Presentation techniques and instructional media

aids, despite the fact that practically everything that can be done
using a

Compared with their counterparts of 30 or 40 years ago, modern chalkboard can be done more easily, less messily, and (in most
teachers and trainers have a vastand often bewildering range of cases) more
presentation

techniques

and

instructional

media

at

their effectively using an overhead projector or data projector. They are

disposal.These can, however, conveniently be classified into seven probably

broad groups, in order of increasingtechnical sophistication. These most useful for displaying impromptu 'signposts' and 'links', notes
groups are:

and
1.printed and duplicated materials;

diagrams during a taught lesson and for working through

2. non-projected displays;3.still projected displays;4. audio calculations and

similar exercises in front of a class.

materials;
5.linked audio and still-visual materials;

MarkerboardsThese are light-coloured surfaces on which material

6.film and video materials;

can be written, printed

7.computer-mediated materials.

or drawn using felt pens, crayons or other markers of some sort.

Types of Instructional Aids

They can beused in the same ways as chalkboards, and have the

Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker advantage of being lessmessy and offering a wider range of colours.
boards, and

A markerboard can also doubleup as a projection screen if

supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and

necessary.
Feltboards

graphs. Other aids, which

usually are more expensive, are projected materials, video,

These are sheets of felt (or boards covered with felt) on which

computer-based programs, and

moveable

models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.

displays can be produced by sticking shapes cut out of or backed

Non-Projected Displays

with felt

As its name suggests, this category includes all visual displays that onto them. They constitute a comparatively cheap, highly portable
can be shown to a class,

and

small group or individual student without the use of an optical or

extremely useful display technique, especially in situations that

electronic projector of any sort.

require the

It includes a number of the most basic - and most useful - visual aids movement or re-arrangement of pieces (demonstrating table
that are available to

settings,

teachers and trainers, some of the more important of which are

carrying out sports coaching, etc.).

Hook-and-loop

listed below.

boards

Chalkboards
These are dark-colored surfaces on which material can be written,
printed or
drawn using chalk. They are still one of the most widely used of all
visual

These are similar to feltboards, except that the backing material on

the
display items has large numbers of tiny hooks that engage loops on
the

surface of the display board. They are suitable for displaying heavier These are similar to wallcharts, but generally contain less
items.

information - oftensimply a single dramatic image. They are useful

Magnetic

for creating atmosphere in aclassroom.

boards

Photographic
prints

These are ferromagnetic display boards on which moveable displays

can be

Enlarged prints made from photographic negatives may be

produced using materials that are made of (or backed with)

incorporated into

magnetic

textual materials, wallcharts, etc, and, in linked sequences with

materials, or are fitted with small magnets. They can be used in

suitable

much the

captions, can form a useful instructional medium in their own right.

same way as feltboards and hook-and-loop boards.

Such

Flipcharts
These are large sheets of paper that are generally hung from an
easel of somesort so that they can be flipped forwards or backwards

sequences are particularly suitable for use in programmes designed

for
individual study.
Mobiles

in order to reveal theinformation on a particular sheet, or to produce

a fresh blank sheet on whichimpromptu information can be written or These are systems of two- or three-dimensional objects that are
drawn. The most recent flipchartsno longer require easels, working hung from
instead on the same 'lift and stick' principleas post-its and thus the roof of a class by thread, thus producing a visually-attractive
having greater portability.

display
Charts and

whose shape is constantly changing due to air currents. They are

wallcharts

particularly

These are large sheets of paper, carrying pre-prepared textual

useful for creating interest among younger children and

demonstrating

and/or
graphical and/or pictorial information. Such charts can either be

principles in subjects like aeronautics and for architecture.

Models

used to

display information during the course of a lesson, or can be pinned These are useful in cases where three-dimensional representation is
to the

necessary

wall of a classroom in order to be studied by the students in their

(eg crystal structures, animal skeletons, etc) or where movement

own time.

has to be

Wallcharts, in particular, can be extremely useful for providing

demonstrated, (eg flow of sediment, kinetic sculpture, etc).

supplementary material, or acting as a permanent aide- mmoire or

reference

Dioramas
These are static displays that combine a three-dimensional

system for learners (eg the periodic tables of the elements that are
prominently displayed in practically all chemistry classrooms).
Posters

foreground (eg a
model landscape of some sort) with a two-dimensional background,
thus
creating an aura of solidity and realism.

Realia:
These are real items (eg geological or biological specimens or
maquettes) as
opposed to models or representations thereof. They are extremely
useful if
such materials are readily available, are easily displayed or are an
integral
part of the development and marketing process.

programmed materials and textual support materials for mediatedlearning

systems.
Resource
materials for
group exercises:

Supplemental Print Material(Printed and Duplicated Materials) These comprise all the various printed and duplicated materials that
These comprise all textual and handout materials to be used by
students or trainees which can be
run off in large numbers by printing machines, photocopiers and
duplicators. Facilities for the
production of such materials are now available in practically every
school, college and training
establishment, and they have become the most basic and widely
used of all educational tools.
Some of the more important types are listed below.
Handouts:

are
used in connection with group-learning exercises. They include
background-reading material, briefing material, role sheets,
instruction
sheets, data sheets, open-learning materials and so on.
Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures,
drawings, murals, cartoons,and other print materials are valuable
supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs arealso in this
category. Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on
bulletin boardsand in briefing areas. Pictures, drawings, and
photographs are especially effective becausethey provide common

These comprise all the different types of information-providing

visual imagery for both instructors and students. In addition,

materials

theyalso provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of

that are given out to students or trainees, usually in connection with important subject material.In many cases, this type of supplemental
a

training media may be reproduced in a format forprojection on a

taught lesson or instructional programme of some sort. They include screen or other clear surface.
sets

Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which

of notes (either complete, or in skeleton or interactive form), tables, gives information in

diagrams, maps and illustrative or extension material.
Assignment
sheets:

tabular form. There are several types of charts which can be used in
presenting data such
as the pie chart, the flow chart, and the organizational chart, among

These include problem sheets, reading lists, lab. sheets, briefing others. The type of
sheets forprojects and seminars, worksheets, etc. They can be used chart selected for use depends largely on the type of information the
in practically alltypes of instructional situations.
Individualised
study materials:
These comprise all the different types of textual materials that are
used in
connection with individualised learning. They include open- learning
materials, study guides, placement guides, structured notes, textual

instructor wants to
convey. An important factor is the chart's format. Since charts may
consist of a series of
single sheets or be tied together in a flip-chart format with several
pages, the location and
handling of them should be planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes classroom session, the instructor should provide students with an
comparisons. The mostcommon types are the line graph and the bar overview of the
graph. The selection of a graph for use in anygiven situation presentation before showing it. After the presentation, the instructor
depends upon the type of information the instructor wants to convey. should allow time for
Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show

questions and a summary of key points.

relationships, chronological

Aside from a chalk or marker board, the overhead transparency and

changes, distributions, components, and flow. They are easy to

projector is still one ofthe more convenient and cost effective

construct and can be

instructional aids. With acetate or plastic, instructorscan easily

produced in the same manner as pictures. In addition, they can be create their own overhead transparencies, or they may purchase
drawn on a chalk or

commerciallyproduced ones.

marker board and can be duplicated. Care must be taken to display The equipment can be placed at the front of the room, allowing the
only a small amount of

instructor to maintain

material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as

eye contact with Students. The brilliant light source concentrated at

possible.

a short distance makes

Numerous other useful print items may be considered as

it possible to use the projector in lighted areas. The instructor also

supplemental training aids. Some

can write on a blank

of these include study guides, exercise books, course outlines, and transparency as the lesson progresses, much like a chalk or marker
syllabi. Well-designed

board. Additional

course outlines are especially useful to students because they list

transparencies can be overlaid onto the original to show

the key points and help

development or buildup of an event

students organize note taking during a lecture.

or display. Overlays can also be cut into various shapes and moved

Projected Material (Still Projected Displays)

Traditional aids in this group include motion pictures, filmstrips,
slides of various sizes,
transparencies for overhead projection, and specialized equipment
such as rear screen
projection or an opaque projector. However, the use of motion
pictures and filmstrips for
training has declined, mostly because of availability of more userfriendly media such as
video. The essential factor governing continued use is that the
content must be current and
support the lesson.
Use of projected materials requires planning and practice. The
instructor should set up and
adjust the equipment and lighting beforehand and then preview the
presentation. During a

about in relation to the

base transparency. This is a useful technique for displaying dial
indications or fitting several
parts of a component together so relative motion can be simulated.
As with any projection equipment, instructors should ensure that the
projector does not
obstruct the students' line of sight. The projector usually works better
on a low stand, chair,
or table. The projection angle should be adjusted to eliminate image
distortion. Finally,
although the overhead projector is simple to operate and requires
little maintenance, it has
disadvantages. Most projectors are bulky to handle and store, and
the fan used for cooling
the projector may be noisy.

Although vastly different from other projection equipment, the

They are one of the most useful methods of displaying photographic

opaque projector reflects

or

light from the surface of the picture or three-dimensional object onto graphic images to a class, small group or individual student using a
a regular projection

suitable front- or back-projector or viewer - either singly or in linked

screen. The height of usable objects is limited to the space between sequences.
the top of the lowered

Filmstrips

projection plate and the body of the projector, usually about two or
three inches. The area

These are simply strips of 35mm film carrying linked sequences of

photographic images, each usually half the size of a standard 35mm

of the picture or object is limited to approximately 10 inches by 10

inches.

frame (half-frame or single-frame filmstrips) but sometimes the full

size (full-frame or double-frame filmstrips). They are a convenient

Items which may be projected are practically limitless. A postage

stamp, typed material,

and,
when purchased commercially, comparatively cheap alternative to

textbook illustrations, or a defective spark plug are representative of

the items that may be

slide
sequences, and can be used in much the same ways, using suitable

projected. This equipment is especially adapted to enlarging

filmstrip projectors or viewers for display or study.

diagrams and small charts for

Microforms

display purposes. Since the material projected requires no special

Microform is a generic term for any medium that is used to carry

preparation, the cost is

very low. Many of the limitations of the overhead projector are also

micro-images, ie photographically-reduced images of pages of text,

graphic material, etc. The most common types are microfilms (rolls

true of the opaque

or

projector.

strips of photographic film carrying a linear sequence of such

Overhead projector

images),

transparencies and

microfiches (transparent sheets of photographic film carrying a

similar materials
These are textual or graphical images on large acetate sheets that

matrix
of such images) and microcards (opaque sheets carrying similar

can
either be displayed to a class or group using an overhead projector

matrices of micro-images). All such microforms can be used to carry

the frames of instructional programmes (eg programmed- learning

or
viewed by individuals or small groups using a light box of some sort.
They are probably still the most useful and versatile visual aid that

sequences), to act as highly compact data-banks, etc, and can be

studied using special magnifying viewers or projectors.
Audio Materials

can
be used to support mass-instruction methods.

This category includes all the various systems whereby

Slides

straightforward audio material can beplayed to a class, group or

These are single frames of 35mm photographic film mounted in

individual. It includes a number of extremely useful - albeit

cardboard, plastic or metal binders, often between twin sheets of oftenneglected - instructional aids, some of the most important of
glass

which are described below.

Radio

broadcasts

TelevisionbroadcastsAs in the case of educational radio

broadcasts, educational television

Educational radio broadcasts constitute an extremely useful

resource for teachersand trainers. Although they are often difficult to broadcasts constitute an extremely useful free resource for teachers
incorporate into the timetable iflistened to at the time they are and trainers. Like the former, they are not usually transmitted at
actually transmitted, this problem can easily beovercome by convenient times, but, thanks to the development of relatively cheap
recording them for later playback.

videorecorders, this limitation can now be easily overcome. Such

Audio discsRecordings of music, plays, etc. on compact discs or (if recording may require the payment of a licence fee, however.
you can still obtain

Videotape recordings
('videos')

them!) vinyl discs constitute a relatively inexpensive and readilyavailable

Television sequences or tailored programmes recorded on

instructional resource in certain subject areas. They are suitable

videocassette now contribute one of the most useful and powerful

both for playing

instructional media at the disposal of teachers and trainers, and can

to a class or group and for private listening by individuals. Increasing be

amounts of

used in a wide range of teaching/learning situations.

material are available on CD-ROM (see section on 'Computer-

Videodisc recordingsTelevision sequences or tailored programmes

Mediated

can also be recorded on

Materials'), enabling sound to be used interactively by individual

students.

videodiscs, although this is much more expensive than recording on

videocassette. Such videodiscs are now mainly used in interactive

AudiotapesAudio material recorded on open-reel tape or tape

video presentations (see next section).

cassette constitutes one of the

most useful resources at the disposal of the modern teacher or
trainer, and can be

Video
As indicated previously, video has become one of the most popular
of all instructional aids.The initial discussion of video, which follows,

used in a wide range of instructional situations, either on its own or

is limited to passive video. Interactive video iscovered separately.

in

Passive Video

conjunction with visual materials of some sort (see next section).

Film and Video Materials

Passive video cassettes provide motion, color, sound, and in many

cases, special effects with

This class includes media that enable audio signals to be combined

advanced graphic and animation techniques. High-quality,

commercially produced video

with moving visual

sequences, thus enabling a further dimension to be added to
integrated audiovisual presentations.
The main systems that are currently available are as follows.
Cine films

cassettes are available for almost every subject pertaining to

aviation training.
Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-type
instructional aids.
Advantages of video are well documented. The current generation of

Such films (mainly in 16mm format) were once the main way
ofshowing moving images in a class. They have now been
almostentirely replaced by the use of video, however.

students is sometimesreferred to as the video generation. Some

educators have theorized that TV has produced avisual culture that
has actually changed the way people learn. In any case, it is

apparentthat most, if not all, students are familiar with and receptive
to video.

Interactive Video
Interactive video refers broadly to software that responds quickly to

For instructors, the convenience of video is certainly an advantage.

The capability to easilystop, freeze, rewind, and replay is particularly
helpful for both instructors and students. Thecost of a video cassette
and the associated equipment, although higher than some of
themore basic instructional aid equipment, is fairly economical. In
addition, the video cassetterecorder and television can be used for
other than instructional purposes.
Instructors also should be aware of certain disadvantages with
video. Students are often
accustomed to dramatic, action-packed film or video that is designed
as entertainment. At

certain choices and

commands by the user. A typical system consists of a combination of
a compact disk,
computer, and video technology. A compact disk (CD) is a format
for storing information
digitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to store
enormous amounts of
information. As an example, a single compact disk may contain all
pertinent aviation
regulations, plus the complete AIM. With search and find features
incorporated, a CD is a

the same time, they tend to watch film or TV in a passive way

without attempting to absorb
what they are seeing and hearing. Instructional video, in
comparison, normally is perceived

powerful information source. The software may include additional

features such as image
banks with full color photos and graphics, as well as questions or
directions which are
programmed to create interactivity for students as they progress

as much less exciting and less stimulating visually. This, coupled

with an inattentive viewing
style, can diminish the instructional value of the video.
As is true with any instructional aid, instructors need to follow some
basic guidelines when
using video. For example, the video presentation is not designed to
replace the instructor.
Prior planning and rehearsal will help determine the important points
and concepts that
should be stressed, either during the presentation or as part of a
summary. Instructors
should also try to prepare students for viewing video programs by
telling them what to
watch carefully, what is important, or possibly, what is incorrect. In
addition, instructors
should be available to summarize the presentation and answer any
questions students may
have regarding content.

through the course.

The questions or directions are programmed using a branching
technique, which provides
several possible courses of action for the user to choose in order to
move from one
sequence to another. For example, a program may indicate, "That
was incorrect. Go back to
... and try again."
Interactive video solves one of the main problems of passive video
in that it increases
involvement of the student in the learning process. Well-designed
interactive video, when
properly used, is highly effective as an instructional aid. Each
student essentially receives a
customized learning experience.
Distance learning, or distance education, is another trend applicable
to aviation. In generalterms, distance learning is the use of print or
electronic media to deliver instruction whenthe instructor and
student are separated. It also may be defined as a system and

processthat connects students with resources for learning. As enable them to be displayed, studied or used. Arguably, the
sources for access to informationexpand, the possibilities for computer constitutes the most
distance learning increases.
Computer-Based Multimedia
Interactive video is one form of computer-based multimedia.
However, in recent years, the
terms computer based training (CBT), or multimedia training, have
become very popular.
The term multimedia is not new. Multimedia has been used for
decades in some form or
other. In a basic form,multimedia is a combination of more than one

important single resource ever to become available to teachers and

trainers since the invention of
the printing press, and may well have a similar revolutionary effect
on the way education and
training are carried out, bringing about the massive shift from
conventional expository teaching
to mediated individualised learning that many people are now
predicting and facilitating. Some
of the main types of computer-mediated materials are listed below.
Conventional CBL

instructional media,

materials:

but it could include several forms of media-audio, text, graphics, and

video (or film).

These are computer-based learning systems (substitute-tutor

Multimedia in a more current context generally implies a computer- packages, simulated-laboratory packages, computer-managed
based media that is

learning

shown on personal computers (PCs). With computer based

packages, etc) that incorporate alphanumerical and graphical

multimedia, information access

materials, not still or moving photographic images or sound. Such

is simplified. Sophisticated databases can organize vast amounts of systems are usually produced on magnetic disk - normally the 3"
information which can

'floppy disks' that are now used by virtually all PC's. They come in

be quickly sorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.

various formats - "Read Only", "Read/Write" etc.

Real interactivity with computer-based training means the student is

Interactive

fully engaged with the

instruction by doing something meaningful which makes the subject
of study come alive. For
example, the student frequently is able to control the pace of
instruction, review previous
material, jump forward, and receive instant feedback. With advanced
tracking features,

videomaterials:
Until the development of multimedia, this was the main way of
incorporating video material in computer-mediated educational or
training packages. In such systems, the video and computer
elements
of the package are stored on separate media (usually videodisc and
magnetic disk), and require two linked machines for their use - a

computer-based training also can be used to test the student's

achievement, compare the
results with past performance, and indicate the student's weak or

random-access video playback machine and a specially-adapted PC

that controls the former.
Multimediamaterials:Until the early 1990's, the term 'multimedia'

strong areas.

was used to describe

Computer-Mediated Materials
educational and training packages that were presented on two or

This final category includes all the various materials that require a

more

computer of some sort to

different media (eg textual materials supported by tape cassettes

and/or videos, or integrated systems such as tape-slide). Now, the sound. Such packages are generally produced on CD-ROM.
term is generally used to describe computer-mediated packages that Throughout the UK, national 'Computers in Teaching Initiative' (CTI)
incorporate a wider range of materials than conventional CBL

Centres provide up-to-date information on such courseware in over

packages - typically still and/or moving photographic images and

20 subject areas.