Sound in

Medicine

Sound
Longitudinal wave & require medium

cf) Transverse waves: EM wave

RF waves, Light, X-ray

Sound Speed
Depedent on medium
property
Different from particle
movement speed

Medium

Speed

air(0C)

313

air(20C)

343

water

1482

sea

1522

copper

5010

glass

5640

steel

5960

c(m/sec)= (B/)1/2
kg/msec2

B: bulk modulus,
measure of stiffness
: density: kg/m3

cair(m/sec)=(313.3+0.606T[C])

Sound Frquency
Number of condensation(rerefaction) coming
per second
f=c/, =c/f

Wavelength of 1 KHz sound at air(20C) and water

air,1KHz=343/1000=0.34m, water,1KHz=1282/1000=1.48m,

Sound Pressure & Intensity

P: Pressure amplitude
Varaition caused by paticle density of
medium

Intensity=P2
Loudness of sound

Decibel
Relative sound intensity
=10log(I/Io)
Io:1.010-12 W/m2

(weakest intensity level can hear)

Soulnd Intensity Level

By sound level
meter

Intensity
I (W/m2)

Intensity
Level(dB)

Threshold of
hearing

1.01012

Rustling
leaves

1.01011

10

Whisper

1.01010

20

Normal
conversation

1.0105

70

Inside car in
city traffic

1.0104

80

Car without
muffler

1.0102

100

Live rock
concert

1.0

120

Threshold of
pain

10

130

Doppler Effect
By moving source
Change in wavelength and frequency
When the source is moving, the wavelength in front
of the source becomes smaller, while the
wavelength behind the source becomes larger.

Frequency Change
Moving toward
= - vsT

vs : speed of the source

T: 1/fs

fo= v/() = v/(-vsT)

= fs /(1- vs /v)

Moving away

fo= fs /(1 +vs /v)

NEXRAD
Next Generation
Weather Radar
System
Doppler weather radar
system used by the
National Weather
Service
Dramatically improved
early warning of
severe storms

Ultrasound
Sound waves: Require medium
Frequency above human hearing
Audible range: 20Hz ~ 20kHz
Infrasound: Less than 20Hz
Ultrasound: Higher than 20KHz (cf: supersonic)

Medical use: 2MHz~10MHz

Use of Ultrasound
1912 : Titanic
Sonar(Sound Navigating
and Ranging )
: World War II
1940 ~ 1950: Medical Application
: Transducer, Ultrasound beam
: Display
: Start to use in obstetrics

Using Echo

Echo in mountains

Fishfinder

Ultrasound Imaging
Transducer echo pulse (body)
reflection transducer processing
display
Less harmful than
ionizing radiation

- Preferred for obstetric

patient
- Not suitable for lung
& bone

Unique Energy Mode

Visual Image

Not in EM wave
SPECT

Microscope

CT

Ultrasound

PET

Endoscope

MRI
RF

Thermograph
IR

Ophthalmoscope
Visible

Radiography
X-ray

Gamma Camera
-ray

EM wave

1st Ultrasound Scanner

Somagram: In water-bath, pulse echo, 2MHz
In 1952 by Douglass Howry
B/W image on scope

Ultrasound Imaging System

Imaging Systems

Interaction with Matter

Reflection: at tissue boundary
Due to the difference in acoustic impedance

Refraction
Change in direction of transmission

Scattering: cause beam diffuse

By reflection and refraction

Absorption
Energy loss by converting into heat

Attenuation
Absorption + scattering

Propagation Speed
c(m/sec)= f =c/f
f: cycles/sec, :wave length

c(m/sec)=

(B/)1/2

B: bulk modulus, kg/msec2

measure of stiffness
: density: kg/m3

2MHz in soft tissue

=c/f=1540/2106
=0.77mm

Material

Density
Speed
3
(kg/m ) (m/sec)

air

1.2

330

lung

300

600

fat

924

1450

water

1000

1480

soft tissue

1050

1540

kidney

1041

1565

blood

1058

1560

liver

1061

1555

muscle

1068

1600

bone

1912

4080

PZT

7500

4000

Acoustic Impedance
Z(kg/m2sec)= c
1 rayls = 1 kg/m2sec

Determines
reflection
Small Z difference
small reflection
Large Z difference
large reflection

Material

Density
(kg/m3 )

Speed
(m/sec)

Z (106
rayls)

air

1.2

330

0.0004

lung

300

600

0.18

fat

924

1450

1.34

water

1000

1480

1.48

soft tissue

1050

1540

1.62

kidney

1041

1565

1.63

blood

1058

1560

1.65

liver

1061

1555

1.65

muscle

1068

1600

1.71

bone

1912

4080

7.8

PZT

7500

4000

30.0

Reflection
At boundary interface
Due to the difference in acoustic impedance
Reflection coefficient
Fraction of reflected pressure
Rp= Pr/Pi =(Z2 Z1)/(Z2 + Z1)

Fraction of reflected intensity

RI= Ir/Ii =(Z2

Z1)2/(Z2

Z1)2

Transmission coefficient
TI =1- RI

Z1

Z2

Reflections between tissues

RI,(Fat Muscle)=[(1.71-1.34)/(1.71+1.34)]2 =0.015
RI,(Muscle Air)= [(1.71-0.0004)/(1.71+0.0004)]2 =0.999

Impossible to image beyond lung

Need coupling gel to avoid air gap between
transducer and skin

Tissue interface

Intensity Reflected

Intensity Transmitted

Liver-Kidney

0.003 %

99.7 %

Liver-Fat

1.1 %

98.9 %

Fat-Muscle

1.5 %

98.5 %

Muscle-Bone

41.0 %

59.0 %

Muscle-Lung

65.0 %

35.0 %

Muscle-Air

99.9 %

0.001 %

Transducer
Pulse generation
Electrical energy
Mechanical energy

Detection
Mechanical energy
Electrical energy

Piezoelectric Material
Dipole molecular arrangement
Heating over Curie temperature & slowly
cooling while applying voltage
Lead-zirconatetitanate(PZT)

Generation & Detection

Pulse Generation
Electrical energy
change in dipole arrangement
pressure(ultrasound)

Pulse Detection
Ultrasound (pressure)
change in dipole arrangement
electrical signal

Image Data Acquisition

Ultrasound production Propagation
Interaction Receiving Processing
Display

Pulse Echo
Pulse Repetition Frequency: 2~4kHz
Determine imaging depth
2KHz 1540(m/sec)500(usec)/2=38.5cm

Pulse duration: 1~2 usec, 0.2~0.4% duty cycle

3 cycles of transducer frequency
Most of time for signal receiving: more than 99.5%

Receiver

to compensate the
attenuation by depth
To reduce dynamic range
Smoothed single pulse

Rejection of low level

noise and clutter

Display Modes
A-mode
Amplitude mode
Midline of brain

B-mode
Brightness mode
Amplitude
brightness of point

M-mode
Motion mode: time variation of B-mode signal
Excellent temporal resolution of a single line

2-D Image display

Scan Converter
Create 2-D image from B-mode signal

Articulating Arm & static display

Linear, sector, compound scanning
Display storage: several seconds per image

Ultrasound Images
M(Motion) mode

B(Brightness) mode

3-D Imaging
Linearly
Freeform motion
external localizer

Rocking
Rotation
Rendering:
Maximum Intensity
Projection

3D Surface Display

Doppler Ultrasound
Doppler shift
Frequency shift by
moving reflector
Blood cells

fd=2fiv cos()/c

fi: incident frequency

v: blood velocity
v= fdc/2fivcos()
Usually in audible range
Convert into sound for
positioning

Doppler Images
Color Doppler

Power Doppler

A flow map based on the mean

Doppler frequency

A flow map based on the integrated

power of the Doppler spectrum

Measurements
Distance, Area, Volume
Higher resolution in beam direction
Fetal age determination by measuring fetal
head diameter

19weeks 6days
by diameter

18weeks 4days
by circumference

Spectral Interpretation
Blood flow: laminar, blunt, turbulent
Different spectrum
Vessel wall property, size, shape, flow rate

Velocity distribution
along time
Of selected area
Stenosis
Turbulent flow
extended velocity
profile

Bioeffect
Remarkably safe in diagnostic range
Deleterious bioeffect not reported

At higher intensities
Thermal effect
Heat production
Dissipation by blood

Mechanical effect
Mechanical movement
on particles
Negative pressure induce bubble
formation cavitation

Attenuation
Absorption of intensity, convert into heat
Attenuation coefficient: (dB/cm)
0.5dB/cm/MHz
2cm by 5MHz pulse 250.5dB/cm/MHz=5dB

Half value thickness

50% attenuation thickness
Frequency dependent
smaller for higher frequency

Resolution & Attenuation

Resolution (depth)
Depends on : shorter higher resolution

Attenuation
Increase with frequency
I P2
Relative intensity(dB)=10log(I2/I1)= 20log(P2/P1)

Thick tissue (abdomen): 3.5M~5.0MHz

Thin tissue (thyroid, breast): 7.5M~10.0MHz

Matching Layer
Large impedance difference between
transducer and patient
RI,(PZT tissue)=[(30-1.62)/(30+1.62)]2 =80.6% TI,=19.4%

Matching layer: Zm=(Z1Z2)1/2

RI(PZT ML)=[(30-7)/(30+7)]2 =38.6% T1=61.4%

RI(ML tissue)=[(7-1.62)/(7+1.62)]2=38.9% T2=61.1%
Ttotal= T1T2 =37.5%
Multiple matching layers

of resonance frequency
Also acoustic coupling gel

TGC & Log Compression

Time Gain Control

Logarithmic Compression

Mechanical Scanning
By wobbling of single element transducer
By mechanical rotation of transducers
Also dynamic scanning with real-time

Electronic scanning
Linear array: 256~512

~20 elements
Overall size: 6~8cm
Wide FOV near transducer
Uniform pixel size

Phased array: 64~256

Time delay of all
elements
Overall size: 3~6cm

Frame Rate & Spatial Sampling

Minimum time for 1 line scan
Tline=D(cm)2/1540(m/sec)=D13usec

One image with N lines

Frame rate

FR=1/(NTline)=77,000/ND
Line density : by FOV
Spatial sampling

Trade off:
FR FOV, N, D

Spatial Resolution
Axial resolution: depth resolution
Lateral resolution: azimuthal resolution
Elevational resolution: slice thickness

Axial Resolution
Resolution in beam direction
of spatial pulse length
SPL: No. of cycles per pulses
Usually 3 cycles

High resolution
Short SPL
Require heavy damping

Higher frequency

Not depend on depth

Resolution of 5MHz transducer

- SPL=30.31mm=0.93mm
Axial resolution=0.47mm

Lateral resolution
Perpendicular to beam
direction
Depends on beam
diameter
Maximum resolution at
focal point
of transducer diameter

2~5mm typically

Also depth dependent

Can control by phase
array

Beam Properties
By overlap of
individual waveform
Near field
Converging
d2/4

Far field
Diverging
Sin=1.22(/d)

Near Field
Near field length
= d2/4
= d2f(MHz)/(41.54mm)
Increase with diameter
Increase with frequency

Focal transducer
Curved elements or acoustic
lens
For narrow beam width and
shorter focal length
Focal zone: Less than 2Minimum width

Elevational Resolution
Perpendicular to image
plane
Determined by transducer
element height
Worst resolution
Partial volume averaging effect

Elevational focusing
Minimize slice thickness by controlling time delay
Limit access due to bulky transducer volume
Full 2D array Uniform resolution for 3D
imaging

Special Transducers

Array transducers
Intracavity transducers
Inside-out mapping

Intravascular
transducer

Contrast Agents
For vascular imaging & perfusion imaging
Encapsulated micro-bubbles containing gases
Air, Nitrogen, insoluble gases
Diffuse and propagate into targeting site

Micro-bubble act like point source

Diffuse ultrasound and generate harmonics

Need harmonic imaging for selective imaging

Input frequency of beam: f0
Receiving frequency: 2f0