Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOUG WIEDEMANN
University
of Waterloo,
I t is well known
2 3
x'
+x
3J
A CONSTRUCTION
(x2'3'
+ x3J
+ l)(x3J
+ 1 ) = x3J++
Since
+ 1 is precisely 3J 1 , only one and a half times the degree of the polyno-
mial .
The field
Cj ~ GF(2)[x]/(x2'3J'
+ x3'
+ 1) ~
GF(22'3J)
root of unity.
We have
+ 1) 9
GF(2)(xQ)9
whose gen-
j +i
+ x
j+i
= x
for
= 1.
(1)
Let
Z?0 - GF(2)(* 0 ), ^ - ff0(*i>* .-- V i S V * j + i>Note that ic2 + ^ Q + 1 = 0 has no root in GF(2) so the first extension is quadratic.
To show that
Although this
+x
follows almost
x. + I = 0,
immediately
from theorems about finite fields, for example. Theorem 6.69 of Berlekamp [2],
a more elementary proof will be given here. Let
Tr(n\x)
x2\
i =l
Also, let \E\ denote the order or number of elements of a finite field E.
Theorem 1: For j > 0, xj+1
Tru
290
+Z
\x.
+1
i E^
\Ej + 1\
= 22
+2
and
) = 57r(j'+ 2)(a;:_J1) = 1 .
[Nov.
Proof (mathematical
induction):
Note xQ GF(2)
and Tr(1)(xQ)
= T P ( 1 ) ( ^ Q 1 ) = 1.
+ s 2 + 1, x8
= xz7
+ z6
= xz
+ zh
+ 1.
is defined tc
Then,
+ 1,
and, in general,
2K
2K - 1
= XZ
k
x~^
2^
i =l
?K - ?v
Hence,
^r 2 +1
= xd
(Tp(J+ 1 ) (xT 1 )) 2 e
+ *?
+ 1x*
(2)
But Tv^
+ 1)
= 1 by
{x~^)
hypothesis, so, by
+ 2)
Tr(j' + 2 ) 0 r T M
by the last part
contradiction,
,J. + 1
has
1
) = x"
to GF(2) , so
for j .
9n
Corollary:
Proof:
xnn
= 1, when n ^ 0 and Fn = 2
Define E_1
to be GF(2) .
Since |27n| = 2
9
2n
Gal(En/En_1)
i s g i v e n by On(y) = 2/ . S i n c e t h e c o n j u g a t e of x n o v e r t h e
2? n _ 1 i s x , x ^ = # . T h u s , ^ n n = 1.
The order
of a field element
field
nonnegative
divides Fn ,
mat numbers are known to be mutually relatively prime, for example, see Theorem
16 of [3], the order
i < n*
We say
of xnxn_1
xQ
i < n, then xx
F
n?n-i
x^9
Yl
If the order of xi
A.
= 22"+1 -
fL
1 = \En\
We h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e i f x x
1.
.
w n- 1
1988]
291
2.
BASIS SETS
# = GF(2)(xn)
where a9 b E _1.
xQ9
= 1 and x1
Clearly, x
xQ ,
span E .
is spanned by
the xnn
,,#
;r00. It immediately
follows that these elements form a basis because the number of them is the same
as the dimension of the space spanned.
Another basis consists of elements of the f orm xnn - x^
where e . e {1}.
En equals axn
+ cx^1
Theorem 2:
+ b = axn
= (a + c)xn
x6n.--x6Qo
x 2n l
iii)
6^(0,1}
0 < i < 2n
b9
c e
En_1.
ii)
{ e {-1,1}
x^-'-xl*
+1
It has already been shown that i) and ii) each form a basis.
for some a,
Proof:
+ cxn_1
independent.
The ele-
Certainly, xQ
and
x n_ 1
in En_1
linearly independent.
are
each conjugate
of xn
to its
reciprocal.
If a combination
= y
takes
of the conjugates
r W f + s.*-21) = o,
o)
i =0
where ai,
g^ e GF(2).
Add-
0= t
Wn-i-
=0
i=0
2
Z a--^
"~n - 1
+ 3^ E 0.
i=0
E @- E 0.
In some sense the most interesting is the basis i) because the set for E
is contained in the set for En.
of the basis i) is
Another
variables corresponds to an
element of En.
multiplied as elements of En
(ax + b)(cx
+ d) = (aox^
to one side.
Then using
,.
mula, it can be seen, though the proof is omitted, that the "degree" of
product of the two elements does not exceed
the
By the
degree of a field element, we mean the degree of the associated boolean polynomial.
Each basis element of i) can be identified with the 0-1 vector, or bit vector, (6 n , ..., 6 0 ) which, in turn, can be identified with the integer
6n2n
Let bi
+ -.. + 6 0 2 .
be the basis element associated with the integer i. We now prove a fact
regarding the expansion of a product of two basis elements as the sum of basis
elements.
Theorem 3-
For any
contains bk
if and only
contains bj .
i = J.
Proof of the Lemma:
holds whenever the two basis elements are in E_ . Assume it holds whenever the
two basis elements are in E
statement of the Lemma is
the product is in x E
r
bA
= x d,
x En_1
where
and bn
c, d e E
n,
then b-b-
Yl x
and only if o = ds
= xx
<s d
are in En_1,
the
n -1
Yl
If xn
and bj
ilYl
^od + cd.
= x a and
n
meaning i. = j .
if
1988]
in b^bj.
in (bibj)bk.
By the Lemma,
Since
293
(bibj)bk
(bib^bj
in b^b^*
The coef-
Let iDj9
fy^jb^b-
in its expansion, m
For any a e E
a2
polynomials over
V (y
MINIMAL POLYNOMIALS
= y
1
y' )-
+ y + 1,
It i
of the xn
GF(2)
are quite
let p (y)
= y p>Q(y
+ y' )
easy to compute.
and, in general,
has degree
2 n + 1 , it is the minimal
polynomial of xn.
The following
calculation.
Theorem k: Let sequences of polynomials an(y)
a 0 = 1 + y29
Then an + bn
Proof: Let x
bQ = y and an
+1
= a2n + b2,
bn
and bn(y)
+1
= anbn,
be defined as follows:
f o r n = 1, 2 , 3 , . . . .
xn.
is a root of a Q +
xnbQ
+ a;fc0)(a0 + x^b
0)
= a +
xn_1b1.
If ?i ) 1, dw = i n+1 is a root of
(ax + ^ n . A ) K + <-A>
= a
^n-2^2*
+1
n+1
is a root of an
+ 1+bn
+ 1.
minimal polynomial of x . m
k.
EXPERIMENT
The numbers FQ, F , F2, F 3 , F^ are prime so, by the Corollary to Theorem 1,
xn
1 for any
proper divisor & of Fn for n < 8. It would be desirable to know whether xn always has order Fn .
= oon_1 . . . xQ is primitive. It
would be useful to have a good way to compute the minimal polynomials of the
y
5.
In our terminology,
this extension
would be defined by
It is well known that any two finite fields of the same order are isomorphic.
However, we do not yet know of an explicit isomorphism between GF(2) (xn) and
GF(2)(an).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Norman Herzberg and Neal Zierler for their
assistance.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
E. R. Berlekamp.
3.
4.
5.
J. C. Hallyburton, Jr., & J. Brillhart. "Two New Factors of Fermat Numbers." Math. Comp. 29 (1975):109-112; see also Corrigenda, Math. Comp. 30
(1976):198.
6.
J. H. Conway.
7.
Algebraic
On Numbers
Coding
Theory.
and Games.
and Their
Appli-
of Numbers.
"Lexicographic
Codes:
on Information
Error-Correcting
Theory
32 (May
1986).
1988]
oqr