7 2 1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the modulating signal, the

input, is made to control the amplitude of a pulse carrier. ( Carrier here refers not
to the light that ultimately carries the information, but to the pulse train that is
modulated to represent the input signal ) Figure 7-1 gives the waveforms of such a
system. You can view this as a sampling process. At pulse time ( whenever the
carrier pulse is high ) , the signal amplitude is observed ( sampled ) and the
amplitude of the sample, with appropriate amplification, is forwarded to the drive
circuitry of the light source. Appropriate filtering reconstructs the signal at the
receiving end.
The pulse repetition rate of the carrier must be at least twice the signal
frequency. To improve the immunity to noise, the sampling rate is often three of
four times higher than the signal frequency. For a speaking voice ( telephone
voice ), which has a bandwidth ( BW ) of about 4000 Hz, you can use a pulse
carrier of about 16 kHz, four times higher than the highest frequency of the input
signal. For a perfect ( noiseless ) input signal, you need only use a pulse train with
a frequency double that of the signal frequency. This means that you need only
two samples for each input signal cycle, PAM is sensitive to noise inference and
consequently not used very often.
7 2 2 Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse code modulation ( PCM ) is the technique frequently used in
longdistance telephone transmission. A block diagram and signal waveforms of
PCM are shown in Figure 7-2. As in PAM, the input is sampled. This time, the
magnitude of each sample is converted to binary code. In Figure 7-2, the binary
code is simply the numerical binary value of the sample magnitude. This code is
transmitted via the fiber. At the receiving end, the detected light is converted back
to the binary code and then into the analog samples by a digital to analog
converter. The filter shown is necessary to reproduce more closely the original
input signal.

In this method, only on-off light signals are sent. It is easy to

discriminate between a 0 and a 1, so noise is less of a problem. Note that in the
PAM technique, the amplitude of each sample must be properly maintained, while
here, you need only to discriminate between high and low levels.
Figure 7-2, shows five samples, with each sample converted to a 5 bit
code. If, for example, you use for samples for each input cycle, with each sample
converted into an 8 bit code, you end up with 4 x 8 = 32 bits for each input cycle.
For a 4 kHz analog signal, you need 4000 x 32 = 128 kb/s. The minimum data
rate, based on two samples per input cycle, for the 4000 Hz signal is then 64 kb/s.
This rate is the standard used in the United State fo PCM voice transmission. The
general expression of the bit rate for PCM is
Bit rate = BW x ( samples / cycles ) x ( bits / samples )

( 7-1 )

Example 7 1
The European standard for telephone voice transmission via PCM is ( 1 ) voice
BW; 3,4 kHz; (2) sampling rate: 8 kHz ( 8000 samples per second ); and (3) code:
8 bits. Also, 16 timing bits are added every 30 bytes ( 240 bits ).
Find the total bit rate.
Solution
Note that the sampling rate is slightly more than two samples / cycle ( at the 3,4
kHz upper frequency )
( 8000 samples/s)/(3400 cycles/s) = 2,35 samples/cycle
Data rate

= 8000 samples/s x 8 bits/sample

= 64 kb/s

Timing rate ( timing bits per second )

= ( 64.000/240 ) x 16
64.000/240 is the number of times per second that 16 bits are added.
Bit rate = 64.000 + ( 16 x ( 64.000 / 240 )) = 68.267 kb/s
7 2 3 Other Modulation Schemes

The following modulation schemes are not commonly used and are
discussed here only briefly

Pulse position modulation ( PPM ). The position of the pulse with respect
to a reference time pulse ( Figure 7 3(b)) represents the magnitude of the

analog sample ( Figure 7 3 (a)).

Pulse width modulation ( PWM ). The pulse width represents the
amplitude of the sample. A sample with larger amplitude yields a wider
pulse ( Figure 7 3 (c)).
For the PPM and PWM, the amplitude of the pulse is immaterioal. It is an

on off pulse. Its position or width is the information. In both of these schemes
variations in time ( time jitter ) may causes errors. These are somewhat more
susceptible to noise interference than is PCM.

7 2 1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the modulating signal, the
input, is made to control the amplitude of a pulse carrier. ( Carrier here refers not
to the light that ultimately carries the information, but to the pulse train that is
modulated to represent the input signal ) Figure 7-1 gives the waveforms of such a
system. You can view this as a sampling process. At pulse time ( whenever the
carrier pulse is high ) , the signal amplitude is observed ( sampled ) and the
amplitude of the sample, with appropriate amplification, is forwarded to the drive
circuitry of the light source. Appropriate filtering reconstructs the signal at the
receiving end.
7 - 2 - 1 pulsa Amplitude Modulation
Dalam modulasi amplitudo pulsa, amplitudo dari sinyal modulasi, input,
dibuat untuk mengontrol amplitudo pembawa pulsa. (Carrier sini tidak merujuk
kepada cahaya yang akhirnya membawa informasi, tetapi untuk kereta pulsa yang
dimodulasi untuk mewakili sinyal input) Gambar 7-1 memberikan bentuk
gelombang dari sistem tersebut. Anda dapat melihat hal ini sebagai proses
sampling. Pada saat pulsa (setiap kali pulsa pembawa tinggi), amplitudo sinyal
diamati (sampel) dan amplitudo sampel, dengan amplifikasi yang tepat, diteruskan
ke sirkuit drive dari sumber cahaya. Penyaringan yang tepat merekonstruksi sinyal
di ujung penerima.
The pulse repetition rate of the carrier must be at least twice the signal
frequency. To improve the immunity to noise, the sampling rate is often three of
four times higher than the signal frequency. For a speaking voice ( telephone
voice ), which has a bandwidth ( BW ) of about 4000 Hz, you can use a pulse
carrier of about 16 kHz, four times higher than the highest frequency of the input
signal. For a perfect ( noiseless ) input signal, you need only use a pulse train with
a frequency double that of the signal frequency. This means that you need only
two samples for each input signal cycle, PAM is sensitive to noise inference and
consequently not used very often.

Tingkat pengulangan pulsa pembawa harus minimal dua kali frekuensi

sinyal. Untuk meningkatkan kekebalan terhadap kebisingan, sampling rate sering
tiga dari empat kali lebih tinggi dari frekuensi sinyal. Untuk suara yang berbicara
(suara telepon), yang memiliki bandwidth (BW) dari sekitar 4000 Hz, Anda dapat
menggunakan operator pulsa sekitar 16 kHz, empat kali lebih tinggi dari frekuensi
tertinggi dari sinyal masukan. Untuk (tak bersuara) sinyal input yang sempurna,
Anda hanya perlu menggunakan kereta pulsa dengan frekuensi dua kali lipat dari
frekuensi sinyal. Ini berarti bahwa Anda hanya perlu dua sampel untuk setiap
siklus sinyal input, PAM sensitif terhadap kebisingan inferensi dan akibatnya
tidak digunakan terlalu sering.
7 2 2 Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse code modulation ( PCM ) is the technique frequently used in
longdistance telephone transmission. A block diagram and signal waveforms of
PCM are shown in Figure 7-2. As in PAM, the input is sampled. This time, the
magnitude of each sample is converted to binary code. In Figure 7-2, the binary
code is simply the numerical binary value of the sample magnitude. This code is
transmitted via the fiber. At the receiving end, the detected light is converted back
to the binary code and then into the analog samples by a digital to analog
converter. The filter shown is necessary to reproduce more closely the original
input signal.
7 - 2-2 Pulse Code Modulation
Modulasi kode pulsa (PCM) adalah teknik yang sering digunakan dalam
transmisi telepon jarak jauh. Blok diagram dan sinyal gelombang PCM yang
ditunjukkan pada Gambar 7-2. Seperti di PAM, input sampel. Kali ini, besarnya
masing-masing sampel diubah menjadi kode biner. Pada Gambar 7-2, kode biner
hanya nilai biner numerik dari sampel besarnya. Kode ini ditularkan melalui serat.
Pada sisi penerima, cahaya terdeteksi diubah kembali menjadi kode biner dan
kemudian ke sampel analog dengan digital untuk konverter analog. Filter yang
ditampilkan adalah diperlukan untuk mereproduksi lebih dekat sinyal input asli.

In this method, only on-off light signals are sent. It is easy to

discriminate between a 0 and a 1, so noise is less of a problem. Note that in the
PAM technique, the amplitude of each sample must be properly maintained, while
here, you need only to discriminate between high and low levels.
Dalam metode ini, hanya "on-off" sinyal cahaya dikirim. Sangat mudah
untuk membedakan antara 0 dan 1, sehingga suara kurang dari masalah.
Perhatikan bahwa dalam teknik PAM, amplitudo setiap sampel harus dipelihara
dengan baik, sementara di sini, Anda hanya perlu untuk membedakan antara
tingkat tinggi dan rendah.
Figure 7-2, shows five samples, with each sample converted to a 5 bit
code. If, for example, you use for samples for each input cycle, with each sample
converted into an 8 bit code, you end up with 4 x 8 = 32 bits for each input cycle.
For a 4 kHz analog signal, you need 4000 x 32 = 128 kb/s. The minimum data
rate, based on two samples per input cycle, for the 4000 Hz signal is then 64 kb/s.
This rate is the standard used in the United State fo PCM voice transmission. The
general expression of the bit rate for PCM is
Bit rate = BW x ( samples / cycles ) x ( bits / samples )

( 7-1 )

Gambar 7-2, menunjukkan lima sampel, dengan masing-masing sampel

dikonversi ke kode 5 bit. Jika, misalnya, Anda gunakan untuk sampel untuk setiap
siklus input, dengan masing-masing sampel diubah menjadi kode 8 bit, Anda
berakhir dengan 4 x 8 = 32 bit untuk setiap siklus input. Untuk sinyal analog 4
kHz, Anda perlu 4000 x 32 = 128 kb / s. Data rate minimum, didasarkan pada dua
sampel per siklus input, untuk sinyal 4000 Hz kemudian 64 kb / s. Tingkat ini
adalah standar yang digunakan di Amerika Serikat fo transmisi suara PCM.
Ekspresi umum tingkat bit untuk PCM adalah
Bit rate = BW x (sampel / siklus) x (bit / sampel) (7-1)
Example 7 1
The European standard for telephone voice transmission via PCM is ( 1 ) voice
BW; 3,4 kHz; (2) sampling rate: 8 kHz ( 8000 samples per second ); and (3) code:
8 bits. Also, 16 timing bits are added every 30 bytes ( 240 bits ).
Find the total bit rate.

Contoh 7-1
Standar Eropa untuk transmisi suara telepon melalui PCM adalah (1) BW suara;
3,4 kHz; (2) sampling rate: 8 kHz (8000 sampel per detik); dan (3) kode: 8 bit.
Juga, 16 bit waktu ditambahkan setiap 30 byte (240 bit).
Cari total bit rate.
Solution
Note that the sampling rate is slightly more than two samples / cycle ( at the 3,4
kHz upper frequency )
( 8000 samples/s)/(3400 cycles/s) = 2,35 samples/cycle
Data rate

= 8000 samples/s x 8 bits/sample

= 64 kb/s

Timing rate ( timing bits per second )

= ( 64.000/240 ) x 16
64.000/240 is the number of times per second that 16 bits are added.
Bit rate = 64.000 + ( 16 x ( 64.000 / 240 )) = 68.267 kb/s
larutan
Perhatikan bahwa sampling rate sedikit lebih dari dua sampel / siklus (pada 3,4
kHz frekuensi atas)
(8000 sampel / s) / (3400 siklus / s) = 2,35 sampel / siklus
Data rate = 8000 sampel / s x 8 bit / sampel
= 64 kb / s
Tingkat waktu (timing bit per second)
= (64.000 / 240) x 16
64.000 / 240 adalah jumlah kali per detik bahwa 16 bit ditambahkan.
Bit rate = 64.000 + (16 x (64.000 / 240)) = 68,267 kb / s
7 2 3 Other Modulation Schemes
The following modulation schemes are not commonly used and are
discussed here only briefly

Pulse position modulation ( PPM ). The position of the pulse with respect
to a reference time pulse ( Figure 7 3(b)) represents the magnitude of the

analog sample ( Figure 7 3 (a)).

Pulse width modulation ( PWM ). The pulse width represents the
amplitude of the sample. A sample with larger amplitude yields a wider
pulse ( Figure 7 3 (c)).

7 - 2 - 3 Skema Modulasi Lainnya

Skema modulasi berikut tidak umum digunakan dan dibahas di sini hanya
sebentar
modulasi posisi Pulse (PPM). Posisi pulsa sehubungan dengan pulsa waktu
acuan (Gambar 7-3 (b)) merupakan besarnya sampel analog (Gambar 7-3 (a)).
Pulse width modulation (PWM). Lebar pulsa merupakan amplitudo sampel.
Sebuah sampel dengan amplitudo yang lebih besar menghasilkan pulsa yang lebih
luas (Gambar 7-3 (c)).
For the PPM and PWM, the amplitude of the pulse is immaterioal. It is an
on off pulse. Its position or width is the information. In both of these schemes
variations in time ( time jitter ) may causes errors. These are somewhat more
susceptible to noise interference than is PCM.
Untuk PPM dan PWM, amplitudo pulsa adalah immaterioal. Ini adalah on - off
pulsa. Its posisi atau lebar adalah informasi. Dalam kedua hal ini variasi skema
dalam waktu (time jitter) dapat menyebabkan kesalahan. Ini agak lebih rentan
terhadap gangguan kebisingan dari PCM.