Aci Ingles

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS
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1. CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE
STRUCTURES (ACI 350 01) AND
COMMENTARY (ACI 350R-01)
1.1. CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
1.1.1.
DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS
Water-cementitious materials ratio

The water-cementitious materials ratios are specified in next Tables:
TABLE 1: REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIAL EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

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For concrete exposed to deicing chemicals, the maximum weight of fly

ash, other pozzolans, silica fume, or slag that is included in the concrete
shall not exceed the percentages of the total weight of cementitious
materials given in Table 2
TABLE 2: REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE EXPOSED TO DEICING
CHEMICALS
Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing or deicing chemicals shall be airentrained with air content indicated in Table 3 Tolerance on air content as
delivered shall be 1.5 percent. For specified compressive strength fc
greater than 5000 psi, reduction of air content indicated in Table 3 by 1.0
percent shall be permitted.
TABLE 3: TOTAL AIR CONTENT FOR FROST-RESISTANT CONCRETE
Sulfate exposures
Concrete exposed to water or wastewater solutions or soils containing

sulfates shall conform to requirements of table 4 or shall be concrete made
with a cement that provides sulfate resistance and that has a maximum

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water-cementitious materials ratio and minimum compressive strength from

Table 4.
TABLE 4: REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE EXPOSED TO SULFATECONTAINING SOLUTIONS
Corrosion protection of metals
For corrosion protection of reinforcement in concrete, maximum water soluble

chloride ion concentrations in hardened concrete at ages from 28 to 42 days
contributed from the ingredients including water, aggregates, cementitious
materials, and admixtures shall not exceed the limits of Table 5 When testing is
performed to determine water soluble chloride ion content, test procedures
shall conform to ASTM C 1218.
TABLE 5: MAXIMUM CHLORIDE
PROTECTION OF REINFORCEMENT
ION
CONTENT
FOR
CORROSION
Contact between dissimilar metals shall be avoided. Isolators shall be placed

between different metals.
Protection against erosion
Concrete shall be protected against erosion damage when subjected to

cavitation or abrasin.
For protection against cavitation erosion, at least one of the following shall be
used:
a) Reduce flow velocity and increase pressure by incorporating baffles or
similar devices in the structure.

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b) Use structural shapes, surface finishes and tolerances characterized by

values of the cavitation index at the condition of incipient cavitation
c) Supply air to the flow such that the air-to-water ratio near the solid
boundary is approximately 8 percent by volume.
d) Use
erosion-resistant
requirements:
materials
conforming
to
the
following
Minimum fc= 5000 psi at 28 days.

Maximum water-cementitious ratio = 0.40.
Maximum air content = 6 percent; if not subject to freezing and
thawing, the maximum air content = 3 percent.
Minimum 610 pounds per cubic yard of cement.
Hard, dense, clean aggregates
Where additional protection is needed, use coatings and liners

Structures exposed to cavitation erosion shall be constructed with highstrength, low water-cementitious materials concrete and shall receive surface
finishes that are smooth with slight changes of slope in the direction of flow.
When exposed to cavitation, the reinforcing bars closest to the concrete
surface shall be placed parallel to the direction of flow.
Joints
Movement joints (expansion and contraction) and construction joints shall be

designed to prevent cracking, spalling and reinforcement corrosion. The
number, spacings, and details of joints shall be designed taking full account of
the physical properties and the ability of the filler, sealant, and waterstop
materials to sustain cycles of deformations.
Waterstops
Materials used for waterstops to stop the flow of liquids or gases shall be able
to sustain movement deformations (elongation and contraction) without
permanent deformation or failure and shall be resistant to freezethaw cycles,
and temperature and chemical effects.
Sealants
Joint sealants shall be provided along the exposed perimeter of the joints to
exclude liquids or gases and to prevent solids from entering the joint that may
impair the functioning of the joint. Sealants shall be designed to sustain the
required pressures, temperatures, and movements and shall not debond or
degrade under the expected chemical or gas attack and shall be resistant to
the required pressures, temperaturas and movements.

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1.1.2.
CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING, AND PLACING
General
Concrete shall be proportioned to provide an average compressive strength as

well as satisfy the durability criteria of the previous chapter.
Requirements for fcshall be based on tests of cylinders made and tested as
prescribed in paragraphs.
Unless otherwise specified, fcshall be based on 28-day tests.
Selection of concrete proportions
Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to provide:

a) Workability and consistency to permit concrete to be worked readily into
forms and around reinforcement under conditions of placement to be
employed, without segregation or excessive bleeding.
b) Resistance to special exposures as required by the previous chapter.
c) Conformance with strength test requirements wich are mention fin the
following paragraph.
Proportioning on the basis of field experience and/or trial

mixtures
Standard deviation
Where a concrete production facility has test records, a standard deviation
shall be established. Test records from which a standard deviation is
calculated:
a) Shall represent materials, quality control procedures, and conditions
similar to those expected and changes in materials and proportions
within the test records shall not have been more restricted tan those for
proposed work.
b) Shall represent concrete produced to meet a specified strength or
strengths fcwithin 1000 psi of that specified for proposed work.
c) Shall consist of at least 30 consecutive tests or two groups of
consecutive tests totaling at least 30 tests.

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TABLE 6: MODIFICATION FACTOR FOR STANDARD DEVIATION WHEN

LESS THAN 30 TESTS ARE AVAILABLE
Required average strength
Required average compressive strength fcrused as the basis for selection

of concrete proportions shall be the larger of the next equations using a
standard deviation calculated in accordance with tables before.
f cr =f c +1.34 s
O
f cr =f c +2.33 s500
When a concrete production facility does not have field strength test records
for calculation of standard deviation meeting the prevous requirements ,
required average strength fcrshall be determined from Table 7
TABLE 7: REQUIRED AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WHEN DATA
ARE NOT AVAILABLE TO ESTABLISH A STANDARD DEVIATION

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Evaluation and acceptance of concrete
Frequency of testing
Samples for strength tests of each class of concrete placed each day shall be
taken not less than once a day, nor less than once for each 100 yd3 of
concrete, nor less than once for each 5000 ft2 of surface area for slabs or walls.
On a given project, if total volume of concrete is such that frequency of testing
required by the previous paragraph would provide less than five strength tests
for a given class of concrete, tests shall be made from at least five randomly
selected batches or from each batch if fewer than five batches are used.
When total quantity of a given class of concrete is less than 50 yd3, strength
tests are not required when evidence of satisfactory strength is submitted to
and approved by the building official.
A strength test shall be the average of the strengths of two cylinders made
from the same simple of concrete and tested at 28 days or at test age
designated for determination of fc.
Laboratory-cured specimens
Samples for strength tests shall be taken in accordance with Method of

Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete (ASTM C 172).
Cylinders for strength tests shall be molded and laboratory-cured in accordance
with Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field
(ASTM C 31) and tested in accordance with Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (ASTM C 39).
Strength level of an individual class of concrete shall be considered satisfactory
if both of the following requirements are met:
a) Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive strength tests equals
or exceeds fc.

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b) No individual strength test (average of two cylinders) falls below

fcby more than 500 psi.
Field-cured specimens
If required by the building official, results of strength tests of cylinders cured

under field conditions shall be provided.
Field-cured cylinders shall be cured under field conditions in accordance with
Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field (ASTM C
31).
Field-cured test cylinders shall be molded at the same time and from the same
samples as laboratory-cured test cylinders.
Procedures for protecting and curing concrete shall be improved when strength
of field-cured cylinders at test age designated for determination of fcis less
than 85 percent of that of companion laboratory- cured cylinders. The 85
percent limitation shall not apply if field-cured strength exceeds fcby more
than 500 psi.
Preparation of equipment and place of deposit
Preparation before concrete placement shall include the following:

a) All equipment for mixing and transporting concrete shall be clean.
b) All debris and ice shall be removed from spaces to be occupied by
concrete.
c) Forms shall be properly coated.
d) Masonry filler units that will be in contact with concrete shall be well
drenched.
e) Reinforcement shall be thoroughly clean of ice or other deleterious
coatings.
f) Water shall be removed from place of deposit before concrete is placed
unless a tremie is to be used or unless otherwise permitted by the
building official.
g) All laitance and other unsound material shall be removed before
additional concrete is placed against hardened concrete.
Mixing
All concrete shall be mixed until there is a uniform distribution of materials and
shall be discharged completely before mixer is recharged.
Job-mixed concrete shall be mixed in accordance with the following:
a) Mixing shall be done in a batch mixer of approved type.
b) Mixer shall be rotated at a speed recommended by the manufacturer.

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c) Mixing shall be continued for at least 11/2 minutes after all materials are
in the drum, unless a shorter time is shown to be satisfactory by the
mixing uniformity tests of Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
(ASTM C 94).
d) Materials handling, batching, and mixing shall conform to applicable
provisions of Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete (ASTM C 94).
e) A detailed record shall be kept to identify:
number of batches produced

proportions of materials used
approximate location of final deposit in structure
time and date of mixing and placing
Conveying
Concrete shall be conveyed from mixer to place of final deposit by methods

that will prevent separation or loss of materials.
Conveying equipment shall be capable of providing a supply of concrete at site
of placement without separation of ingredients and without interruptions
sufficient to permit loss of plasticity between successive increments.
Depositing
Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practical in its final position to avoid

segregation due to rehandling or flowing.
Concreting shall be carried on at such a rate that concrete is at all times plastic
and flows readily into spaces between reinforcement.
Concrete that has partially hardened or been contaminated by foreign
materials shall not be deposited in the structure.
After concreting is started, it shall be carried on as a continuous operation until
placing of a panel or section, as defined by its boundaries or predetermined
joints.
All concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated by suitable means during
placement and shall be thoroughly worked around reinforcement and
embedded fixtures and into corners of forms.
Curing
Concrete (other than high-early-strength) shall be maintained above 50 F and

in a moist condition for at least the first 7 days after placement.
High-early-strength concrete shall be maintained above 50 F and in a moist
condition for at least the first 3 days.

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Accelerated curing
Curing by high-pressure steam, steam at atmospheric pressure, heat and

moisture, or other accepted processes, shall be permitted to accelerate
strength gain and reduce time of curing
Accelerated curing shall provide a compressive strength of the concrete at the
load stage considered at least equal to required design strength at that load
stage.
1.1.3.
FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES, AND CONSTRUCTION AND

MOVEMENT JOINTS
Design of formwork
Forms shall result in a final structure that conforms to shapes, lines, and
dimensions of the members as required by the design drawings and
specifications.
Forms shall be substantial and sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar.
Forms shall be properly braced or tied together to maintain position and shape.
Forms and their supports shall be designed so as not to damage previously
placed structure.
Design of formwork shall include consideration of the following factors:
a) Rate and method of placing concrete
b) Construction loads, including vertical, horizontal, and impact loads
c) Special form requirements for construction of shells, folded plates,
domes, architectural concrete, or similar types of elements.
Forms for prestressed concrete members shall be designed and constructed to
permit movement of the member without damage during application of
prestressing force.
Form tie assemblies and systems in liquidcontainment structures shall be
suitable for providing a liquid-tight structure.
Form tie assemblies for liquid-containment structures shall leave no material
other than concrete within 1 in. of the formed surface.
Form surfaces in contact with concrete shall be coated with an effective bondbreaking form coating.
Conduits and pipes embedded in concrete
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Conduits, pipes, and sleeves of any material not harmful to concrete shall be
permitted to be embedded in concrete with approval of the engineer, provided
they are not considered to replace structurally the displaced concrete.
Conduits and pipes of aluminum shall not be embedded in structural concrete.
Conduits, pipes, and sleeves passing through a slab, wall, or beam shall not
impair significantly the strength of the construction.
Conduits and pipes, with their fittings, embedded within a column shall not
displace more than 4 percent of the area of cross section on which strength is
calculated or which is required for fire protection.
Except when drawings for conduits and pipes are approved by the structural
engineer, conduits and pipes embedded within a slab, wall, or beam (other tan
those merely passing through) shall satisfy the following:
They shall not be larger in outside dimensin than 1/3 the overall
thickness of slab, wall, or beam in which they are embedded.
They shall not impair significantly the strength of the construction.
Conduits, pipes, and sleeves shall be permitted to be considered as replacing

structurally in compression the displaced concrete provided:
They are not exposed to rusting or otherdeterioration.
They are of uncoated or galvanized iron orsteel not thinner than
standard Schedule 40 steel pipe.
They have a nominal inside diameter notover 2 in. and are spaced not
less than 3 diameters on centers.
Pipes and fittings shall be designed to resist effects of the material, pressure,
and temperature to which they will be subjected.
No liquid, gas, or vapor, except water not exceeding 90 F nor 50 psi pressure,
shall be placed in the pipes until the concrete has attained its design strength.
Concrete cover for pipes, conduits, and fittings shall not be less than 2 in. for
concrete exposed to earth, contained liquids, or weather, nor 3/4 in. For
concrete not exposed to contained liquids, weather, or in contact with ground.
Piping and conduit shall be so fabricated and installed that cutting, bending, or
displacement of reinforcement from its proper location will not be required.
Pipes passing through walls of a liquid-containing structure shall include an
integral waterstop.
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Construction joints
Surface of concrete construction joints shall be cleaned and laitance removed.

Immediately before new concrete is placed, all construction joints shall be
wetted and standing water removed.
Construction joints shall be so made and located as not to impair the strength
of the structure. Provision shall be made for transfer of shear and other forces
through construction joints
Construction joints in floors shall be located within the middle third of spans of
slabs, beams, and girders. Joints in girders shall be offset a minimum distance
of two times the width of intersecting beams.
Where intended to be watertight, construction joints in conventionally
reinforced liquid-containing structures shall have an integral waterstop.
For construction joints to be considered as shrinkage-dissipating joints, the
elapsed time in liquid containing structures between casting adjoining units
shall be at least 48 h.
Movement joints
The design shall consider and provide for volumen changes in a manner that
will minimize damage to the structure.
Expansion joints, when used, shall include a compressible preformed joint filler,
a joint sealant, and where intended to be watertight, a waterstop.
1.1.4.
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
Surface conditions of reinforcement
At time concrete is placed, reinforcement shall be free from mud, oil, or other
nonmetallic coatings that decrease bond. Epoxy coatings of bars in accord with
standards in this code shall be permitted.
Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons, with rust, mill scale, or a
combination of both shall be considered satisfactory, provided the minimum
dimensions (including height of deformations) and weight of a hand-wirebrushed test specimen are not less tan applicable ASTM specification
requirements.
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Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, dirt, scale, pitting and
excessive rust. A light oxide shall be permitted.
Placing reinforcement
Reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and ducts shall be accurately placed and

adequately supported before concrete is placed, and shall be secured against
displacement within tolerances permitted in the next paragraphs of the
chapter.
Unless otherwise specified by the engineer, reinforcement, prestressing
tendons, and prestressing ducts shall be placed within the following tolerances:
TABLE 8: TOLERANCE FOR DEPTH D, AND MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER
IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for assembly of reinforcement

unless authorized by the engineer.
Spacing limits for reinforcement
The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be db, but
not less than 1 in.
Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper
layers shall be placed directly above bars in the bottom layer with clear
distance between layers not less than 1 in.
In spirally reinforced or tied reinforced compression members, clear distance
between longitudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5db nor 11/2 in.
Clear distance limitation between bars shall apply also to the clear distance
between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars.
In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, primary flexural
reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than two times the wall or slab
thickness, nor further apart than 12 in.
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Bundled bars
Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be

limited to four in any one bundle.
Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.
Bars larger than No. 11 shall not be bundled in beams.
Concrete protection for reinforcement

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Cast-in-place concrete (nonprestressed)
The following minimum concrete cover (in) shall be provided for reinforcement:
a) Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth .................. 3
b) Concrete exposed to earth, liquid, weather, or cast against a concrete
work mat:
Slabs and joists ................................................. 2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties ................................ 2
Primary reinforcement.............................. 2-1/2
Walls.................................................................. 2
Footings and base slabs:
Formed surfaces ............................................ 2
Top of footings and base slabs....................... 2
Shells, folded plate members ...................... 1-1/2
c) Conditions notcovered before:
Slabs and joists:
#11 bars and smaller................................... 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties .......................... 1-1/2
Primary reinforcement .................................... 2
Walls:
#11 bars and smaller................................... 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Shells, folded plate members:
#5 bars, W31 or D31 wire and smaller ........ 1/2
#6 bars and larger .......................................
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Precast
concrete
conditions)
(manufactured
under
plant
control
The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for reinforcement:

a) Concrete exposed to earth, liquid, wastewater, weather, or bearing on
work mat, or slabs supporting earth cover:
Slabs and joists ............................................ 1-1/2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties .......................... 1-1/2
Primary reinforcement .................................... 2
Walls ............................................................. 1-1/2
Shells, folded plate members ............................. 1
b) Conditions not covered:
Slabs and joists:
#11 bars and smaller................................... 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties ................................ 1
Primary reinforcement .............................. 1-1/2
Walls:
#11 bars and smaller................................... 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Shells, folded plate members:
#5 bars, W31 or D31 wire and smaller ........ 3/4
#6 bars and larger .......................................... 1
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Prestressed concrete
The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressed and
nonprestressed reinforcement, ducts, and end fittings
a) Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth........................
3
b) Concrete exposed to earth, liquid, wastewater, weather, or bearing on
work mat, or slabs supporting earth cover:
Slabs and joists ............................................ 1-1/2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties.......................... 1-1/2
Primary reinforcement.................................... 2
Walls............................................................. 1-1/2
Shells, folded plate members ............................. 1
c) Conditions not covered before:
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Slabs and joists:

#11 bars and smaller .................................. 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Beams and columns:
Stirrups, spirals, and ties................................ 1
Primary reinforcement.............................. 1-1/2
Walls:
#11 bars and smaller .................................. 3/4
#14 and #18 bars ..................................... 1-1/2
Shells, folded plate members
#5 bars, W31 and D31 wire and smaller ..... 3/4
#6 bars and larger.......................................... 1
Bundled bars
For bundled bars, minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the equivalent
diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater than 2 in.; except for concrete
cast against and permanently exposed to earth, mnimum cover shall be 3 in.
Lateral reinforcement for compression members
Spirals
Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:

Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire of such size and so
assembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed
dimensions.
For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall not be less than 3/8 in.
diameter.
Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 in., nor be less than 1 in.
Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 11/2 extra turns of
spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral unit.
Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48db but not less than 12
in., or welded.
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Spirals shall extend from top of footing or slab in any story to level of lowest
horizontal reinforcement in members supported above.
Ties
Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:

All nonprestressed bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least No. 3 in size
for longitudinal bars No. 10 or smaller, and at least No. 4 in size for No. 11, No.
14, No. 18, and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded wire fabric
of equivalent area shall be permitted.
Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie
bar or wire diameters, or least dimension of the compression member.
Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal bar
shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie with an included angle
of not more than 135 deg and no bar shall be farther than 6 in. clear on each
side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar. Where longitudinal bars
are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular tie shall be
permitted.
Lateral reinforcement for flexuralmembers
Compression reinforcement in beams shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups

satisfying the size and spacing limitations in previously chapter or by welded
wire fabric of equivalent area. Such ties or stirrups shall be provided throughout
the distance where compression reinforcement is required.
Lateral reinforcement for flexural framing members subject to stress reversals
or to torsion at supports shall consist of closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals
extending around the flexural reinforcement.
Closed ties or stirrups shall be formed in one piece by overlapping standard
stirrup or tie end hooks around a longitudinal bar.
Shrinkage and temperature einforcement
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses normal to flexural

reinforcement shall be provided in structural slabs, mat foundations, and walls
where the flexural reinforcement extends in one direction only. The minimum
reinforcement provided in any direction and on any face shall be the greater of
shrinkage and temperature reinforcement or flexural reinforcement.
For members subjected to environmental exposure conditions or required to be
liquid-tight, the area of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall provide
at least the ratios of reinforcement area to gross concrete area shown in Table
9:
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TABLE 9: MINIMUM SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
Concrete sections that are at least 24 in. may have the minimum shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement based on a 12 in. concrete layer at each face. The
reinforcement in the bottom of base slabs supported on soil may be reduced to
50 percent of that required in Table 9.
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart
than 12 in. and the minimum bar size shall be No 4.
2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE
STRUCTURES (ACI 350.4R)
2.1
DESIGN LOADS
Floor live loads
Floor live loads in equipment and process areas generally take into account
fixed equipment weights, stored material loads, and normal live loads due to
personnel and transient loads. Floor live loads should account for installation,
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operation, and maintenance of equipment, and possible modifications or

changes in use.
Contained fluid and sludge loads
The principal applied loads on liquid-containment structures are due to the fluid
pressures on the walls and slabs caused by the contained fluids. The following
densities are conservative values for calculating equivalent fluid pressures of
common environmental materials encountered that may be used in structural
design:
Raw sewage 63 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3)

Grit excavated from grit chamber 110 lb/ft3 (1800 kg/m3)
Digested sludge, aerobic 65 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3)
Digested sludge, anaerobic 70 lb/ft3 (1100 kg/m3)
Thickened or dewatered sludge 63 to 85 lb/ft3 (1000 to 1400 kg/m3)
External earth loads
Walls subject to earth pressure should be carefully evaluated for structure-soil

interaction. Because of conservative criteria used for design of
liquidcontainment structures, such walls are typically stiffer than common
retaining walls. At-rest earth pressures should be assumed unless calculated
deflections justify lower lateral earth pressures.
External fluid loads
External fluid pressures should be considered in addition to external earth

pressures. Hydrostatic pressures outside of structures may occur due to high
ground water conditions and floods. Elevated ground water conditions may
occur due to leakage from adjacent liquid-containing structures and pipes or
due to inadequate drainage around a structure. External fluid loads increase
the effective lateral loads on the walls and may also cause flotation of the
structure.
Environmental loads
Environmental structures should also be designed for common environmental

design loads such as wind, snow, thermal effects, and earthquakes. Such loads
are typically defined in building codes and other industry standards. An
appropriate importance factor should be selected from the building code unless
a higher factor is requested by the client for improved reliability.
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Other design loads

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Impact loads
Impact loads should be included where appropriate, such as from cranes and
monorails, vehicles, elevators, lifting hooks, transient pressures in pipes, and
due to equipment operation. An appropriate impact allowance as a percentage
of the equipment weight may be used in accordance with recommendations of
standard codes and specifications. Alternatively, a detailed transient load,
dynamic analysis may be performed.
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Loads at pipe penetrations
Pressure thrust loads at pipe penetrations through walls should be considered

in wall design. The transfer of thrust from the pipe to the wall depends on
restraint of the pipe within the wall and on restraint of the pipe joints on each
side of the wall penetration. A fully restrained pipe may be able to carry thrust
forces internally within the pipe material without transmitting external thrust to
the wall of the structure.
-
Forces at gates
At sluice gates and slide gates, gate hoists may induce significant loads into
the structure, including eccentric loading on walls where brackets or corbels
are provided for support of floor stands.
JOINTS IN CONCRETE
2.2
Construction joints
Construction joints are generally located at natural breaks in concrete

placements, such as between wall and slab placements, and at intervals to
limit length and volume of concrete placements. Movement joints also function
as effective construction joints, that is, breaks in concrete placements. Unless
otherwise noted or shown, construction joints are typically designed for full
transfer of stresses across the joint.
Cracking can occur in long wall or slab placements due to the effects of thermal
movements and drying shrinkage in combination with movement restraints on
the element. The maximum length of wall placed at one time for conventionally
reinforced straight walls should usually not exceed 60 ft (18 m), with 30 to 50 ft
(9 to 15 m) being more common.
Movement joints
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Contraction joints
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Contraction joints are often used to dissipate shrinkage stresses and to control
cracking. Where used, contraction joints should be located at intervals not
exceeding 30 ft (9 m. Shrinkage will occur regardless of the amount of
reinforcement provided; however, the increased reinforcement tends to
distribute cracks and limit crack widths. Because cracks occur at weak points,
the intent of contraction joints is to concentrate full-depth cracks at specific
locations where measures can be taken to protect against leakage.
Two types of contraction joints, known as full and partial contraction joints, are
in common use. In full contraction joints, all reinforcement should be
terminated 2 in. (50 mm) clear of the joint. In partial contraction joints, at least
50% of the reinforcement should be terminated 2 in. (50 mm) clear of the joint,
with the remainder being continuous through the joint.
Full contraction joints provide less restraint against shrinkage at the joint;
however, partial contraction joints provide some shear transfer and limit
differential movements across the joint due to partial continuity of the
reinforcement.
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Expansion joints and isolation joints
Expansion joints allow for thermal expansion and act as effective contraction
joints. Expansion joints tend to have the most problems with long-term leakage
in liquid-containment structures, so their usage should be limited. Expansion
joints are generally used in very long structures (typically over 150 ft [45 m] in
length) or where abrupt changes in configuration or support occur.
All expansion joints should include some type of preformed compressible filler
and a joint sealant at the liquid face. If the structure must be liquid-tight, a
suitable waterstop should be included to act as the primary barrier against
leakage.The waterstop, preformed filler, and joint sealant should be selected to
allow for the anticipated movement and should be suitable for the service
environment.
Isolation joints serve to separate portions of a structure, such as between
vibrating equipment foundations and building foundations or between column
foundations and floating slabs. Such joints should include some type of
preformed compressible filler and a joint sealant at the exposed face to keep
dirt, debris, and water from entering the joint, as well as a waterstop, where
required, for liquid tightness.
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Waterstops
Waterstops are required in all types of joints where liquid tightness is required.
Rubber waterstops permit the greatest joint movement and last indefinitely
when placed in a dark and humid environment that is not corrosive to rubber.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) waterstops permit somewhat less movement than
rubber but are less sensitive to light exposure during construction and to
drying. Another advantage of PVC waterstops is the simplicity of splicing by
applying heat. The minimum sizes of either type of flexible waterstop
commonly used in environmental structures is 3/8 x 9 in. (10 x 230 mm) for
expansion joints and 1/4 x 6 in. (6 x 150 mm) for construction or contraction
joints.
Joint fillers
Preformed joint filler serves dual tasks: it serves as a form for the second
placement of concrete while preserving the space into which the concrete may
intrude, and it prevents dirt and water from filling the formed space in service.
An ideal joint filler will permit compression to 1/2 its original width and will reexpand to fill the joint when the adjacent members contract. Cork, rubber,
foam, and other materials conforming to ASTM D 1056 and D 1752 are
satisfactory joint fillers. In general, these joint fillers are not capable of
expanding beyond their initial width and require precompression to exhibit
expansion characteristics. The effect of precompression, however, may be
reduced with time due to relaxation.
Joint sealants
Sealants used in movement joints should be placed on the liquid side and
should be suitable for the service environment, such as submerged service and
exposure to wastewater and chemicals. Sealants and joint fillers should be
compatible with each other. Joint sealants are not expected to function for the
entire life of a structure. Owners should be advised of the need to repair,
maintain, and reseal joints with proper sealants at proper maintenance
intervals. Joint sealants should not be relied on to act as the primary barrier to
leakage in containment structures.
Where the movement will be not more than 25% of the joint width,
polyurethane elastomers, are suitable joint sealants. These materials are
available in two types: self-leveling or pourable for horizontal joints, and
nonsagging for vertical or sloping joints. Bituminous joint fillers should not be
used in conjunction with polyurethane sealants, as they may impair adhesion.
Polysulfide sealants are not suitable for use in wastewater treatment plants
because they generally have low resistance to the chemical and biological
reactions inherent to wastewater treatment. In addition, the chemical reactions
necessary for the curing process of these sealants are impeded by the
presence of moisture.
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3.
EROSION OF CONCRETE IN HYDRAULIC

STRUCTURES
(ACI 210R)
3.1.
3.1.1.
CAUSES OF EROSION
EROSION BY CAVITATION
Mechanism of cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of bubbles or cavities in a liquid. In hydraulic

structures, the liquid is water, and the cavities are filled with water vapor and
air. The cavities form where the local pressure drops to a value that will cause
the water to vaporize at the prevailing fluid temperature.
Figure 1 shows examples of concrete surface irregularities which can trigger
formation of these cavities. The pressure drop caused by these irregularities is
generally abrupt and is caused by local high velocities and curved streamlines.
Cavities often begin to form near curves or offsets in a flow boundary or at the
centers of vortices.
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Fig.1: Cavitation situations at surface irregularities
Cavitation damage
Cavitation bubbles will grow and travel with the flowing water to an area where
the pressure field will cause collapse. Cavitation damage can begin at that
point. When a cavitation bubble collapses or implodes close to or against a
solid surface, an extremely high pressure is generated, which acts on an
infinitesimal area of the surface for a very short time period. A succession of
these high-energy impacts will damage almost any solid material. Tests on soft
metal show initial cavitation damage in the form of tiny craters. Advanced
stages of damage show an extremely rough honeycomb texture with some
holes that penetrate the thickness of the metal. This type of pitting often
occurs in pump impellers and marine propellers.
The progression of cavitation erosion in concrete is not as well documented as
it is in metals. For both classes of material, however, the erosion progresses
rapidly after an initial period of exposure slightly roughens the surface with tiny
craters or pits.
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Fig. 2: Cavitation erosion of intake lock at point of tunnel contraction wall of a

navigation
3.1.2.
EROSION BY ABRASION
General
Abrasion erosion damage results from the abrasive effects of waterborne silt,
sand, gravel, rocks, ice, and other debris impinging on a concrete surface
during operation of a hydraulic structure. Abrasion erosion. Is readily
recognized by the smooth, worn-appearing concrete surface, which is
distinguished from the small holes and pits formed by cavitation erosion.
Spillway aprons, stilling basins, sluiceways, drainage conduits or culverts, and
tunnel linings are particularly susceptible to abrasion erosion.
The rate of erosion is dependent on a number of factors including the size,
shape, quantity, and hardness of particles being transported, the velocity of
the water, and the quality of the concrete. While high-quality concrete is
capable of resisting high water velocities for many years with little or no
damage, the concrete cannot withstand the abrasive action of debris grinding
or repeatedly impacting on its surface. In such cases, abrasion erosion ranging
in depth from a few inches (few centimeters) to several feet (a meter or more)
can result depending on the flow conditions.
Stilling basin damage
A typical stilling basin design includes a downstream sill from 3 to 20 ft (1 to 6

m) high intended to create a permanent pool to aid in energy dissipation of
high-velocity flows. Unfortunately, in many cases these pools also trap rocks
and debris. The stilling basins at Libby and Dworshak Dams, high-head
hydroelectric structures, were eroded to maximum depths of approximately 6
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and 10 ft (2 and 3 m), respectively. In the latter case, nearly 2000 yd3 (1530
m3) of concrete and bedrock were eroded from the stilling basin.
There are many cases where the concrete in outlet works stilling basins of lowhead structures has also exhibited abrasion erosion. Chute blocks and baffles
within the basin are particularly susceptible to abrasion erosion by direct
impact of waterborne materials.
In most cases, abrasion erosion damage in stilling basins has been the result of
one or more of the following:
a) Construction diversion flows through constricted portions of the stilling
basin,
b) Eddy currents created by diversion flows or powerhouse discharges
adjacent to the basin
c) construction activities in the vicinity of the basin, particularly those
involving cofferdams
d) nonsymmetrical discharges into the basin;
e) separation of flow and eddy action within the basin sufficient to transport
riprap from the exit channel into the basin;
f) failure to clean basins after completion of construction work, and
g) topography of the outflow channel
Fig. 3: Erosion of stilling basin flooor slab, Dworshak Dam
Navigation lock damage
Hydraulic structures other than spillways are also subject to abrasion erosion
damage. When Upper St. Anthony Falls navigation lock was dewatered to repair
a damaged miter gate, an examination of the filling and emptying laterals and
discharge laterals revealed considerable abrasion erosion. This erosion of the
concrete to maximum depths of 23 in. (580 mm) was caused by rocks up to 18
in. (460 mm) in diameter, which had entered the laterals, apparently during
discharge of the flood of record through the lock chamber. Subsequent filling
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and emptying of the lock during normal operation agitated those rocks, causing
them to erode the concrete by grinding.
Tunnel lining damage
Concrete tunnel linings are susceptible to abrasion erosion damage,

particularly when the water carries large quantities of sand, gravel, rocks, and
other debris. There have been many instances where the concrete in both
temporary and permanent diversion tunnels has experienced abrasion erosion
damage. Generally, the tunnel floor or invert is the most heavily damaged.
3.1.3.
EROSION BY CHEMICAL ATTACK
Sources of chemical attack
The compounds present in hardened Portland cement are attacked by water

and by many salt and acid solutions; fortunately, in most hydraulic structures,
the deleterious action on a mass of hardened Portland cement concrete with a
low permeability is so slow it is unimportant. However, there are situations
where chemical attack can become serious and accelerate deterioration and
erosion of the concrete.
Acidic environments can result in deterioration of exposed concrete surfaces.
The acidic environment may range from low acid concentrations found in
mineral-free water to high acid concentrations found in many processing
plants. Alkali environments can also cause concrete deterioration. In the
presence of moisture, alkali soils containing sulfates of magnesium, sodium,
and calcium attack concrete, forming chemical compounds which imbibe water
and swell, and can damage the concrete.
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion, a form of acid attack, is common in septic sanitary
systems. Under certain conditions this corrosion can be very severe and cause
early failure of a sanitary system.
Erosion by mineral-free wter
Hydrated lime is one of the compounds formed when cement and water
combine. It is readily dissolved by water and more aggressively dissolved by
pure mineral- free water, found in some mountain streams. Dissolved carbon
dioxide is contained in some fresh waters in sufficient quantity to make the
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water slightly acidic and add to its aggressiveness. Scandinavian countries

have reported serious attacks by fresh water, both on exposed concrete
surfaces and interior surfaces of conduits where porosity or cracks have
provided access. In the United States, there are many instances where the
surface of the concrete has been etched by fresh water flowing over it.
Erosion by miscellaneous causes

-
Acidic environments
Decaying vegetation is the most frequent source of acidity in natural waters.

Decomposition of certain minerals may be a source of acidity in some localities.
Running water that has a pH as low as 6.5 will leach lime from concrete,
reducing its strength and making it more porous and less resistant to freezing
and thawing and other chemical attack. The amount of lime leached from
concrete is a function of the area exposed and the volume of concrete. Thin,
small-diameter drains will deteriorate in a few years when exposed to mildly
acidic waters, whereas thick pipe and massive structures will not be damaged
significantly for many years under the same exposure, provided the cover over
the reinforcing steel meets normal design standards.
Waters flowing from peat beds may have a pH as low as 5. Acid of this strength
will aggressively attack concrete, and for this reason, when conveyances for
ground water are being designed, the aggressiveness of the water should be
tested to determine its compatibility with the concrete. This is particularly true
in pressure conduits.
-
Bacterial action
Most of the literature addressing the problem of deterioration of concrete

resulting from bacterial action has evolved because of the great impact of this
corrosive mechanism on concrete sewer systems. This is a serious problem
which, as Rigdon and Beardsley (1958) observed, occurs more readily in warm
climates such as California, USA; Australia; and South Africa. This problem also
occurs at the terminus of long pumped sewage force mains in the northern
climates.
Sulfur-reducing bacteria belong to the genus of bacteria that derives the
energy for its life processes from the reduction of some element other than
carbon, such as nitrogen, sulfur, or iron (Rigdon and Beardsley 1958). Some of
these bacteria are able to reduce the sulfates that are present in natural waters
and produce hydrogen sulfide as a waste product. These bacteria, as stated by
Wetzel (1975), are anaerobic.
The main concrete corrosion problem in a sewer, therefore, is chemical attack
by this sulfuric acid which accumulates in the crown of the sewer. Information is
available which may enable the designer to design, construct, and operate a
sewer so that the development of sulfuric acid is reduced.
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3.2.
3.2.1.
CONTROL OF EROSION
CONTROL OF CAVITATION EROSION
Using aeration to control damage
Laboratory and field tests have shown that surface irregularities will not cause
cavitation damage if the airwater ratio in the layers of water near the solid
boundary is about 8 percent by volume. The air in the water should be
distributed rather uniformly in small bubbles.
When calculations show that flow without aeration is likely to cause damage, or
when damage to a structure has occurred and aeration appears to be a
remedy, the problem is dual:
a) the air must be introduced into the flowing water and
b) a portion of that air must remain near the flow/concrete boundary where
it will be useful.
The migration of air bubbles involves two principles:
a) bubbles in water move in a direction of decreasing water pressure, and
b) turbulence disperses bubbles from regions of high air concentration
toward regions of low concentration.
When aeration is required, air usually must be introduced at the bottom of the
flow. These bubbles gradually move away from the floor in spite of the
tendency for turbulent dispersion to hold them down. At the point where
insufficient air is in the flow to protect the concrete from damage, a subsequent
source of bottom air must be provided.
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Fig. 4: Types of aerators
Fig. 5: Air supply to aerators

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Materials
Although proper material selection can increase the cavitation resistance of

concrete, the only totally effective solution is to reduce or eliminate the factors
that trigger cavitation, because even the strongest materials cannot withstand
the forces of cavitation indefinitely. The difficulty is that in the repair of
damaged structures, the reduction or elimination of cavitation may be very
difficult and costly. The next best solution is to replace the damaged concrete
with more erosion-resistant materials. In areas of new design where cavitation
is expected to occur, designers may include the higher quality materials during
the initial construction or include provisions for subsequent repairs in service.
For example, in many installations, stainless steel liners are installed on the
concrete perimeter downstream of slide gates to resist the damaging effects of
cavitation. These liners, although quite durable, may pit and eventually have to
be replaced.
The cavitation resistance of concrete where abrasion is not a factor can be
increased by using a properly designed low water-cement ratio, high-strength
concrete. The use of aggregate no larger than 1% in. (38 mm) nominal
maximum size is recommended, and the use of water-reducing admixtures and
chilled concrete has proven beneficial. Hard, dense aggregate and good bond
between aggregate and mortar are essential to achieving increased cavitation
resistance.
Cavitation-damaged areas have been successfully repaired using steel fiber
reinforced concrete. This material exhibits good impact resistance necessary to
resist the many tiny point loads and appears to assist in arresting cracking and
disintegration of the concrete matrix. The use of polymers as a matrix binder or
a surface binder has also been found to improve substantially the cavitation
resistance of both conventional and fiber-reinforced concrete.
Some coatings, such as neoprene or polyurethane, have effectively reduced
cavitation damage to concrete, but since near-perfect adhesion to the concrete
is mandatory, the use of such coatings is not common. Once there is a tear or a
chip in the coating, the entire coating is soon peeled off.
Construction practices
Construction practices are of paramount importance when hydraulic surfaces

may be exposed to high-velocity flow, particularly if aeration devices are not
incorporated in design. Such surfaces must be as smooth as can be practically
obtained. Surface imperfections and deficiencies have been known to cause
cavitation damage at flow velocities as low as 26 ft/sec (8 m/sec). Offsets no
greater than % in. (3 mm) in height have been known to cause cavitation
damage at flow velocities as low as 82 ft/sec (25 m/sec). Patching repairs
improperly made at the time of construction have been known to fail under the
stress of water flow or for other reasons, thereby providing the surface
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imperfections which triggered cavitation damage to the concrete farther

downstream.
If the potential for cavitation damage exists, care should be taken in placing
the reinforcement. The bars closest to the surface should be placed parallel to
the direction of flow so as to offer the least resistance to flow in the event that
erosion reaches the depth of the reinforcement. Extensive damage has been
experienced where the reinforcement near the surface is normal to the
direction of flow.
Where possible, transverse joints in concrete conduits or chutes should be
minimized. These joints are generally in a location where the greatest problem
exists in maintaining a continuously smooth hydraulic surface. One
construction technique which has proven satisfactory in placement of
reasonably smooth hydraulic surfaces is the traveling slipform screed. This
technique can be applied to tunnel inverts and to spillway chute slabs.
3.2.2.
CONTROL OF ABRASION EROSION
Hydraulic considerations
Under appropriate flow conditions and transport of debris, all of the

construction materials currently being used in hydraulic structures are to some
degree susceptible to abrasion. While improvements in materials should reduce
the rate of damage, these alone will not solve the problem. Until the adverse
hydraulic conditions which can cause abrasion erosion damage are minimized
or eliminated, it is extremely difficult for any of the construction materials
currently being used to perform in the desired manner. Prior to construction or
repair of major structures, hydraulic model studies of the structure should be
conducted to identify potential causes of erosion damage and evaluate the
effectiveness of various modifications in eliminating those undesirable
hydraulic conditions. If the model test results indicate it is impractical to
eliminate the undesirable hydraulic conditions, provisions should be made in
design to minimize future damage.
For example, good design practices should consider the following measures in
the construction or repair of stilling basins:
a) Include provisions such as debris traps or low division walls to minimize
circulation of debris.
b) Avoid use of baffles which are connected to stilling basin walls.
Alternatively, considering their susceptibility to erosion, avoid use of
appurtenances such as chute blocks and baffles altogether when the
design makes this possible.
c) Use model tests for design and detailing of the terminus of the stilling
basin and the exit channel, so as to maximize flushing of the stilling
basin and to minimize chances of debris from the exit channel entering
the basin.
Materials
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A number of materials and techniques have been used in the construction and
repair of structures subjected to abrasion erosion damage, with varying
degrees of success. The degree of success is inversely proportional to the
degree of exposure to those conditions conducive to erosion damage. No single
material has shown consistently superior performance when compared to
others. Improvements in materials are expected to reduce the rate of concrete
damage due to abrasion erosion. The following factors should be considered
when selecting abrasion-resistant materials.
Abrasion-resistant concrete should include the largest maximum size aggregate
particle, the maximum amount of the hardest available coarse aggregate and
the lowest practical water-cementitious material ratio. The abrasion- erosion
resistance of concrete containing chert aggregate has been shown to be
approximately twice that of concrete containing limestone. Given a good, hard
aggregate, any practice that produces a stronger paste structure will increase
abrasion-erosion resistance. In some cases where hard aggregate was not
available, high-range water-reducing admixtures and silica fume have been
used to develop very strong concrete-that is, concrete with a compressive
strength of about 15,000 psi (100 MPa).
Steel fiber-reinforced concrete typically has more paste and mortar per unit
volume of concrete, and therefore less coarse aggregate than comparable
conventional concrete. Consequently, fiber-reinforced concrete would be
expected to have a lower resistance to abrasion-erosion compared to
conventional concrete. In laboratory tests, the abrasion loss of a range of fiberreinforced concrete mixtures was consistently higher than that of conventional
concrete mixtures with the same water-cement ratio and aggregate type.
However, the improved impact strength of fiber-reinforced concrete may be
expected to reduce concrete spalling where large debris is being transported
by high velocity flow.
The abrasion-erosion resistance of vacuum-treated concrete, polymer concrete,
polymer-impregnated concrete, and polymer-portland cement concrete is
significantly superior to that of comparable conventional concrete. This is
attributed to a stronger cement matrix. The increased costs associated with
materials, production, and placing of these and any other special concretes in
comparison with conventional concrete should be considered during the
evaluation process.
Several types of surface coatings have exhibited good abrasion-erosion
resistance in laboratory tests. These include polyurethanes, epoxy-resin mortar,
furan-resin mortar, acrylic mortar, and iron-aggregate toppings. Problems in
field application of surface coatings have been reported.
These have been due primarily to improper surface preparation or thermal
incompatibility between coatings and concrete.
3.2.3.
CONTROL OF EROSION BY CHEMICAL ATTACK
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Control of erosion by mineral-free water
The mild acid attack possible with pure water rarely develops into deterioration
that can cause severe structural damage. Generally, the mineral-free water will
leach mortar on surfaces exposed to this water. This can be seen on exposed
surfaces and at joints and cracks in concrete sections. As the surface mortar is
leached from the concrete, more coarse aggregate is exposed, which naturally
decreases the amount of mortar exposed. With less mortar exposed, less
leaching occurs, and hence major structural problems do not usually result. The
gradual erosion of the leached mortar can be minimized by use of special
cements, addition of pozzolan to mixes, or use of a variety of protective
coatings and sealants applied to concrete surfaces.
Control of erosion from bacterial action
Concrete conduits have served in sewer systems for many years without
serious damage where the systems were properly designed and operated. The
minimum adequate velocity of flow in the sewer for the strength and
temperature of the sewage is usually 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec). Providing this
velocity without excessive turbulence and providing proper ventilation of the
sewer will generally prevent erosion by bacterial action. Turbulence is to be
H2 S
avoided because it is an
such that generation of
H2 S
releasing mechanism. Where conditions are

cannot be totally eliminated by the design of
the system, then other means may be applied, such as:

1) using hydrogen peroxide or chlorine compounds to convert the
H2 S
2) introducing compressed air to keep sewage fresh and thereby prevent

the development of the anaerobic environment;
3) using an acid-resistant pipe such as vitrified clay or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe;
4) using acid-resisting liners on the crown of sewers; and/or
5) Increasing the concrete section to allow a sacrificial thickness based on
predicted erosion rates.
Control of erosion by miscellaneous chemical causes

-
Acid environments
No Portland cement concrete, regardless of its other ingredients, will withstand

attack from water of high acid concentration. Where strong acid corrosion is
indicated, other construction materials or an appropriate surface covering or
treatment should be used.
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3.3.
3.3.1.
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF EROSION

REPAIR METHODS AND MATERIALS
Methods and materials

-
Steel plating
Installing stainless steel liner plates on concrete surfaces subject to cavitation

erosion has been a generally successful method of protecting the concrete
against cavitation erosion. Colgates (1977) studies show stainless steel to be
about four times more resistant to cavitation damage than ordinary concrete.
The currently preferred stainless material is ASTM A 167, S30403 (formerly
SS304L), from the standpoint of excellent corrosion and cavitation resistance,
and weldability. The steel plates must be securely anchored in place and be
sufficiently stiff to minimize the effects of vibration. Vibration of the liner plate
can lead to fracturing and eventual failure of the underlying concrete or failure
of the anchors. Grouting behind the plates to prevent vibration is
recommended. Unfortunately, the steel plating may hide early signs of
concrete distress.
This repair method, like many others, treats only the symptom of erosion and
eventually, if the cavitation is not reduced or eliminated, the steel itself may
become damaged by pitting.
-
Epoxy resins
Resins are natural or synthetic, solid or semisolid organic materials of high

molecular weight. Epoxies are one type of resin. These materials are typically
used in preparation of special coatings or adhesives or as binders in epoxyresin mortars and concretes. Several varieties of resin systems are routinely
used for the repair of concrete structures. ACI 503R describes the properties,
uses, preparations, mixtures, application, and handling requirements for epoxy
resin systems.
The most common use of epoxy compounds is in bonding adhesives. Epoxies
will bond to most building materials, with the possible exception of some
plastics. Typical applications include the bonding of fresh concrete to existing
concrete. Epoxies can be used also for bonding dry-pack material, fiber
reinforced concrete, polymer concretes, and some latex-modified concretes to
hardened concrete. Epoxy formulations have been developed recently which
will bond to damp concrete and even bond to concrete under water. There are
case histories of successful uses of these materials in hydraulic structures. To
help assure proper selection and use of materials, consultation with product
representatives is advised before an epoxy is specified or procured. ASTM C
881 is a specification for epoxy bonding systems useful in concrete repairs, and
ACI 503.2 covers epoxy bonding in repair work.
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Experience has shown that the application of epoxies can create serious
problems in areas of high-velocity flow. If the finished surface has a very
smooth or glassy texture, flow at the boundary can be disrupted and may have
the effect of a geometric irregularity which could trigger cavitation. This texture
problem can be minimized by using special finishing techniques and/or
improving the surface texture of the patch with sand
-
Acrylics and other polymer systems
There are three main ways in which polymers have been incorporated into
concrete to produce a material with improved properties as compared to
conventional portland cement concrete. These are polymer-impregnated
concrete (PIC), polymer-portland cement concrete (PPCC), and polymer
concrete (PC).
Polymer-impregnated concrete (PIC) is a hydrated Portland-cement concrete
that has been impregnated with a monomer which is subsequently polymerized
in situ. By effectively case hardening the concrete surface, impregnation
protects structures against the forces of cavitation and abrasion erosion. The
depth of monomer penetration depends on the porosity of the concrete and the
process and pressure under which the monomer is applied. In addition to
noting that these materials are quite costly, the engineer is cautioned that
some monomer systems can be hazardous and that monomer systems require
care in handling and should be applied only by skilled workmen experienced in
their use.
Polymer portland cement concrete (PPCC) is made by the addition of watersipersible polymers directly into wet concrete mix. PPCC, compared to
conventional concrete, has higher strength, increased flexibility, improved
adhesion, superior abrasion and impact resistance, and usually better freezethaw performance and improved durability. These properties can vary
considerably depending on the type of polymer being used. The most
commonly used PPCC is latex-modified concrete (LMC). Latex is a dispersion of
organic polymer particles in water. Typically, the fine aggregate and cement
factors are higher for PPCC than for normal concrete.
Polymer concrete (PC) is a mixture of fine and coarse aggregate with a polymer
used as the binder. This results in rapid-setting material with good chemical
resistance and exceptional bonding characteristics. So far, polymer concrete
has had limited use in large-scale repair of hydraulic structures because of the
expense of large volumes of polymer for binder. Thermal compatibility with the
parent concrete should be considered before using these materials.
Polymer concretes are finding application as concrete repair materials for
patches and overlays, and as precast elements for repair of damaged surfaces.
Field test installations with precast PC have been made on parapet walls at
Deadwood Dam, Idaho, and as a repair of cavitation and abrasion damage in
the stilling basin of American Falls Dam.
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Silica-fume concrete
Laboratory tests have shown that the addition of an appropriate amount of

silica fume and a high-range water-reducing admixture to a concrete mixture
will greatly increase compressive strength. This, in turn, increases abrasionerosion resistance. As a result of these tests, concretes containing silica fume
were used by the US Army Corps of Engineers to repair abrasionerosion
damage in the stilling basin at Kinzua Dam and in the concrete lining of the
low-flow channel. Los Angeles River. Despite adverse exposure conditions,
particularly at Kinzua Dam, the silica fume concrete continues to exhibit
excellent resistance to abrasion erosion.
Silica fume offers potential for improving many properties of concrete.

However, the very high compressive strength and resulting increase in
abrasion-erosion resistance are particularly beneficial in repair of hydraulic
structures. Silica fume concrete should be considered in repair of abrasionerosion susceptible locations.
Shotcretes
Shotcrete has been used extensively in the repair of hydraulic structures. This
method permits replacing concrete without the use of formwork, and the repair
can be made in very restricted areas. Shotcrete, also known as pneumatically
applied mortar, can be an economical alternative to other more conventional
systems of repair. ACI 506R provides guidance in the manufacture and
application of shotcrete. In addition to conventional shotcrete, modified
concretes such as fiberreinforced shotcrete, polymer shotcrete, and silica fume
shotcrete have been applied by the air-blown or shotcrete method.
Coatings
High-head erosion tests have been conducted using both polyurethane and
neoprene coatings
(Houghton, Borge, and Paxton 1978). Both coatings exhibited good resistance
to abrasion and cavitation. The problem with flexible coatings like these is their
bond to the concrete surfaces. Once an edge or a portion of the coating is torn
from the surface, the entire coating can be peeled off rather quickly by
hydraulic force.
Preplaced-aggregate concrete
Preplaced-aggregate concrete, also referred to as prepacked concrete, is

used in the repair of large cavities and inaccessible areas. Clean, well-graded
coarse aggregate, generally of 0.5 to 1.5 in. (12 to 38 mm) maximum size, is
placed in the form. Neat cement grout or a sanded grout, with or without
admixtures, is then pumped into the aggregate matrix through openings in the
bottom of the forms or through grout pipes embedded in the aggregate. The
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grout is placed under pressure, and pressure is maintained until initial set.
Concrete placed by this method has a low volume change because of the pointto-point contact of the aggregate; there is high bond strength to top bars for
the same reason. The use of pozzolans, water-reducing admixtures, and low
water contents is recommended to further reduce shrinkage and thermal
volume changes.
Linings
Tunnels, conduits, and pipes that have surface damage due to abrasion
erosion, bacterial action, or chemical/acid attack can be protected from further
damage with a non-bonded mechanically attached PVC lining. Depending on
the extent of the damage, some patching of the concrete surface may be
required before installation.
4.
4.1.
GUIDE TO MASS CONCRETE (ACI 207.1R)

MATERIALS AND MIXTURE PORPORTIONING
Cements
The following types of hydraulic cement are suitable for use in mass concrete
construction:
-
Portland cement- Types I, II, IV, and V

Blended Cement- Types P, IP, S, IS, I(PM), and I(SM)
Hydraulic Cement- Types GU, MS, HS, MH, and LH
Type I and GU cements are suitable for use in general construction. They are
not recommended for use alone in mass concrete without other measures that
help to control temperature problems because of their substantially higher heat
of hydratation.
Type II (moderate heat) and MH cements are suitable for mass concrete
construction because they have a moderate heat of hydratation, which is
important to the control of cracking.
Types IV and LH, Low-heat cements, may be used where is desired to produced
low heat development in massive structures. They have not been used in
recent years because they have been difficult to obtain and, more importantly,
because experience has shown that in most cases, heat development can be
controlled satisfactorily by other means.
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WORKS ITEMS
Type V an HS sulfate-resistant cements are available in areas with high-sulfate

soils, and will often have moderate heat characteristics.
Pozzolans and Ground slag
Pozzolans in mass concrete may be used to reduce Portland cement factors for
better economy, lower internal heat generation, improve workability, and
lessen the potential for damage from alkali-aggregate reactivity and sulfate
attack.
Finely ground-granulated iron blast-furnace slag, commonly referred to as slag
cement, may also be used as a separate ingredient with Portland cement as a
cementitious material in mass concrete. The addition of slag will usually reduce
the rate of heat generation due to slightly slower rate of hydratation. Finely
ground slag also produces many of the benficial properties in concrete that are
achieved with suitable pozzolans, such as reduce permeability, control of
expansion from reactive aggregate, sulfate resistance,and improve workability.
Finely ground slag, however, is usually used in much higher percentages than
pozolans to avhieve similar properties.
Chemical admixtures
The chemical admixtures thata are important to mass concrete are classified as
air-entraining, water reducing or set-controlling.
Aggregates
The grading of fine aggregate strongly influences the workability of concrete. A

good grading of sand for mass concrete should be within the limits shown in
the table 10.
TABLE 10: FINE AGGREGATE FOR MASS CONRETE
Sieve designation
9.50 mm
N 4
N 8
N 16
N 30
N 50
N 100
Pan fraction
Percentage
retained,
individual by weight
0
0-5
5-15
10-25
10-30
15-35
12-20
3-7
The proportioning of aggregates in the concrete mixture will strongly influence

concrete workability, and this is one factor that can readily be adjusted during
construction. To facilitate this, aggregates are processed into and batched from
39

WORKS ITEMS
convenient size gropus. Th grading requirements for the coarse aggregate are
shown in the next table.
TABLE 11: GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATE
Test
sieve
size, square
mesh.
in
(mm)1
7(175)
6(150)
4(100)
3(75)
2(50)
1-1/2 (37.5)
1 (25)
3/4 (19)
3/8 (95)
N 4 (4.75)
Percent by weight passing designated test sieve

Cobbles
Coarse
Medium
Fine
6-3
3 a 1
1 a
a N 4
100
90 a 100
20 a 45
0 a 15
0a5
100
90 a 100
20 a 55
0 a 10
0a5
100
90 a 100
20 a 45
1 a 10
0a5
100
90 a 100
30 a 55
0a5
Water
Water used for mixing concrete should be free of materials that significantly
affect the hydratation reactions of Portland cement. Water that is fit ti drink
may generally be regarded as acceptable for use in mixing concrete.
5.
5.1.
COOLING AND INSULATING SYSTEMS FOR

MASS CONCRETE (ACI 207 4R)
TEMPERATURE CONTROL MEASURES
Optimal concrete mix desing

Use low-heat cement such as Type II
Use Class F fly ash and/or slag as a substitute for a portion of the
cement
Use low water-to-cementitious materials ratio
Minimize the amount of cementitious materials in the mix
Use Larger and better graded aggregates
Limestone aggregates are better suited for mass concrete
Insulation
To control temperature differential: core vs. surface
40

WORKS ITEMS
Has no significant effect on maximum concrete temperature for

placements of 5 or greater
Concrete cooling before placement

Each 1F of precooling is expected to reduce the concrete
temperature (after placement) by about the same amount
Chilled water: about 5F (100% subs.) temperature reduction
Chipped or shaved ice: about 15F to 20F (75% subs.) temperature
reduction
Liquid nitrogen (LN2): as low as 35F reduction. Very effective but
the most expensive option
Concrete cooling after placement

Cooling Pipes
Non-corrosive piping embedded prior to concrete placement

Uniformly distributed: typically 1 pipes @ 2 to 4 on center
Removes heat from placed concrete by circulating cool water from a
nearby source
Smaller placements
Multiple lifts
Result in schedule delays and increased cost due to additional effort
for multiple thermal control, and horizontal joint preparation
41

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AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

1. CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR

Water-cementitious materials ratio

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

For concrete exposed to deicing chemicals, the maximum weight of fly

Concrete exposed to water or wastewater solutions or soils containing

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

water-cementitious materials ratio and minimum compressive strength from

Corrosion protection of metals

For corrosion protection of reinforcement in concrete, maximum water soluble

Contact between dissimilar metals shall be avoided. Isolators shall be placed

Protection against erosion

Concrete shall be protected against erosion damage when subjected to

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

b) Use structural shapes, surface finishes and tolerances characterized by

Minimum fc= 5000 psi at 28 days.

Where additional protection is needed, use coatings and liners

Movement joints (expansion and contraction) and construction joints shall be

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

CONCRETE QUALITY, MIXING, AND PLACING

Concrete shall be proportioned to provide an average compressive strength as

Selection of concrete proportions

Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to provide:

Proportioning on the basis of field experience and/or trial

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

TABLE 6: MODIFICATION FACTOR FOR STANDARD DEVIATION WHEN

Required average strength

Required average compressive strength fcrused as the basis for selection

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

Evaluation and acceptance of concrete

Samples for strength tests shall be taken in accordance with Method of

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

b) No individual strength test (average of two cylinders) falls below

If required by the building official, results of strength tests of cylinders cured

Preparation of equipment and place of deposit

Preparation before concrete placement shall include the following:

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

number of batches produced

Concrete shall be conveyed from mixer to place of final deposit by methods

Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practical in its final position to avoid

Concrete (other than high-early-strength) shall be maintained above 50 F and

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

Curing by high-pressure steam, steam at atmospheric pressure, heat and

FORMWORK, EMBEDDED PIPES, AND CONSTRUCTION AND

Conduits and pipes embedded in concrete

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

Conduits, pipes, and sleeves shall be permitted to be considered as replacing

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

Surface of concrete construction joints shall be cleaned and laitance removed.

Surface conditions of reinforcement

DESING OF HYDRAULICS WORKS

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS

Reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and ducts shall be accurately placed and

Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for assembly of reinforcement

Spacing limits for reinforcement

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)- DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULICS