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INTRODUCTION
I-History and Development of Kevlar....1
II-DuPont's Kevlar Production Facility.....2
III-Composition of Kevlar...4
A) Grades of Kevlar...4
B) Mechanical Properties of Kevlar.4
C) Technical Properties.....6
D) Advantages and Disadvantages of Kevlar......6
E) Applications of the Kevlar Fibers...7
F) A comprehensive list of Kevlar application..8
IV-PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A) The Spinnerets.9
B) Types of Spinning Methods......10
1- Wet Spinning.....10
2- Dry Spinning......11
3- Melt Spinning....12
4- Gel Spinning......13
V-DETAIL MANUFACTURING OF HIGH STRENGTH KEVLAR FIBERS
A) Affects of the Crystallinity of Kevlar......14
B) Spinning Solvent.....14
C) Dry Jet Wet Spinning Method..15
CONCLUSION
Reference ...16
Kevlar 29, introduced in the early 1970s, was the first generation of bullet
resistant fibers developed by DuPont and helped to make the production of flexible,
concealable body armor practical for the first time. In 1988, DuPont introduced the
second generation of Kevlar fiber, known as Kevlar 129. According to DuPont, this
fabric offered increased ballistic protection capabilities against high energy rounds
such as the 9mm FMJ. In 1995, Kevlar Correctional was introduced, which provides
puncture resistant technology to both law enforcement and correctional officers
against puncture type threats.
The newest addition to the Kevlar line is Kevlar Protera, which became
available in 1996 by DuPont. DuPont contends that the Kevlar Protera is a highperformance fabric that allows lighter weight, more flexibility, and greater ballistic
protection in a vest design due to the molecular structure of the fiber. Its tensile
strength and energy-absorbing capabilities have been increased by the development of
a new spinning process. [17]
Before Kevlar was used for body armor, it was used as a substitute for steel
in the manufacture of radial tires, including those designed for police cars. Kevlar is
a registered trademark of DuPont de Nemours and Co., Inc. Twaron is a registered
trademark of Akzo, Inc.
DuPont's Kevlar Production Facility
DuPont will expand its Kevlar para-aramid fiber production facility in
Richmond, Va., by adding a new production line at the site, increasing its capacity by
the end of 2002. Total investment for this expansion is expected to be roughly $50
million. [5]
The company has already completed the first phase of an expansion begun
early in 2001 and has increased global production capacity for Kevlar fiber by 15
percent. The second expansion will address a two year trend of growing demand for
high-performance, high strength para-aramid fibers, which has exceeded global
manufacturing capabilities. The capacity expansion is based on technology developed
and patented by DuPont and used in the company's European operations for the past
four years [5]. For example, Toray Industries Inc. of Japan and E.I. DuPont de
Nemours of the U.S. said they have agreed to build a joint plant in Japan to
manufacture Du- Pont's kevlar fiber [7].
Composition of Kevlar:
The chemical composition of Kevlar is poly para-phenyleneterephthalamide
(PPD-T) and it is more properly known as a para-aramid. It is oriented parasubstituted aromatic units. Aramids belong to the family of nylons. Common nylons,
such as nylon 6,6 do not have very good structural properties, so the para-aramid
distinction is important. Aramid fibers like Nomex or Kevlar, however, are ring
compounds based on the structure of benzene as opposed to linear compounds used to
make nylon. The aramid ring gives Kevlar thermal stability, while the para structure
gives it high strength and modulus. Like nylons, Kevlar filaments are made by
extruding the precursor through a spinneret. The rod form of the para-aramid
molecules and the extrusion process make Kevlar fibers anisotropic--they are stronger
and stiffer in the axial direction than in the transverse direction. In comparison,
graphite fibers are also anisotropic, but glass fibers are isotropic. [14]
process known as spinning, which involves extruding the molten polymer solution
through small holes. [14]
When PPD-T solutions are extruded through a spinneret and drawn through an
air gap during fiber manufacture, the liquid crystalline domains can orient and align in
the flow direction. Kevlar can acquire a high degree of alignment of long, straight
polymer chains parallel to the fiber axis. The structure exhibits anisotropic properties,
with higher strength and modulus in the fiber longitudinal direction than in the axial
direction. The extruded material also possesses a febrile structure. This structure
results in poor shear and compression properties for aramid composites. Hydrogen
bonds form between the polar amide groups on adjacent chains and they hold the
individual Kevlar polymer chains together [8]. It is shown as in the following figure:
the differences in material properties among the different grades. Kevlar cloth is most
likely to be Kevlar 49.
Grade
Density
g/cm^3
Tensile
Modulus
GPa
Tensile
Strength
GPa
Tensile
Elongation
%
29
1.44
83
3.6
4.0
49
1.44
131
3.6--4.1
2.8
149
1.47
186
3.4
2.0
Table 1: Differences in material properties among the different grades of Kevlar. [14]
The tensile modulus and strength of Kevlar 29 is roughly comparable to that
of glass (S or E), yet its density is almost half that of glass. Thus, to a first
approximation, Kevlar can be substituted for glass where lighter weight is desired.
Kevlar 49 or 149 can cut the weight even further if the higher strength is accounted
for. Of course, Kevlar's weight savings does come at a price: Kevlar is significantly
more expensive than glass [13]. DuPont sees kevlar as a replacement for steel cable
on offshore oil rigs [12].
Kevlar behaves elastically in tension. In compression, it shows nonlinear,
ductile behavior. It exhibits yield at compression strains of 0.3 to 0.5%. This
corresponds to formation of structural defects known as kink bands. These bands are
related to compressive buckling of the aramid molecules. Aramid fibers are noted for
toughness and general damage tolerance. Kevlar 29 has the lowest modulus and
highest toughness and the tensile elongation of Kevlar 29 is about 4%. The fibrillar
structure and compression behavior contribute to composites that are less notchsensitive and which fail in a ductile, non-catastrophic manner, as opposed to glass and
carbon. [8]
The aromatic structure gives the fibers a high degree of thermal stability. They
decompose in air at about 425C and are inherently flame resistant. Aramids have a
slight negative longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion of about -2 x 10-6/K and
a positive transverse expansion of 60 x 10 -6/K. They also have a low thermal
conductivity that varies by about an order of magnitude in the longitudinal versus
transverse direction. [8]
5
Technical Properties:
Technical properties claimed of kevlar can be summarized as follows:
* High strength to weight ratio.
* Low ductility.
* High modulus of rigidity (structural rigidity).
* Low electrical conductivity.
* High chemical resistance.
* Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
* High toughness (work-to-break).
* Excellent dimensional stability.
* Low machinability.
* Flame retardant, self-extinguishing. [3]
Advantages and Disadvantages of Kevlar:
Advantages are:
Disadvantages are:
which use 100% Kevlar in denim jeans. About 11 inches of the protective fabric is
used in the knees, seam to seam, and the entire rear is covered with it. [2]
A comprehensive list of Kevlar applications
A comprehensive list of Kevlar applications includes:
Adhesives and sealants Thixotropes;
Ballistics and defense Anti-mine boots, cut-resistant gloves, composite helmets,
and bullet- and fragmentation-resistant vests;
Belts and hoses Automotive heating/cooling systems, industrial hoses, and
automotive and industrial synchronous and power transmission belts;
Composites Aircraft structural body parts and cabin panels, boats, and sporting
goods;
Fiber optic and electromechanical cables Communications and data transfer
cables; ignition wires; and submarine, aerostat and robotic tethers;
Friction products and gaskets Asbestos replacement, automotive and industrial
gaskets for high-pressure/high-temperature environments; brake pads; and clutch
linings;
Protective apparel Boots; chain-saw chaps; cut-resistant industrial gloves;
helmets (both for firefighters and consumer bicyclists); and thermal- and cutprotective aprons, sleeves, etc.;
Tires Aircraft, automobiles, off-road, race vehicles and trucks; and
Ropes and cables Antennae guy wires, fishing line, industrial and marine utility
ropes, lifting slings, mooring and emergency tow lines, netting and webbing, and
pull tapes. [19]
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Most synthetic and cellulosic manufactured fibers are manufactured by
extrusion forcing a thick, viscous liquid (about the consistency of cold honey)
through the tiny holes of a device called a spinneret to form continuous filaments of
semi-solid polymer.
In their initial state, the fiber-forming polymers are solids and therefore must
be first converted into a fluid state for extrusion. This is usually achieved by melting,
if the polymers are thermoplastic synthetics (i.e., they soften and melt when heated),
or by dissolving them in a suitable solvent if they are non-thermoplastic cellulosics. If
they cannot be dissolved or melted directly, they must be chemically treated to form
soluble or thermoplastic derivatives. Recent technologies have been developed for
some specialty fibers made of polymers that do not melt, dissolve, or form appropriate
derivatives. For these materials, the small fluid molecules are mixed and reacted to
form the otherwise intractable polymers during the extrusion process. [16]
The spinnerets:
The spinnerets used in the production of most manufactured fibers are similar,
in principle, to a bathroom shower head (see figure 3). A spinneret may have from one
to several hundred holes. The tiny openings are very sensitive to impurities and
corrosion. The liquid feeding them must be carefully filtered (not an easy task with
very viscous materials) and, in some cases, the spinneret must be made from very
expensive, corrosion-resistant metals. Maintenance is also critical, and spinnerets
must be removed and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent clogging.
Figure 3: Spinnerets
As the filaments emerge from the holes in the spinneret, the liquid polymer is
converted first to a rubbery state and then solidified. This process of extrusion and
solidification of endless filaments is called spinning, not to be confused with the
textile operation of the same name, where short pieces of staple fiber are twisted into
yarn. There are four methods of spinning filaments of manufactured fibers: wet, dry,
melt, and gel spinning. Table 1 lists the different types of spinning methods with the
fiber types produced by each method. [16]
10
11
12
13
14
and dibasic acids give polyamides that yield, under appropriate conditions of solvent,
concentration, and polymer molecular weight, the desired nomadic liquid crystal
structure. One would like to have, for any solution spinning process a high molecular
weight to obtain improved mechanical properties, a low viscosity to ease processing
conditions, and a high polymer concentration to achieve a high yield. For para aramid,
poly p-phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T), trade name Kevlar, the nematic liquid
crystalline state is obtained in 100% sulfuric acid at polymer concentration of about
20%. The polymer solution is often referred to as the dope. The various spinning
processes available are classified as dry, wet and dry jet-wet spinning process
(mentioned earlier). [15]
Dry Jet Wet Spinning Method
For aramid fibers, the dry jet wet spinning method is employed. It is believed
that solution-polycondensation of diamines and diacid halides at low temperatures
(near 00C) gives the aramid forming polyamides. Low temperatures inhibit by product
generation and promote linear polyamide formation. The resulting polymer is
pulverized, washed, and dried. This is mixed with a strong acid (e.g., concentrated
sulphuric acid) and extruded through spinnerets at 100 0C through about 1-cm air
layer is to cold water (0-4
C). The fiber precipitates in the air gap and the acid is
removed in the coagulation bath. The spinneret capillary and air gap cause rotation
and alignment of the domains resulting in highly crystalline and oriented as-spun
fibers. At the end of this process, the Kevlar is produced. [15]
CONCLUSION
In this report, it is shown that fibers are formed by forcing a viscous fluid or
solution of the polymer through the small orifices of spinnerets and immediately
solidifying or precipitating the resulting filaments. This prepared polymer may also be
used in the manufacture of other nonfiber products such as the enormous number of
extruded plastic and synthetic rubber products.
15
Reference
1- A Practical Flywheel Engine - Will Fiber Glass Be the Answer, Business
Week. New York: MAY 3, 1976. , Iss. 2430; pg. 109.
2- Abend, Jules, Draggin' behind - One man's dream of a tough jean,
Bobbin. Columbia: Aug 1997. Vol. 38, Iss. 12; pg. 8, 2 pgs.
3- Anonymous, Back In the Air with Safety, Style and KEVLAR, Aircraft
Engineering and Aerospace Technology. Bradford: 2002. Vol. 74, Iss. 2; pg.
166.
4- Anonymous, Bicycle Retailer and Industry News, Laguna Beach: Jun 15,
2003. Vol. 12, Iss. 10; pg. 24.
5- Anonymous, DuPont expands Kevlar Fiber Production in Virginia,
Chemical
Market
Reporter. New
York: Jul
30,
Environmental
Design
11- R.H. Ferland. New Compression Packings Aim to Replace Asbestos, Power
Engineering, Vol. 92, Iss. 7 1988, p28-31.
12- Smith, Lee, A Miracle in Search of a Market, Fortune. New York: Dec 1,
1980. Vol. 102, Iss. 11; pg. 92.
13- Victor Wigotsky, ANTEC fundamentals forum will focus on innovative
products and processes, Plastics Engineering. Brookfield Center: Mar
2002. Vol. 58, Iss. 3; pg. 26, 9 pgs.
14- www.carb.com/. Kevlar (Aramid) Comparisons, 30/9/2003.
15- www.eng.uab.edu/compositesLab/b_fiber.htm. Fiber Types, 13/10/2003.
16- www.fiberworld.com/f-tutor/techpag.htm. Manufacturing: Synthetic and
Cellulosic Fiber Formation Technology, 30/92003.
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