reduced such that the effective conversion rate between
the magnet and power will increase, thus increasing the heating efficiency. But taking the coil
cooling conditions, production adjustment, and other factors into account, the coil cannot be made
with too small a size. The specific size should be based on actual production while minimizing the
opening between the induction coil and steel pipe.

3. Effect of Coil Position on Heating Time Required

the closer the coil is to the V point, the stronger the proximity effect becomes, and the higher
the heating efficiency becomes. However, the coil work environment is deteriorated.
It cannot be placed too close to the V point considering the constraints of splashed sparks at the Vshaped area and squeezing roll size.

4. Effect of Frequency on Heating Time Required

with the increase in welding frequency, the skin effect becomes more intense, the energy is
more concentrated in the range of the HAZ, the required heating time is less, and the heating
efficiency is higher.

In summary, if the site conditions allow, in order to improve the heating efficiency of highfrequency welded pipe :

1. magnetic bars with a larger radius should be used;

2. the horizontal distance between the magnetic bar and pipe V point should be reduced;

3. the magnetic bar should be shifted toward the pipe entrance side;
4. the coil diameter and distance between the coil and V-shaped point should be reduced;
5. and there should be an attempt to increase the welding frequency and loaded current so as to
shorten the heating time and obtain the highest possible heating efficiency.

Effect of the Main Parameters on Temperature Difference

There are many factors that affect the weld quality, and high-frequency welding is the most
important process to determine the pipe quality in pipe manufacturing. In the high-frequency
welding process, the most critical issues constraining the quality of high-frequency welding and pipe
yield rate are the overheated edges and poor cold weld in the center of the joint wall thickness due to
the unique skin effects and ring effect in electromagnetic fields.
The key to solving this problem is to eliminate the excessive temperature difference in the
direction of weld wall thickness, that is,
1. to try to minimize the temperature difference at the weld cross section when passing the V- shaped
welding point through the pipe, and
2. ensure that the minimum temperature in the direction of the cross section of weld thickness
reaches welding temperature so as to avoid the undesirable phenomena of overheated sheet metal
edges under the premise of ensuring that the center weld is penetrated .

1. Effect of Magnet Radius on Temperature Difference

Magnetic field lines gathered at the downstream edge of the weld joint increase with the increase in
magnet radius, the increase rate of the surface temperature under the weld is higher with the same
heating time, the temperature difference between inner and outer surfaces is reduced in a certain
range, and the temperature difference between the sections becomes slightly lower.

With the continuous increase of magnetic bar radius, the surface temperature rate becomes
excessively high and the heat of the inner surface cant be transferred to the weld joint center in time,
resulting in a progressive increase in the wall temperature difference, thereby reducing the weld
quality.
2. Effect of Magnet Position on Temperature Difference
the temperature difference is a minimum when the magnetic bar end is placed about 4 mm from the
V-shaped point.
Heating efficiency of magnetic field lines is a maximum here. The heating effect of the downstream
surface is the most obvious if the magnetic bar end is placed at the location, reducing the
temperature difference between inner and outer surfaces in a certain range, and also reducing some
of the temperature difference in the wall thickness direction.
3. Effect of Frequency on Temperature Difference
The higher the Welding frequency, the stronger the skin effect, and the larger the temperature
difference in the cross section in the direction of the wall thickness.
4. Effect of Current on Temperature Difference
With the gradual increase in density of the current loaded to the coil, the ring effect between the coil
and tube becomes stronger, causing the eddy current excited by the induction coil to become highly
concentrated in the direction of the tube edge wall thickness, resulting in an excessive temperature
increase rate at the tube surface such that the heat cannot be transferred to the wall thickness center
in time, leading to an excessively large wall temperature difference.
Quality Control
There are several parameters which must be controlled at the welding station in order to make the
products of steel tubes/pipes satisfy the requirements of service under the gas or fluid pressure. Some

of these parameters are trimmed width of the material entering the mill, circumferential reduction in
the forming stands and welding station, and size and shape of the un-welded steel entering the
welding station.
The circumference of the welded and outer diameter trimmed pipe must be less than the width of the
un-welded tube, so as to make sure that a certain amount of material is squeezed out of the weld
junction. All these efforts aim to avoid defects due to improper power adjustment, which can cause a
cold, pasty weld, or no weld at all, or a hot weld with blow hole type voids.
The optimum welding condition for the input power could be determined experimentally using an
electric resistance welding simulator, non destructive defect inspection and impact energy
measurements. The optimum heat input range should be re-established whenever the material
conditions are changed.
The requirement for pipes of higher strength and ductility has led to an increase in manganese
contents in the hot rolled sheet steels. However, higher manganese content greater than 1.2 % and a
greater wall-thickness are likely to induce penetrator defects in the welded zone. These defects are
generally classified as:

1. Residual FeO-MnO-SiO2-(Al2O3) oxides left without being squeezed out from the joint;
2. Exposed cracks on the external surface of the pipe due to cavity formation and hot
cracking;
3. blow-holes including oxides.
Penetrator defects become more frequent as the heat input is increased and the mill speed reduced,
and the Mn/Si ratio. The manganese and silicon content at the welded joint noticeably decreases with
the heat coefficient Q, which is defined as:
A weld joint in an induction welded pipe may contain defects caused by environmental factors or
inappropriate power duringseam welding. A lot of previous work was done to detect and analyse
these defects from the aspect of fatigue properties, since they can initiate fatigue failure. The fatigue
crack propagation rate of a welded joint is generally lower than that of base metal. This may be

caused by the hardened microstructure and distorted fatigue crack propagation path within
irregularly arrayed coarse grains in the weld joint.
Fine oxides formed at the weld joint at optimum input power did not lead to a deterioration of the
fatigue propagation rate.
Steel cleanliness requires low sulphur contents to optimise the pipe- body fracture toughness and
avoidance of clustered alumina inclusions to minimise the occurrence of ultrasonic testing
indications in the vicinity of the longitudinal weld seam. Thus the maximum sulphur content is
restricted to 0.005 wt% and the actual level of calcium is typically lowered from 0.0035 wt% post
injection to 0.0008 wt% post vacuum degassing during steel-making.

Common HF Weld Defects

There are many types and variations of HF welding defects and each one is known by many different
names around the industry. Regrettably, there is no common term with which everyone will agree so
the following defect names are followed by another common name for the same defect.

1. Entrapments (black penetrators)

2. Pre-arcs (white penetrators)
3. Lack of Fusion (open seam)
4. Lack of Fusion on edges (puckers)
5. Lack of Fusion in centre (cold centre)
6. Paste Weld (cold weld)
7. Cast Weld (brittle weld)
8. Porosity (pin holes)
9. Stitching

Entrapments (Black Penetrators)

This type of defect is usually a metal oxide that has been trapped on the bond plane instead of being
squeezed out with the molten metal. These oxides are formed on the surface of the molten metal
edges in the vee. In the vee, if the approach velocity of the strip edges is less that the melt rate, i.e.,
the edges are melting faster than they are being squeezed, a pocket forms behind the vee apex which
will contain both molten metal and metal oxides. The normal squeeze out does not completely
remove the larger than normal liquid volume and an entrapment results.

The entrapment is readily observable when the weld is broken open. The surface of the entrapment is
generally a dark color and fairly flat in comparison to the rather woody surface of the weld line.
They can occur individually or in strings. It has been observed that the incidence of entrapments is
increased when the vee is narrow, e.g., less than 4 degrees or when the ratio of manganese to silicon
in the strip is less than 8:1. The effect of Mn/Si ratio is difficult to consistently reproduce suggesting
that other factors may be involved.

Prevention of Entrapments
1. Maintain a 4-6 degree vee angle.
2. Maintain a stable vee length with proper tooling and mill set-up.
3. Maintain the lowest welding temperature possible that achieves a sound weld.
4. Avoid steel chemistries that have a Mn/Si ratio of less than 8:1

Pre-Arcs (White Penetrators) The use of the term Penetrator is inappropriate for this type of
defect because nothing is actually trapped on the bond plane. It is a very short lack of fusion caused
by a pre-arc. A pre-arc occurs when the HF current jumps across the vee ahead of the vee apex,
usually as a result of a sliver or bit of scale falling across the vee. The short-circuit diverts the
current momentarily, robbing the vee of heat.

The very short duration of the diverted current leaves only a short defect, often no longer than the
wall thickness. It is easily observed when the weld is broken open and has a flat, shiny surface
surrounded by the woody fracture of the rest of the weld area.
It is possible with very high operating voltages common to the vacuum tube welders to experience
pre-arcs in a narrow vee without the presence of scale or slivers to facilitate the short circuit. The
very high potential between the edges can result in the same type of arc-over with the same defect.

Prevention of Pre-Arcs

1. Maintain a vee angle of 4-6 degrees.

2. Use good slitting practice to minimize slitter burrs.
3.Use good handling practice to minimize damage to the edges.
4. Keep coolant clean and directed away from the vee area.

Lack of Fusion (Open Seam)

As the name implies, this is the failure of the two strip edges to fuse to form a sound weld. The edges
of an open seam usually show a blue heat tint suggesting that some heat was input.
However, the edge face remains flat and smooth, showing no signs of having been molten. The
obvious cause of the defect is insufficient weld heat and several factors need be considered. Power
setting, vee angle and length, impeder placement and condition, and coil size influence Weld power.
All of these factors can work independently or as a group to create a problem. Occasionally, the
appropriate heat is input and the seam remains open. This is likely to be related to insufficient
squeeze out. Here the edges show evidence of being molten but have not fused because of the
oxidized metal remaining on the surface of the molten edges prevents bonding. As the weld passes
beyond the squeeze rolls, the strips natural spring back opens the seam.

Prevention of Lack of Fusion

1. The actual power setting must be consistent with the speed and material gage;
2. The impeder must be placed 1/8th inch past the weld roll center line and kept cool;
3. The vee length should not exceed approximately 1 tube diameter;
4. The vee angle should not exceed 7 degrees;
5. The coil inside diameter should not exceed the tube diameter by more than 14 inch.
6. The strip width must be appropriate and consistent for the diameter tube being produced.

Lack of Fusion at Edges (Puckers)

Lack of fusion at the edges of the weld is usually caused by non-metallics on the bond plane. This
may be similar to a penetrator that is confined to the outer or inner edges. The defect gets its name
from its appearance when the tube is crushed with the weld at the 3:00 oclock position. When
broken open, the pucker area is dark and flat. It can also be the manifestation of peaked edge
forming where the OD edges are not heated as hot as the ID edges, in which case the pucker fracture
can be silvery in color. Puckers are variations of the entrapment and lack of fusion defects.

Prevention of Puckers
1. Maintain flat, parallel edges.
2. Use slightly more squeeze out.
3. If pucker is silver, also use more weld heat.

Lack of Fusion at Mid-Wall

When a lack of fusion weld is broken open, the fracture at mid-wall appears to be a flat, dull, silvery
band. The edges appear woody and fibrous. This condition is usually caused by running at speeds
just beyond the rated power of the welder. There simply wasnt enough time to heat the entire crosssection of the edge to the full temperature and depth required for a sound forge weld.

Lack of mid-wall fusion can also be the result of insufficient squeeze-out although the bond plane
for this situation would exhibit some un-extruded molten metal.

Prevention of Lack of Mid-Wall Fusion

1. Increase weld power.
2. Increase weld upset.
3. Increase vee length or reduce line speed.

Paste Weld (Cold Weld)

Paste welds are perhaps the most dangerous of all HF weld defects because they are virtually
invisible to current Non-Destructive Test (NDT) methods. The paste weld is sufficiently bonded to
transmit an ultrasound signal but not strong enough to pass normal crush or flare tests.

Electro- Magnetic Inspection (EMI) cannot see it because there is no opening in the bond plane.
When broken open, the paste weld is very flat and brittle, showing very little of the woody, fibrous
structure common to a full fusion weld. Some evidence of the slit edge may still be visible. If looked
at in a transverse metallographic section, it would exhibit a very narrow HAZ, no white bond plane
and very little upset of the flow lines.

Prevention of Paste Welds

1. Use sufficient weld power for the gage and speed of the mill.
2. Use sufficient squeeze and/or increase strip width.

Cast Weld
A cast weld is the result of failure to eject all of the molten metal from the bond plane. The
remaining cast metal on the bond plane likely contains metal oxides similar to the penetrator.
The appearance of the fracture surface will vary with the amount of cast metal remaining but will
almost always be flat and brittle looking. If examined by metallographic section, the cast metal
would be visible on the bond plane.
The cast weld usually fails the crush or flare tests. Since there is obviously ample power to melt the
edges, this defect has a fairly simple solution.

Prevention of a Cast Weld

1. Increase squeeze out.
2. Increase strip width.

Porosity (Pinholes)
Porosity on the bond plane is the result of high welding temperatures and insufficient squeeze out.
The fracture surface would appear to be woody and fibrous with shiny, spherical voids randomly
distributed across the edge. Where the voids intersect the OD, the surface of the void may be black
due to oxidation. Small pinholes may be visible on the OD bead before scarfing.
After scarfing, the pinholes may be visible on the bond line.

Prevention of Porosity
1. Reduce weld heat.
2. Increase squeeze out.

Stitching
Stitching defects can be manifested in a variety of ways but common to all is the fact that the defects
are regularly spaced and almost continuous (FIG 14). Usually, the defect takes the shape of puckers
on the OD and are spaced some multiple of the power line frequency (60 cycles).
If, for example, a line is running at 120 feet per minute and the defects are 4 apart we get:
120 fpm x 12/foot = 1440 inches / minute,
1440 ipm / 4 = 360 which is a multiple of 60.

It is sometimes possible to get what appears to be stitching with no relationship to a line frequency
multiple. In this case, the spacing may be equal to the diameter of a bad roll or a bent shaft, whose
periodic movement causes a small defect.

Prevention of Stitching
1. Add additional filtering to weld circuit.
2. Check voltages across incoming phases.
3. Check rolls and shafts.
SOURCES OF DEFECTS
It is likely that several variables may be conspiring to create the defect you are experiencing. A
slightly narrow vee would not cause penetrators unless the squeeze out was also just slightly less
than necessary. The smaller squeeze out may be the result of slightly narrow slit width or worn
tooling or even a bad setup.
Also, the cause of the problem may have its origin outside of the immediate weld area. For example,
a cold weld may be the result of an impeder pump cavitating. As the pump fails to deliver adequate
cooling water, the impeder momentarily gets hot. When the impeder gets hot, it
becomes less effective in focusing the current in the vee. As the current is allowed to spread around
the backside of the tube, heat in the vee drops and a cold weld occurs. Turning up the weld heat may
prevent the cold weld until the pump fails altogether and the impeder looses all power to focus the
current.

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF WELDED STEEL TUBES

Steady evolution of Non-Destructive Testing equipment has dramatically reduced the number of
weld defects being sent to customers. However, even the best NDT equipment does nothing to
prevent those defects from occurring. Total reliance on NDT technology can lead to serious losses in
productivity when inspection is used to replace prevention. Early detection of defects is essential to
rectifying the problem in order to minimize the defective footage produced.
Because the interpretation of NDT results can be made in error, destructive methods are often used
as verification. The destructive methods can also supply a quick and dirty evaluation for
immediate use by production personnel. While destructive meth-ods cannot evaluate an entire run of
pipe as can NDT, they can give a fair evaluation of the mill setup, steel quality, and welding and
normalizing practice.
TRANSVERSE WELD AREA EVALUATION
One of the best tests for the weld setup is the TWA evaluation. This test is simple, quick and should
be performed at every gage or setup change to ensure that the strip edges are coming together flat
and parallel into weld rolls. A cutting torch is used to cut the Vee area out of the pipe (Fig 1). The
Vee is split open and the section is viewed looking at the edge which is half welded and half unwelded. The welded portion will be bright and shiny and the unwelded edge will be dark from heat
tinting. If the line be-tween the light and dark areas (welded and unwelded) is vertical, the edges are
meeting square and parallel. If the line is sloped, the edges are coming together peaked. Peaked
edges are prone to create bond line defects such as entrapments as well as cold welds on the O.D.
Additionally, welding with peaked edges takes more power than welding with parallel edges and the
overheated inside corners may melt off and destroy impeder casings. The ID bead on peaked welds
is usually larger than beads from welding with parallel edges so ID scarfing is more difficult and
more metal is wasted in squeeze out. Note that peaked edges can be the result of improper fin design or because of spring back.

WELD AREA MICROSTRUCTURES

A weld area microstructure can provide a wealth of information on weld quality and edge
presentation. The sample should be taken with care using a cutting torch. The sample should be large
enough that the heat from the cut does not influence the micro-structure. The degree of upset, the
uniformity of the squeeze, flow angles and micro-structural constituents can be determined using
standard metallurgical preparation techniques and a metallurgical microscope. Figure 2 illustrates
some of the basic con-ditions observable.

The most obvious structure to be observed is the flow angles. The lines or bands visible in the steel
are the result of the rolling operation at the steel mill. These lines are usually straight, running
parallel to the rolling direction, i.e., longitudinally. When the weld is made, the hot steel bulges
(upsets) in the weld area. The angle and symmetry of the flow lines is an indication of the degree to
which the edges are presented flat and parallel.

The specimens should be ground, polished and lightly etched to show the grain structure and flow
angles. Viewing at low power, 50-100X is best.

Figure shows a normal HF weld area. The hourglass heat affected zone and flow lines are
symmetrical around the bond line. Figure shows a weld area resulting from non-parallel edges
resulting in a skewed bond line and hourglass. Not shown is the undercutting of the ID and OD
which results when off-set edges are scarfed. This undercutting may seriously reduce the wall
thickness in the weld area. Figure shows the weld area of a peaked weld. Because the inside edges
are closer together than the outside edges as they pass through the vee, the ID gets hotter than the
OD. The double vee created may also encourage entrapments on the bond plane. Figure 2-4 shows a
typical hook crack and bond line defects such as penetrators or entrapments.
If the flow angles are very steep, i.e., approaching vertical, preferential corrosion may attack the
upturned fibers, penetrating the wall along side the weld. If the flow lines turn up and then turn
down, you may be seeing the result of edge deformation in slit-ting being compounded by the
normal welding upsetting

If the hourglass is very narrow in the center, too much squeeze is being applied by the weld box. If
the bond line shows a cast metal structure, too little squeeze is being ap-plied. Both situations can
result in a weak bond or brittle welds which can fail flattening and flare tests.

If your process includes seam normalizing, regular samples should be taken to evaluate the
centering, penetration and heat effects. Samples for evaluation should be prepared with the same
care as described above for weld area micros with special care taken not to overheat the specimen
when cutting or grinding it. Figure 3 illustrates some common effects of seam normalizing.
Figure illustrates a properly centered seam normalizing heat affected zone. It penetrates the full wall
thickness and is centered over the weld hourglass. If the proper temperature has been achieved, the
grain structure after normalizing will be very similar to the parent metal. The ferrite bond line should
be obliterated or significantly reduced. Figure shows insufficient depth of penetration of the seam
normalizing heat. The top half of the weld hourglass has been normalized but the bottom half
remains as welded. Figure shows an off center HAZ caused by improper position of the weld line
relative to the inductor bar. While the heat has penetrated full depth, it has not completely affected
the entire weld area. Figure 3-4 shows the results of using a very high normalizing temperature.
Above 1750 Deg F grain growth may occur which may weaken the weld area or lead to weld area
corrosion.

FLATTENING TESTS
The flattening test is often performed on several or all pipe in each coil. While being a poor
substitute for a full NDT inspection of the weld, it does give a good evaluation of the weld area
ductility and can occasionally alert you to the presence of bond line de-fects. The flattening test can
test both the ID and the OD by changing the orientation of the weld from the 12 oclock position to
the 3 oclock position. Crushing the ring in the 12 oclock position puts the ID in tension and the OD
in compression; the 3 oclock orientation does the opposite. In any case the sample should be at least
as long as the pipe diameter up to a maximum of about 4 long. Rough edges and burrs can be removed prior to crushing. Figure illustrates the two positions.

Any flattening test apparatus should be designed with operator safety in mind and interlocks
incorporated into its operation that preclude actuation while the operators hands are in the
press.

Typically, when specified by an organization such as ASTM or API, the pipe sample must be
crushed to a specified height (expressed as a dimension or % of diameter) without fracture in
the weld. Brittle welds due to improper normalizing or welding will usually fail before the
minimum height is reached.
FLARE TESTS
One of the least valuable and most popular tests is the flare test. This test involves flaring one
end of a short sample of tube by forcing it over a mandrel or expanding it. See Figure 5. In
theory, the test looks like it closely resembles the manufacturing pro-cesses the tube will
undergo and should be a valuable evaluation of the tube. However, several problems limit the
usefulness of the test.
First, a small defect at the very end of the tube may fail while a larger one further in from the
edge does not. Which defect is most critical? Deep scarfing may reduce the wall thickness
causing a weld area failure. Conversely, high weld bead may reinforce a weak weld and allow
it to pass. Also, if the bead is left in place during the test, the mandrel will force the bead into
the body of the tube and may cause premature failure or possibly reinforce a bad weld and
allow it to pass the test.

Even if done perfectly, the test is sensitive to the yield strength of the tube and may fail in a
soft weld which is free of defects and pass on a hard weld with defects. Flange tests and
expanding plug test suffer from similar limitations.

BEND TESTS
The most common bend test is the reverse bend. A short piece of pipe or tube is cut and then
slit at 90 degrees to the weld.The section with the weld is flattened out and mounted in a vice
and bent backward to put the ID in tension. It is used to evaluate ID defects and normalizing
depth of penetration but the flattening test is easier, faster and just as useful.

Destructive testing is a valuable tool when used in support of a defect prevention

program and NDT systems. Operating personnel must have all necessary equipment at their
work stations to conduct the tests quickly and efficiently. Proper training in the methodology
is very important. The results should be documented so that statistical evaluations can be
performed. All efforts to improve quality should start with the goal of preventing the defect
from occurring. Relying on finding the defects will invariably add cost and reduce
productivity.

EDDY Current Testing

An eddy current flaw detection system is suitable for detecting discontinuities in tube and

Eddy-current flow follows a closed-loop pattern unless interrupted by a crack, pin-hole, or

similar discontinuity.
pipe during the production process. Understanding about eddy current system principles and
this technology's capabilities and limitations can help tube and pipe producers learn how to

Eddy currents are alternating electrical currents that can be induced to flow in any electrically
conducting material, which covers all metals. Eddy current flow follows a closed-loop pattern
unless it is interrupted or diverted by a nonconductivity area such as a crack, pin-hole, or
similar discontinuity .
Eddy current testing is the science of detecting flaws while ignoring other influences on the
flow pattern created by dimensional variations, stress, chemistry changes, magnetic
properties, electrical interference, mechanical movement, vibration, etc.
Collectively, the signals to be ignored are termed as "noise," while the ones which are of
interest are called "signals."
The state of the art is to achieve significant improvement in signal-to-noise ratio to obtain a
desirable minimum of 3 to 1 for satisfactory in-line operation. Often, signals are totally
drowned out by noise at their source, and this must be corrected by various physical,
mechanical, and electrical means to optimize the end result.

The depth of penetration of eddy currents on tubes is influenced by test frequency,

conductivity, and other variables.
Much can be done with electronic filtering and transducer design, but tackling the
interference at the source may still be necessary in many instances, and expert evaluation of
the proposed inspection site may be required.
Depth of penetration of eddy currents on tubular products is a complex matter influenced by
test frequency, coupling factors, inside diameter (ID) to outside diameter (OD) relationships,
and the electromagnetic characteristics of the material .The lower the test frequency, the
greater the penetration but the poorer the sensitivity to defects. One or two kilohertz is the
normal practical base frequency.
When testing ferromagnetic material with optimized magnetic saturation of the material, the
maximum wall that eddy currents penetrate is about 0.322 inch, but this may be augmented
by magnetic effects from flaws on the ID. Tubing and pipe up to 0.500-in. wall has been
successfully tested using a combination of eddy current and magnetic flux leakage effects.
On higher conductivity materials such as aluminum, copper, and brass, penetration is much
less, ranging only up to 0.080 in. as the practical limit at which sensitivity to flaws is still
reasonable.

Testing Tube and Pipe

Eddy current testing is widely used for non destructive testing in the tube and pipe industry. It
is relatively simple to install and operate and can detect a range of defects and discontinuities
at varying mill speeds.

Tube and pipe mills have four likely locations for inspection head installation.

Once calibrated, modern drift correction techniques help ensure that systems operate for
periods of years with little maintenance or attention, except for size changing.
for periods of years with little maintenance or attention, except for size changing.
There is no physical contact between the transducer and the material under test, so wear is not
a factor, although damage sometimes results from misalignment or from crashes on the mill.

Depending on their shape and construction, eddy-current transducers check just a few
degrees of the tubular shape or the entire circumference or some amount in between.
With seam or spiral welded products, the most vulnerable area is the weld itself. Flare and
flattening tests are essential tests on any mill, but 100 percent inspection of the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) indicates anomalies or deviation in the process as early as possible. This allows
the operator to correct the process and contribute to better overall quality and reduced
potential scrap.
Eddy current inspection can be made fully automatic with accurate tracking, marking, and
rejection of defective sections. However, the main focus must be on motivating the mill
operator to respond and correct early trend signals, since this can significantly improve
efficiency.

The Charpy Test

While most commonly used on metals, it is also used on polymers, ceramics and composites.
The Charpy test is most commonly used to evaluate the relative toughness or impact
toughness of materials and as such is often used in quality control applications where it is a
fast and economical test. It is used more as a comparative test rather than a definitive test.

What Does the Charpy Test Involve?

The Charpy test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at the end of a
pendulum. The test piece is fixed in place at both ends and the striker impacts the test piece
immediately behind a a machined notch.

Figure 1. Schematic of the Charpy impact test.

Determination of Charpy Impact Energy

At the point of impact, the striker has a known amount of kinetic energy. The impact energy
is calculated based on the height to which the striker would have risen, if no test specimen
was in place, and this compared to the height to which the striker actually rises.
Tough materials absorb a lot of energy, whilst brittle materials tend to absorb very little
energy prior to fracture.

Factors Affecting Charpy Impact Energy

Factors that affect the Charpy impact energy of a specimen will include:

Yield strength and ductility

Notches

Temperature and strain rate

Fracture mechanism

Yield Strength and Ductility

For a given material the impact energy will be seen to decrease if the yield strength is
increased, i.e. if the material undergoes some process that makes it more brittle and less able
to undergo plastic deformation. Such processes may include cold working or precipitation
hardening.
Notches
The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and some materials are more sensitive
towards notches than others. The notch depth and tip radius are therefore very important.

Temperature and Strain Rate

Most of the impact energy is absorbed by means of plastic deformation during the yielding of
the specimen. Therefore, factors that affect the yield behaviour and hence ductility of the
material such as temperature and strain rate will affect the impact energy.
This type of behaviour is more prominent in materials with a body centered cubic structure,
where lowering the temperature reduces ductility more markedly than face centered cubic
materials.

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a ductile to brittle
transition. This behaviour is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of
temperature. The resultant curve will show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the
temperature decreases. If the impact energy drops off very sharply, a transition temperature
can be determined. This is often a good indicator of the minimum recommended service
temperature for a material.

Olympus Spectrometer

Handheld XRF spectrometer or spectrogun is a very useful device and is

nowadays used a lot in the industries to determine the constituents of metals. It
is based on the principle of excitation of atoms using x- rays.

Rockwell hardness tester

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material. The
Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter
under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload. There are different scales,
denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters.

Operation

Force diagram of Rockwell test

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor
load followed by a major load. The minor load establishes the zero position. The major load
is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The depth of penetration
from the zero datum is measured from a dial, on which a harder material gives a higher
number. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief
advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus
obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques.

It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its
speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the
depth of the indentation. Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface,
because convex surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness
of a convex surface is to be measured.

Visual Tests
In practice, the welding process is often adjusted depending on the welder with years of
experience who will observe the
1. splash of weld sparks,
2. weld glitch shape,
3. and color of a thermally affected zone.

However, this mode of production not only requires a welder with a high technical level, but
it is also unable to guarantee continuous and stable weld quality. It is often required to take
samples of the formed tubes so as to perform tests of metallurgical and mechanical
parameters to investigate whether the quality of the welding area can meet the manufacturers
requirements, not only increasing the product cost, but also extending the production cycle
and reducing the production efficiency.

About IS 3074:2005
This Indian Standard (Second Revision) was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after
the draft finalized by the Steel Tubes, Pipes and Fittings Sectional Committee had been
approved by the Metallurgical Engineering Division Council.
This standard was first published in 1965 and subsequently revised in 1979. As a result of the
experience gained since its publication, it has been decided to revise this standard
incorporating the following changes:
a) Provision relating to surface protection of pipes during transit, permissible fm height,
flattening test and bundling and marking have been included.
b) A reference has been made to IS 5429.
c) Due consideration has been given in this revision with regard to steel making practices and
the end use characteristics as required by the purchaser.
d) The composition given for different types of steel tubes in this standard have been aligned
with IS 10748.

Section 3 describes standards for high induction electric welding

This section of the standard covers three grades of electric resistance welded/high frequency
induction welded steel tubes, designated as ERW-1,ERW-2 and ERW-3.
Condition:
Tubes shall be supplied as welded with the external fin removed. In fin cut condition the
maximum height of the fin shall not be more than 0.25 mm or otherwise as agreed to between
the manufacturer and the purchaser. All tubes shall be of works man like finish free from
injurious defects and shall be reasonably straight. The tubes may be supplied in heat treated
condition provided that all the requirements of this standard are complied with.
Chemical composition
The Chemical composition must be according to table below:

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties obtained from test pieces selected and prepared as specified in 8
shall be within the limits specified in Table.

Hydraulic Test:
When required by the purchaser each tube shall be subjected to an internal hydraulic pressure
test in accordance with the following requirements:

a) Each tube shall be hydraulically tested to a pressure of 7 Mpa (0.7 kgf/cm-) or I Y2 times
the working pressure whichever is greater provided that in no case shall the pressure induce a
stress in the wall of the tube greater than 0.9 times the minimum yield stress specified for that
tube based on the following formula:
b) P =2tf/D
where, P = pressure, in MPa (kgf/cm-);
t = thickness of wall of tube, in mm;
f = 0.9 times yield stress, in MPa (kgf/cm/); and
D = outside diameter of tube, in mm.
c) The pressure shall be maintained in each tube for at least 5 seconds and there shall be no
sign of leakage during the test.