Associative context and word frequency effects

in visual word recognition

Muhammad Imran Bin Muhamad Her

School of Psychology
University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus

Abstract

Introduction
This current study focuses on recognition of words (high and low frequency words) and
also word relatedness using a priming method, particularly 0focusing on semantic priming.
According to Jacoby (1983), priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to
prior experience. For semantic priming, this would mean a word presented prior to the next
word, has similar or close meaning. Graf and Schacter (1985, 1987) posited that the type of
memory used during priming process is implicit memory. Research has shown that the effects
of priming can impact the decision-making process.
Antos (1979) did an experiment for semantic priming using lexical decision task. Antos
experiment used different cue times in order to test discriminality, criterion bias, and response
bias which are integrated in producing facilitation effect. In this study, participants will be tested
on their reaction time in determining whether a target word presented is a word or a non-word.
The target words are categorized as high-frequency related word, low-frequency related word,
high-frequency unrelated word, low-frequency unrelated word, and non-word. This indirectly
relates how fast participants would react if a target word presented has semantic properties with
the prime word presented before. (i.e. DOG comes after CAT will be faster detected than
DOG comes after SCHOOL)
Franklin, Dien, Neely, Huber, and Waterson (2007) tested semantic priming using eventrelated potentials (ERP). ERP is utilized to measure brain response that is the direct result of a
specific cognitive, sensory, or motor event (electrophysiological response to a stimulus). Franklin
et als objective was to determine whether ERP components are able to differentiate between the
semantic priming mechanisms of automatic spreading activation, expectancy, and semantic
matching based on three ERP components, N400, N300, and N400RP.

The N400 is part of the brains response to words and other potential stimuli, such as
faces and sounds. Brown and Hagoort (1993) theorized that the N400 will occur late in the
processing stream. This reflects the integration of the meaning of certain words into the
preceding context. In a study by Borovsky, Elman, and Kutas (2012), word knowledge was
assessed via a lexical decision task. In their experiment, known and unknown word sentence
endings presented were served as primes for semantically related, unrelated, and synonymous
target words. As expected, N400 amplitudes to target words preceded by known word primes
were reduced if the prime-target relatedness is stronger.
According to Becker (1979), there is a larger semantic priming effect for high-frequency
words than for low-frequency words in a lexical decision task (for all strengths of prime-target
relatedness). The current study focuses on relatedness of a target word with a prime word and
also level of frequency for target words in both related and unrelated categories. Thus, a low
frequency word will take a longer time to be detected after a related or unrelated prime is
presented, while a high-frequency word is faster to be detected after a related or unrelated prime
word is presented.
Method
Design
A 2X2 factorial within-subjects designed was implemented in the current study. There were
two manipulated variables, each consisting of two levels. First manipulative variable is the
frequency of target words (high-frequency or low-frequency), while the second manipulative
variable is relatedness of prime-target words (related or unrelated). In this study, the dependent
variable would have two levels, response time (RT) on detecting target words after a prime word
has been presented and also accuracy of trial (number of correct trials for each category of

frequency and associative words). The hypothesis of this experiment suggested that response
time to detect high-frequency words are faster than detecting low-frequency words. In addition,
high-frequency related/unrelated words will have a higher accuracy in correct trials as compared
to low frequency related/unrelated words.
Participants
Students of the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus took part in the study. The
participation was voluntary. Participants consisted of 20 males and 20 females to make a total of
40 participants overall. Age range was from 20-24 years old (M=20.30, SD=1.16). All
participants had normal or corrected to normal visions.
Apparatus and Materials
The software used for this study was E-Prime. SPSS was used to tabulate the data and
findings of the study. All participants used the same HP brand computer and utilized the use of
the mouse and keyboard to run the experiment. Microsoft Excel was used to record the data of
participants after they have done the experiment. A total of 138 prime and target word stimuli
were used. A total of 23 primes and 115 target words (46 high-frequency, 46 low-frequency),
which was retrieved from SUBTLEX-UK Database (2014). 23 non-words retrieved from ARC
Nonword Database (2002) were also put as the stimuli. Length of each word stimuli were 3-7
characters long. All word stimuli were standardized with 18pt. Courier New font style.

Examples of stimuli:
PAPER -> PENCIL
(prime)

ERASER

(HighRelated) (LowRelated)

LION
(HighUnrelated)

SHERIFF
(LowUnrelated)

FRIBO
(non-word)

Procedure
In the beginning of the study, participants were asked to fill in consent forms and proceed
by filling in a questionnaire regarding their language history. Participants were then instructed to
complete a Lextale task in order to assess their English Language proficiency. Once it is done,
participants will start doing the experiment through E-Prime. They were given a set of
instructions first regarding the workings of the experiment. Then, a total of 15 practice trials
were presented. A feedback will be given after the practice trial and then participants proceed by
doing the real trial sessions. During the trial sessions, the fixation + were shown for 500ms.
Then, a prime word will appear for 750ms, proceeded by a target word appearing for 1000ms;
stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) for 500ms, in between prime and target words. For each prime
word, five target conditions were set. This consists of high related, low related, high unrelated,
low unrelated, and nonword. Participants were then have to press either key 1 or 3 in order to
determine whether a particular target word is a valid word or a non-word (1 for word, 3 for
non-word). Reaction time and accuracy were recorded.
Presentation of stimuli:

+
(500ms)

Comedy
(750ms)

Laugh
(500ms)

(1000ms)

560
540
520
500
Mean RT (ms)

480
460
440
420
400
HighRelated

HighUnrelated

LowRelated

Target Word Conditions

25

20

15

Mean no. of correct trials

10

LowUnrelated

Target Words Stimuli

Reference:
Jacoby, L.L. (1983). Perceptual Enhancement: Persistent Effects of an Experience. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9 (1), 21-38.
Schacter, D. L. (1985). Priming of old and new knowledge in amnesic patients and normal
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Antos, S.J. (1979). Processing facilitation in a lexical decision task. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 5(3), 527-545.
Becker, C.A. (1979). Semantic context and word frequency effects in visual word recognition.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception Performance, 5, 252259
Franklin, M.S., Dien, J., Neely, J.H., Huber, E., & Waterson, L.D. (2007). Semantic priming
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Brown, C. M., & Hagoort, P. (1993). The processing nature of the N400: Evidence from masked
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Borovsky, A., Elman, J.L., & Kutas, M. (2012). Once is enough: N400 Indexes Semantic
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and Development, 8(3), 278-302.