CFI Notebook

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Table of Contents
Areas of Operation: Single-Engine Land
I.
Fundamentals of Instructing
Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication
Task B: The Learning Process
Task C: The Teaching Process
Task D: Assessment and Critique
Task E: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism
Task F: Techniques of Flight Instruction
Task G: Risk Management
II.
Technical Subject Areas

Task A: Aeromedical Factors
Task B: Runway Incursion Avoidance
Task C: Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance
Task D: Principles of Flight
Task E: Airplane Flight Controls
Task F: Airplane Weight and Balance
Task G: Navigation and Flight Planning
Task H: Night Operations
Task I: High Altitude Operations
Task J: 14 CFR and Publications
Task K: National Airspace System
Task L: Navigation Aids and Radar Services
Task M: Logbook Entries and Certificate Endorsements
III.
Preflight Preparation
Task A: Certificates and Documents
Task B: Weather Information
Task C: Operation of Systems
Task D: Performance and Limitations
Task E: Airworthiness Requirements
IV.
Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight

Task A: Maneuver Lesson
V.
Preflight Procedures
Task A: Preflight Inspection
Task B: Cockpit Management
Task C: Engine Starting
Task D: Taxiing Landplane
Task G: Before Takeoff Check
VII.
Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds

Task A: Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb
Task B: Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb
Task C: Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb
Task F: Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing
Task G: Slip to a Landing
Task H: Go-Around/Rejected Landing
Task I: Short-Field Approach and Landing
Task J: Soft-Field Approach and Landing
Task K: Power-Off 180 Accuracy Approach and Landing
VIII.
Fundamentals of Flight
Task A: Straight-and-Level Flight
Task B: Level Turns
Task C: Straight Climbs and Climbing Turns
Task D: Straight Descents and Descending Turns
IX.
Performance Maneuvers
Task A: Steep Turns
Task B: Steep Spirals
Task C: Chandelles
Task D: Lazy Eights
X.
Ground Reference Maneuvers

Task A: Rectangular Course
Task B: S-Turns Across a Road
Task C: Turns Around a Point
Task D: Eights on Pylons
XI.
Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

Task A: Maneuvering During Slow Flight
Task B: Power-On Stalls
Task C: Power-Off Stalls
Task D: Cross-controlled Stalls
Task E: Elevator Trim Stalls
Task F: Secondary Stalls
Task G: Spins
Task H: Accelerated Maneuver Stalls
XII.
Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Task B: Constant Airspeed Climbs
Task C: Constant Airspeed Descents
Task D: Turns to Headings
Task E: Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes
XIII.
Emergency Operations
Task A: Emergency Approach and Landing
Task B: Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
Task C: Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear
Task D: Emergency Descent
XIV.
Postflight Procedures
Task A: Postflight Procedures
Areas Of Operation: Multi-Engine Land

XIII.
Task B: Engine Failure During Takeoff Before Vmc
Task C: Engine Failure After Lift-Off
Task D: Approach and Landing with an Inoperative Engine
XIV.
Multi-Engine Operations
Task A: Operation of Systems
Task B: Performance and Limitations
Task C: Flight Principles - Engine Inoperative
Task D: Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
Task E: Vmc Demonstration
Task F: Demonstration of the Effects of Various Airspeeds and Configurations
During Engine Inoperative Performance
Appendix 1
PHAK Runway Incursion Avoidance
AC 61-65E Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors
AC 61-67C Stall and Spin Awareness Training
AC 61-98B Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review
AC 90-66A Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns
Appendix 2
Inoperative Equipment Flow Chart (FAR 91.213)
CFI Q&A: Privileges and Limitations
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations I
Fundamentals of Instructing

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AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

Reference: FAA-H-8083-9A
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of human behavior and effective
communication and how these impact effective learning by describing:
1. Definitions of Human Behavior
a. A product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment
b. The product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways
c. The result of attempts to satisfy certain needs
2. Human needs and motivation.
a. Physiological biological needs, consisting of air, food, water, and maintenance of the human body
b. Security the need to feel safe
c. Belonging people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation
d. Esteem a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect and respect from others
e. Cognitive and Aesthetic the need to know and understand, and the emotional need of the artist,
respectively
f. Self-Actualization to be and do that which the person was born to do
3. Defense mechanisms.
a. Repression places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind
b. Denial a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening
c. Compensation counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas
d. Projection an individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto someone else
e. Rationalization subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be
unacceptable
f. Reaction Formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief
causes anxiety
g. Fantasy when a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing
anything about how things are
h. Displacement an unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more
acceptable less threatening substitute
4. Student emotional reactions.
a. Anxiety a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen,
typically something with an uncertain outcome.
b. Stress the fight or flight syndrome, normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly,
within the limits of their experience and training.
c. Abnormal Reactions with some, responses to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at
least inadequate, instructors should use careful evaluation given any of the following: inappropriate
reactions, inappropriate laughter or singing, mood swings, severe anger, etc
5. Basic elements of communication.
a. Source sender, speaker, writer, transmitter, etc.
b. Symbols words, signs, models, etc.
c. Receiver listener, reader, decoder, etc.
6. Barriers to effective communication.
a. Lack of Common Experience
b. Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
c. Overuse of Abstractions
d. Interference
7. Developing communication skills.
a. Role Playing
b. Instructional Communication
c. Listening
d. Questioning
e. Instructional Enhancement
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Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the learning process by describing:
1. Learning theory.
a. Behaviorism- explains behavior from observable and measureable responses to stimuli.
b. Cognitive theory- focuses on whats going on inside the mind.
2. Perceptions and insight.
a. Perceptions are the basis of all learning. These are directed to the brain by one or more of the five
senses.
b. Factors that affect perception
i. Physical organism. This is the individuals ability to sense the world around them
ii. Goals and values. Every student has different beliefs and values.
iii. Self-concept. Positive or negative, this affects the ability to perform or do things favorably
or unfavorably.
iv. Time and opportunity. The ability to learn some things is dependent upon other
perceptions.
v. Element of threat. Fear adversely affects learning.
c. Insights are the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes.
3. Acquiring knowledge
a. Memorization- when you are exposed to a new concept, you tend to acquire and memorize facts.
b. Understanding- organize your knowledge to gain an understanding of things youve memorized.
c. Application- the ability to apply your knowledge to solve problems and make decisions.
4. The laws of learning.
a. Readiness. Students learn best when they are ready to learn.
b. Exercise. Things most often repeated are best remembered.
c. Effect. Learning is strengthened by a positive experience and weakened by a negative one.
d. Primacy. First-learned is best learned. Teach it right the first time.
e. Intensity. Students learn better from the real thing than from a substitute.
f. Recency. Things most recenctly learned are best remembered.
5. Domains of learning.
a. Cognitive (thinking) domain has four practical levels of learning.
i. Rote. Student can memorize/read back what has been taught (lowest level).
ii. Understanding. Student understands principles and theory behind the knowledge.
iii. Application. Student understands theory and can correctly apply what has been learned.
iv. Correlation. Student associates learned elements with other/future segments of learning.
b. Affective (feeling) domain.
i. Awareness. Student is open to learning/training, and willing to listen to instructor.
ii. Response. Student responds by active participation in training, and compliance with
instructions.
iii. Organizing. Student organizes the training within their personal belief system
iv. Integration. Student internalizes training, and incorporates that values into their life.
c. Psychomotor (doing) domain is skill-based, and includes physical movement.
i. Observation. The learner observes a more experienced person perform the skill.
ii. Imitation. The learner attempts to copy the skill, while instructor observes.
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iii. Practice. The practice level builds proficiency; the learner tries performing a skill again and
again.
iv. Habit. This level is reached when the student can perform the skill in twice the time it takes
the instructor.
6. Characteristics of learning.
a. Purposeful. Students learn when there is a clear purpose or goal.
b. Result of experience. Students learn through individual experiences.
c. Active Process. To learn, students must actively react and respond.
d. Multifaceted. Verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor skills, emotional, and problem solving;
sometimes called incidental learning.
7. Acquiring skill knowledge.
a. Cognitive stage. Student memorized steps to perform a skill.
b. Associative stage. Student practices the skill, can now assess and make changes in performance.
c. Automatic response stage. Students performance is rapid and smooth, few corrections, has
developed feel for the skill.
i. Desire to learn. A student with desire to learn will learn more quickly.
ii. Evaluation vs critique. Suggestions are more valuable than a grade in early training.
iii. Application of skill. Learn the skill well, apply it in appropriate situations.
iv. Duration and organization of a lesson. Adequate, but not excessive length of practice.
v. Pattern of progress. Learning curve rapid at first, then plateaus are encountered.
vi. Physical skills involve more than muscles. Concepts develop, attitudes are changed.
vii. Patterns to follow. Prepare a student by providing a clear, step-by-step example.
viii. Performance of the skill. Practice makes proficient, coordinates muscles and senses.
ix. Knowledge of results. Keep students aware of progress, whether its right or wrong.
8. Types of practice.
a. Deliberate. Student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback.
b. Blocked. Practicing the same skill over and over, until it is automatic.
c. Random. Mixing up the skills to be acquired during the practice session.
9. Scenario-based training.
a. Practicing realistic scenarios during training is very useful, and better resembles training
environment. A good scenario has a clear set of objectives and is tailored to the student.
10. Errors.
a. Errors are impossible to eliminate but here are some tactics for reducing them:
i. Learning and practicing. Higher knowledge and skill leads to lower frequency and
magnitude of error.
ii. Taking time-dont rush. Performing at a fast/unfamiliar pace increases likelihood of errors.
iii. Checking for errors. Actively looking for errors, such as preflight checklists, etc.
iv. Using reminders-checklists, heading bugs, altitude alerts, etc.
v. Developing routines-use standardized procedures, cockpit flows, etc,
vi. Raising awareness. Beware of out of the ordinary situations, changing conditions,
unfamiliar airports, etc.
11. Memory and forgetting.
a. Memory:
i. Sensory register-receives input from the five senses, processes quickly.
ii. Short-term memory (working)- received from sensory register, remains or fades depending
on individuals priorities.
iii. Long-term memory- where information is stored for future use (recall).
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b. Theories of forgetting.
i. Repression. People unconsciously forget unpleasant feelings from negative experience.
ii. Interference. People forget because new experience overshadow prior experiences.
iii. Disuse. People forget things that are not used.
iv. Suppression. Similar to repression, except that suppression is conscious form of forgetting.
12. Retention of learning.
a. Praise stimulates remembering. Reponses which give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated.
b. Recall is promoted by association. Information associated with something to be learned aids recall.
c. Favorable attitudes aid retention. People learn and remember only what they wish to know.
d. Learning with all senses is most effective. Use all senses for greater understanding and recall.
e. Meaningful repetition aids recall. Practice and repetition provide opportunity for better retention.
13. Transfer of learning
a. Positive transfer. Past knowledge supports new learning.
b. Negative transfer. Past knowledge confuses/detracts from new learning.
CFI Notebook

Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the teaching process by describing:
1. Preparation of a lesson.
a. Determine the objectives of a lesson.
b. Research the subject as defined by the objective.
c. Determine the method of instruction the lesson plan format.
d. Decide how to organize the lesson and select suitable supporting material.
e. Assemble training aids.
f. Write the lesson plan outline.
2. Organization of material
a. Introduction
1. Attention instructor gains the students attention and focuses it on the subject
2. Motivation the instructor offers the student specific reasons why the topic is important
3. Overview the instructor gives a concise presentation of what will be covered
b. Development - the main part of the lesson in which the instructor develops the subject matter in a
manner that helps the students achieve the desired learning outcome.
1. Past to present
2. Simple to complex
3. Known to unknown
4. Most frequently used to least used
c. Conclusion - Retraces the important elements of the lesson and connects them to the objective. This
review reinforces student learning and aids in retention of material.
3. Training delivery methods
a. Lecture method
1. Useful for presentation of new material.
2. Usually delivered by an instructor to a group of students.
3. Utilizes instructional aids and training media.
b. Guided discussion
1. Relies on student possession of a level of knowledge about the topic
2. The goal of the guided discussion is to determine what students know.
c. Computer assisted learning (E-Learning)
1. delivered through the use of an electronic component such as the internet, dvd, video
conferencing, etc.
2. Advantages are that it is learner-centered, easily updated, cost competitive, accessible
anytime and anywhere.
d. Demonstration-performance method
1. Based on the principle that people learn by doing.
2. Instructor shows the correct way to do an activity, then the student repeats the same
activity.
3. This method is best used for mastery of a mental or physical skill requiring practice.
e. Drill and practice method
1. Based on the principle of exercise
2. Promotes learning through repetition
4. Problem based learning
a. Type of learning that confronts students with real world problems, thus forcing them to reach
real world solutions.

b. There are three types of problem based learning:
1. Scenario-based- Training that uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences
to address aviation-training objectives in an operational environment.
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Collaborative problem solving- two or more people working together to solve a

problem.
3. Case study- a written or oral account of a real-world situation that contains a message
that educates the student.
2.
5. Instruction aids and training technologies

a. Instructional aids are devices that assist the instructor in the teaching-learning process. They are
NOT self-supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught
1. Instructional aids are used to gain and hold a students attention.
2. Increase the students knowledge retention.
3. To help illustrate points that are complex or of a technical description.
4. To help clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts.
b. Training technologies are any physical means that communicates an instructional message
to students such as printed text, interactive computer programs, flight training devices, etc.
c. Training technologies are most often self-supporting.
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Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of assessments and critiques by
describing:
1. Assessment:
a. Purpose of assessment
Provides critical information to both the instructor and the student
Provides practical and specific feedback to students, including direction and guidance on how to
raise their level of performance
A well-designed and effective assessment process contributes to the development of
aeronautical decision-making and judgment skills by helping develop the students ability to
evaluate his or her own knowledge and performance accurately
Helps the instructor to see where more emphasis is needed
b. General characteristics of effective assessment
Most display these characteristics (FAT C COWS):
Flexible: should be designed and executed so that the instructor can allow for variables
Acceptable: Students must have confidence in the instructors qualifications and
competence
Thoughtful: Reflects the students need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval
Comprehensive: assess what most needs improvement, or only what the student can
reasonably be expected to improve
Constructive: an assessment is pointless unless the student benefits from it; praise should
be given in order to inspire the student to do better
Objective: should not reflect the personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or bias
Well Organized: must be logical and make sense
Specific: ideas should be expressed with firmness and authority
c. Traditional assessment
Generally refers to written testing; time constraints; a single correct response to each question
All students learn the same thing; relies on rote memory
Offers little opportunity for a demonstration of the thought process characteristic of critical
thinking skills
Characteristics of a good written test
- Reliability: the degree the to which the test results are consistent with repeated
measurements
- Validity: the extent to which a written test measures what it is supposed to measure,
and it is the most important consideration in test evaluation
- Usability: the functionality of the test
- Objectivity: refers to the fact that one person must grade the tests; ex essay questions
and how instructors cannot keep their opinions out of grading
- Comprehensiveness: the degree to which a test measures the overall objectives
- Discrimination: the degree to which a test distinguishes the difference between
students
A wide range of scores
All levels of difficulty
Items that distinguish between students with differing levels of
achievement of the course objectives
d. Authentic assessment
The student is asked to perform real-world tasks, and demonstrate a meaningful application of
skills and competencies
Students must generate responses from skills and concepts they have learned
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e. Oral Assessment
Made up of fact questions and HOTS questions
Fact usually concerns who, what, when, and where
HOTS usually concern why or how, and require the student to combine knowledge of facts with
the ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions
f. Characteristics of effective questions
1. Apply to the subject of instruction
2. Be brief and concise, but also clear and definite
3. Be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students
4. Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a combination)
5. Present a clear challenge to the students
6. Types of questions to avoid (POT BIT)
a. Puzzle
b. Oversize
c. Toss-up
d. Bewilderment
e. Irrelevant
f. Trick
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Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of instructor responsibilities and
professionalism by describing:
1. Aviation instructor responsibilities
a. Helping students learn
i. Learning should be
a. Enjoyable
b. Interesting
ii. Standards and measuring against standards is necessary for progress
b. Providing adequate instruction
i. Carefully and correctly analyze each students personality, thinking, and ability
a. The same instruction cannot be equally effective for each student
ii. Incorrectly analyzing a student may result in the instruction not producing the desired outcome
iii. Students experiencing slow progress due to discouragement/lack of confidence should be
assigned sub-goals which are easier to attain than the normal learning goals
a. Complex lessons can be broken down into elements, and each element can be
practiced, culminating with the entire maneuver
b. As confidence and ability are gained, difficulty should be increased until progress is
normal
iv. Fast learners may assume correcting errors is unimportant since they make few mistakes
a. This overconfidence may soon result in faulty performance
b. For such student, constantly raise the standard of performance for each lesson
v. Individuals learn when they are aware of their errors
c. Standards of performance
i. Instructors fail to provide competent instruction when they permit their students to get by with
substandard performance, or without learning thoroughly some necessary knowledge
ii. Accepting lower standards to please a student does not result in a genuine improvement in the
student-instructor relationship
a. An earnest student does not resent reasonable standards that are fairly/consistently
applied
d. Minimizing student frustrations
i. Motivate Students
a. More can be gained from wanting to learn than being forced to learn
a. When students see the benefits or purpose of a lesson their enjoyment/efforts
will increase
ii. Keep Students Informed
a. Students feel insecure when they dont know what is expected
b. Keep students informed by:
a. Giving them an overview of the course, keeping them posted on progress and
giving adequate notice of exams, assignments, or other requirements
c. Approach Students as Individuals
a. Each individual within a group has a unique personality that should be
constantly considered
d. Give Credit When Due
a. Praise/credit from the instructor usually is ample reward and provides an
incentive to do better
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b. Praise pays dividends, but when given too freely it becomes valueless
e. Criticize Constructively
a. It is important to identify mistakes and failures
b. If the student is briefed on the errors AND is told how to correct them, progress
can be made
f. Be Consistent
a. Students have a keen interest in knowing what is required to please the
instructor
i. The instructors philosophy and actions must be consistent to avoid
student confusion
2. Flight instructor responsibilities
a. Physiological obstacles for flight students
i. Do not ignore negative factors
a. Fear of small aircraft
b. Strange noises
c. G-forces/Motion sickness
b. Ensuring student ability
i. Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to solo
ops
ii. This is by far the most important responsibility since the instructor is the only person in a
position to make the determination that a student is ready for solo ops
iii. Before endorsing solo flight, the student should display consistent ability to perform the
maneuvers
a. The student should also be capable of handling ordinary problems that might occur
3. Professionalism
a. Sincerity
i. Be straight forward and honest
ii. Do not attempt to hide some inadequacy behind a smokescreen or unrelated instruction
a. Teaching is based upon acceptance of the instructor as qualified
iii. Acceptance of the Student
a. The instructor must accept all students as they are, including all faults and problems
b. Under no circumstance should the instructor do something which implies degrading the
student
c. Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and support, rather than reproof, will encourage
learning
b. Personal Appearance and Habits
i. Instructors are expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed
a. Attire worn should be to a professional status
b. Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional image
c. Demeanor
a. Instruction is best done with a calm, pleasant, thoughtful approach putting the
student at ease
b. The instructor must constantly portray competence in the subject matter and
genuine interest in the students well being
d. Proper Language
a. The professional instructor speaks normally, without inhibitions, and speaks
positively and descriptively, without profanity
4. Evaluation of student ability
a. Demonstrated Ability
i. The evaluation considers the students mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or
procedure, rather than merely the overall performance
ii. Evaluation of ability during flight must be based on established standards of performance
a. These standards should be modified to apply to the students experience
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b. Keeping the Student Informed

i. Keep the student up to date with progress
c. It is important the student is kept informed of progress
i. When explaining errors, point out elements where deficiencies are believed to have originated
a. If possible, suggest appropriate corrective measures
d. Correction of Student Errors
i. Often better to let students make a mistake and get out of it on their own (safety permitting)
ii. If the procedure is performed correctly but not fully understood require it to be varied
a. Or, combine it with other operations, or apply the same elements to another maneuver
5. Aviation instructors and exams
a. Knowledge Test
i. Students will need to be endorsed for some knowledge tests
ii. AC 61-65 for endorsements
iii. Instructor is held accountable for deficient instruction
a. Must give additional instruction and sign test for re-endorsement for written retake
b. Practical Test
i. Signing a recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the instructor
a. Students should show a thorough demonstration of the knowledge and skill level
necessary
a. This demonstration should be in NO INSTANCE less than the complete
procedure in the PTS
ii. If a student is unprepared, the instructor is logically held accountable for deficient performance
iii. Examiners rely on recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification
iv. Be very protective of your record Never sign someone off who is not ready
a. This is not good for the instructors record or for the student
c. Flight Instructor Endorsements (AC 61-65)
i. Failure to ensure that a student pilot meets the requirements of regulations prior to endorsing
solo flight is a serious deficiency in performance - the instructor is held accountable
a. This is also a breach of faith with the student
ii. Other endorsements are also necessary
a. Flight reviews, IPCs, additional ratings, completion of prerequisites for a practical test
b. A record must be maintained of all endorsements
d. Additional Training Endorsements (AC 61-98)
i. Flight Reviews
a. This is not a test/check ride, but an instructional service designed to assess knowledge
and skill
b. Must be based on specific objectives and standards
a. Should include a thorough checkout appropriate to certificate/ratings held
b. Before beginning agree fully on the objectives and standards
c. As training progresses keep the pilot informed of progress toward achieving the
goals
6. Professional development
a. Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own
qualifications and abilities, and are constantly alert for ways to improve their qualifications,
effectiveness, and the services they provide to students
b. The instructor needs a steady supply of fresh material to make instruction interesting and up to date
i. Instructors should keep themselves well informed by maintaining familiarity with what is being
written in current aviation publications
c. Continuing Education
i. Continually update knowledge and skill
ii. Government
a. FAA seminars, articles, regulations, ACs, etc.
b. Pilot Proficiency Awards Program
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c. Gold Seal Flight Certificate

iii. Educational/Training Institutions
a. Attend classes at community colleges, technical schools, etc.
iv. Commercial Organizations
a. Training material
b. Training courses
c. Industry Organizations
d. Articles, publications, training programs
d. Sources of Material
i. Maintain access to current flight publications
a. Regulations, AIM, PTS, ACs, etc.
ii. Commercial handbooks, periodicals, technical journals
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Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of instructor responsibilities and
professionalism by describing:

1. Obstacles in learning during flight instruction
a. Feeling of unfair treatment
b. Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations
c. Worry or lack of interest
d. Physical discomfort, illness, or fatigue
e. Apathy, fostered by poor instruction
f. Anxiety
2. Demonstration-performance training delivery
a. Instructor tells instructor does
b. Student tells instructor does
c. Student tells student does
d. Student does instructor evaluates
3. Positive exchange of controls
a. 3-step process
4. Sterile cockpit
a. Limit conversation to prevent distraction
5. Use of distractions
a. Divide attention between distracting task and maintaining control of the aircraft.
6. Integrated flight instruction
a. Development of habit patterns
b. Accuracy of flight control
c. Operating efficiency
7. Assessment of piloting ability
a. Review and demonstrate how well the lesson objectives have been met
8. Aeronautical decision making
a. Pilot self assessment
i. I illness
ii. M medication
iii. S sleep
iv. A alcohol
v. F fatigue
vi. E - emotion
b. Recognizing hazardous attitudes
i. Anti-authority Follow the rules, theyre usually right
ii. Impulsivity Not so fast. Think first.
iii. Invulnerability It could happen to me.
iv. Macho Taking chances is foolish.
v. Resignation Im not helpless. I can make a difference.
c. Stress management
i. Physical stress noise, temperature
ii. Physiological stress fatigue, hunger
iii. Psychological stress social or emotional factors

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Reference: FAA-H-8083-9A, FAA- H-8083-2
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of risk management by describing:
1. Principles of risk management
a. Accept no unnecessary risk: any risk that carries no commensurate return in terms of benefits
b. Make risk decisions at the appropriate level: the decision-maker must be authorized to accept levels of risk
typical of the planned operation
c. Accept risk when benefits outweigh the costs: all identified benefits should be compared against all
identified costs
d. Integrate risk management into planning at all levels: safety requires the use of appropriate and effective
risk management not just in the preflight planning stage, but in all stages of the flight
2. Risk management process
a. Identify the Hazard
b. Assess the Risk
c. Analyze Risk Control Management
i. Probability of occurrence
ii. Severity of the hazard
d. Make Control Decisions
e. Implement Risk Controls
f. Supervise and Review
g. Implementing the Process:
i. Apply the steps in sequence
ii. Maintain a balance in the process
iii. Apply the process in a cycle
iv. Involve people in the process
3. Level of risk
a. Severity (extent of possible loss)
b. Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)
c. Assessing Risk: every flight has hazards and some level of risk, students must be able to differentiate
between low-risk and high-risk flight
4. Assessing risk
i. Likelihood of an Event: determining the probability of something happening
1. Probable: an event will occur several times
2. Occasional: an event will probably occur sometime
3. Remote: an event is unlikely to occur, but is possible
4. Improbable: an event is highly unlikely to occur
ii. Severity of an Event: consequence of a pilots actions
1. Catastrophic: results in fatalities, total loss
2. Critical: severe injury, major damage
3. Marginal: minor injury, minor damage
4. Negligible: less than minor injury, less than minor system damage
5. Mitigating risk
a. Think of way to mitigate risk
6. IMSAFE checklist
a. Illness
b. Medication
c. Stress
d. Alcohol
e. Fatigue
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CFI Notebook
f. Eating/Emotion
7. PAVE checklist
a. P= Pilot in Command (PIC): IMSAFE checklist combined with proficiency, recency, and currency
b. A= Aircraft: what limitations will the aircraft impose on the flight
c. V= EnVironment: weather, airport, airspace, night flying requirements
d. E= External Pressures: anything external to the flight that creates pressure to complete the flight (often the
expense of safety)
8. 5P checklist
a. Plan
b. Plane
c. Pilot
d. Passengers
e. Programming

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CFI Notebook
Area of Operations II
Technical Subject Areas

Task L: Navigation Aids and Radar Services
21
22
24
26
28
31
33
36
39
42
44
46
48
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CFI Notebook
AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

Reference: AIM; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to aeromedical
factors by describing:
1. How to obtain an appropriate medical certificate.
a. Issued after a routine medical examination which by administered only by FAA-designated doctors
called Aviation Medical Examiners (AME)
b. 3 classes of medicals
i. Third Class valid for 60 cal. months if under 40, 24 cal. months over 40
ii. Second Class valid for 12 cal. months
iii. First Class valid for 12 cal. months under 40, 6 cal. months over 40
c. Student pilot must request combined medical/student pilot certificate
2. How to obtain a medical certificate in the event of a possible medical deficiency.
a. Special Issuance, SODA, operating limitations
3. The causes, symptoms, effects, and corrective action of the following medical factors:
a. Hypoxia
i. reduced oxygen in the body
1. Hypoxic insufficient oxygen to body as a whole. Blocked Airway.
2. Hypemic blood isnt able to transport oxygen. CO poisoning, blood loss, anemia
3. Stagnant blood not flowing to move the oxygen. Arm going to sleep
4. Histotoxic inability of cells to use oxygen. Drugs and alcohol.
ii. Symptoms
1. Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips), headache, decreased reaction time, impaired
judgment, euphoria, visual impairment, drowsiness, lightheaded or dizzy, tingling, numb
iii. Corrective actions
1. Supplemental oxygen, descent to a lower altitude
b. Hyperventilation
i. abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood which keeps your body from maintaining proper
level of acidity. Can occur simultaneously with hypoxia
1. Symptoms similar to hypoxia, increased breathing rate, anxiety, unconsciousness,
visual impairment, lightheaded or dizzy, tingling, spasms
2. Corrective actions slow breathing rate, breathe into paper bag, talking, singing, or
counting out loud
c. Middle ear and sinus problems
i. gases trapped within the body expand with altitude, this can cause pain in the middle ear and
sinuses if the gas is not release Spatial disorientation
ii. Corrective actions valsalva maneuver, yawning, swallowing
d. Spatial disorientation
i. lack of orientation in regards to attitude, position, or movement in space, most common in
instrument meteorological conditions. Trust your instruments if accidental flight into IMC
occurs.
ii. 3 systems
1. Vestibular system - organs in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are
balanced. Contains 3 canals with fluid inside and tiny hairs that sense which way the
fluid is moving in the ear. Subject to conflicting signals, only sense change.
2. Somatosensory system - nerves in skin, muscles, and joints, which, along with hearing,
sense position based on gravity, feeling, and sound. The body cant sense between
acceleration forces and those resulting from a maneuver.
3. Visual system - eyes, based on what is seen. Brain uses vision primarily when conflicting
signals are received.
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CFI Notebook
e. Motion sickness
i. conflicting messages caused by continued stimulation of the tiny portion of the inner ear which
controls the pilots sense of balance. The pilot should not take prevention drugs (Dramamine) as
they can cause drowsiness, and deterioration in judgment
ii. Symptoms loss of appetite, dry mouth, sweating, nausea, headaches
iii. Corrective action open air vents, loosen clothes, supplemental oxygen, focus on outside point,
avoid head movement
f. Carbon monoxide poisoning
i. colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. Contained in exhaust fumes and tobacco smoke. Can
reduce the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Can occur inflight by exhaust fumes escaping
through the manifold and into the aircraft.
ii. Symptoms headache, drowsiness, dizziness
iii. Corrective actions shut off heater, open air vents
g. Fatigue and stress
i. Fatigue
1. Acute fatigue felt after long periods of physical strain
a. Coordination and alertness reduced
b. Prevented by adequate sleep/rest, exercise, and nutrition
2. Chronic fatigue not recovering from acute fatigue
a. Performance falls, judgment becomes impaired
b. Prolonged periods of rest are needed to recover
ii. Stress
1. Bodys response to demands placed upon it.
a. physical, physiological, psychological
h. Dehydration
i. Inadequate intake of fluids or loss of fluids. Can lose more fluids at higher altitudes.
1. Corrective action drink more fluids, especially electrolyte rich fluids
4. The effects of alcohol and drugs, and their relationship to flight safety.
a. As little as 1 oz. of liquor, 1 bottle of beer, or 4 oz. of wine can impair flying
b. More susceptible to hypoxia and disorientation
c. FARs prohibit flying within 8hrs of drinking, or while hung over
d. Check FAAs approved medication list
5. The effect of nitrogen excesses incurred during scuba dives and how this affects pilots and passengers during
flight.
a. Nitrogen absorbed into the blood stream during dives can expand even at low altitudes and cause
severe problems.
i. Wait at least 24 hours to fly after diving with an uncontrolled ascent or flying above 8000ft
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CFI Notebook

Reference: AC 91-73, A/FD, AIM; FAA-H-8083-2, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of runway incursion
avoidance by describing:
1. Distinct challenges and requirements during taxi operations not found in other phases of flight operations.
a. Situational awareness
i. be aware of your location as it relates to the intended taxi route, other aircraft that are taxiing, and
vehicles operating on the airport. [Figure 1-8] If in doubt, stop, remain clear of the runway, and
contact ATC.
b. ATC instructions Request clarification if you are unsure of the clearance or instruction to be followed. If you
are unfamiliar with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, ask ATC for a progressive taxi. Progressive taxi
requires the controller to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.
2. Procedures for appropriate cockpit activities during taxiing including taxi route planning, briefing the location of hot
spots, communicating and coordinating with ATC.
a. Remain heads up
b. Complete checklists while stopped
c. Maintain sterile cockpit
d. Brief taxi routes using airport diagram
3. Procedures for steering, maneuvering, maintaining taxiway, runway position, and situational awareness.
a. SA should be used at all times when operating on an airfield. For example, prior to brake release for taxi,
minimize cockpit tasks, observe sterile flight deck procedures, and always practice a heads up, eyes out
mode while taxiing
4. The relevance/importance of hold lines.
a. depict the holding position or the location where the aircraft is to stop so as not to enter the runway
environment.
5. Procedures for ensuring the pilot maintains strict focus on the movement of the aircraft and ATC communications,
including the elimination of all distractive activities (i.e. cell phone, texting, conversations with passengers) during
aircraft taxi, takeoff and climb out to cruise altitude.
6. Procedures for holding the pilots workload to a minimum during taxi operations which should increase the pilots
awareness while taxiing.
a. Complete checklists, programming, briefing while stopped
7. Taxi operation planning procedures, such as recording taxi instructions, reading back taxi clearances, and reviewing
taxi routes on the airport diagram,
a. Review and brief all taxi instructions
b. Read back specific taxi instructions
8. Procedures for ensuring that clearance or instructions that are actually received are adhered to rather than the ones
expected to be received.
9. Procedures for maintaining/enhancing situational awareness when conducting taxi operations in relation to other
aircraft operations in the vicinity as well as to other vehicles moving on the airport.
10. Procedures for briefing if a landing rollout to a taxiway exit will place the pilot in close proximity to another runway
which can result in a runway incursion.
a. Do not accept last minute turnoff instructions from the control tower unless you clearly understand the
instructions and are at a speed that ensures you can safely comply
11. Appropriate after landing/taxi procedures in the event the aircraft is on a taxiway that is between parallel runways
a. Do not cross any hold markings or exit onto any runways without ATC clearance.
12. Specific procedures for operations at an airport with an operating air traffic control tower, with emphasis on ATC
communications and runway entry/crossing authorizations.
13. ATC communications and pilot actions before takeoff, before landing, and after landing at towered and non-towered
airports.
14. Procedures unique to night operations.
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CFI Notebook
a.
15. Operations at non-towered airports.
a. be alert and look for other traffic and exchange traffic information when approaching or departing an
airport without an operating control tower
b. it is essential that all radio-equipped aircraft transmit/ receive on a common frequency identified for the
purpose of airport advisories
16. Use of aircraft exterior lighting.
a.
17. Low visibility operations.
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CFI Notebook

Reference: AC 90-48; AIM; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of visual scanning and
collision avoidance by describing:
1. Relationship between a pilots physical condition and vision.
a. Anything that affects a pilots physical or mental condition will reduce visual acuity
b. IMSAFE
2. Environmental conditions that degrade vision.
a. Night vision - can take up to 30 minutes to fully develop, a single bright light can destroy your night vision.
Night vision begins to deteriorate at pressure altitudes above 5,000 ft. The chemical your eyes produce to
help you see at night is called Rhodopsin.
b. Physical factors - dirty windscreen, haze, dust, smoke, rain, flying towards the sun, print size, light available,
and reflected light
3. Vestibular and visual illusions.
a. The Leans feeling of being in a banked attitude. Caused by banking too slowly
b. Coriolis Illusions feeling of turning or accelerating on a different axis. Caused by a prolonged turn and a
sudden head movement.
c. Graveyard spin feeling of being in a spin. Caused by recovering from a spin
d. Graveyard spiral feeling of losing altitude in a constant turn. Caused by being in a prolonged constant
rate turn
e. Somatogravic illusion feeling of being in a nose up attitude. Caused by a sudden acceleration.
f. Inversion illusion feeling of tumbling backwards. Caused by an abrupt change from straight and level
flight
g. Elevator illusion feeling of being in a sudden nose up or nose down attitude Caused by an abrupt vertical
acceleration
h. False horizon mistaking something for the horizon. i.e. cloud bank, mountain, street lights
i. Autokinesis staring at a light and eventually it will appear to move
j. Flicker vertigo quick flickering of the light causes dizziness, nausea, and unconsciousness
k. Empty Field Myopia focusing on a point 10-15 ft. in front of the airplane and not seeing anything else
4. See and avoid concept.
a. FAR 91.113 right of way rules
i. Balloon
ii. Glider
iii. Airship
iv. Airplane
v. Rotorcraft
b. Whenever weather permits, pilot is responsible for visually avoiding other aircraft
5. Proper visual scanning procedure.
a. 10 degree increments
b. Off center viewing at night, peripherals sense movement
c. Look around visible obstructions such as doors or window frame
6. Relationship between poor visual scanning habits and increased collision risk.
a. Dont fixate on instruments
b. Effective scanning helps avoid empty-field myopia
7. Proper clearing procedures.
a. Check runways before entering or crossing
b. Gently banks to see above and below
c. Descend to traffic pattern altitude early so you do not descend on another aircraft
d. Exercise caution on airways, around VORs, and other high traffic areas
e. Special practices
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CFI Notebook
i. Verbalize clearing
ii. Clearing turns before maneuvering
8. Importance of knowing aircraft blind spots.
a. Be aware of blind spots that may impede your vision
b. Physical factors such as doors, window frames, wings, struts, etc
9. Relationship between aircraft speed differential and collision risk.
a. Aircraft have high closure rates and action must be taken quickly and correctly
b. Sudies show that the minimum time it takes for a pilot to spot traffic, identify it, and respond is 12.5 seconds
10. Situations that involve the greatest collision risk.
a. Airways and airports
b. Most collisions occur during the day when the weather is good
c. Within 25nm of an airport, below 8000ft
27

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of
principles of flight by describing:
1. Four Forces of Flight
a. Weight
i. Always acts downward towards the center of the earth
ii. Combined load of the aircraft, passengers, fuel, baggage, etc.
iii. Center of Gravity
b. Lift
i. Acts perpendicular to flight path through center of lift
ii. Bernoullis principle (venturi tube)
iii. Airfoil shape and terms
1. Camber
2. Leading edge/Trailing edge
3. Chord line
4. Angle of attack
5. Relative wind
iv. Lift
1. Low pressure above air moves faster on upper surface which causes
lower pressure
2. High pressure below impact air builds up below the wing
3. Center of pressure pressure variation for any given AOA
v. Lift equation L= Cl x air density x V^2 x S / 2
vi. Factors controlled by the pilot that affect lift
1. Airspeed
2. Angle of Attack
3. Wing surface (flaps)
vii. Stalls separation of airflow from the wings surface, caused by exceeding the
critical AOA
1. Critical AOA is constant, stall speed can change depending on:
a. Weight
b. Bank angle
c. Load factor
2. Aircraft does not stop producing lift, just not enough to sustain level flight
3. The way an aircraft stalls depends on wing design
4. Stall strips and other devices
c. Thrust
i. Created by propellers or jets, moves the airplane forward
ii. Newtons 3d law every action has an opposite reaction
iii. Geometric prop twist
iv. Turning tendencies

1. Torque affects yaw and roll
2. Spiraling slipstream
3. Gyroscopic precession more common in tailwheel aircraft
4. Asymmetric loading downward blade has higher angle of attack
d. Drag
i. The force that resists the aircraft movement through the air
ii. Parasite drag
1. Drag not associated with the production of lift
2. Turbulence generated in the airstream
3. Form drag drag due to the shape of the aircraft
4. Interference drag intersection of different airstreams
5. Skin friction imperfections in the aircraft surfaces
iii. Induced drag
1. Drag created as a byproduct of lift
iv. Lift/Drag Ratio
1. L/D max = glide speed, least amount of drag
2. Forces During Flight Maneuvers
a. Straight and Level
i. All opposing forces are equal
b. Level Turns
i. Lift vectors
ii. Resultant load & Centrifugal force
iii. Slipping and skidding turns
1. Slipping = inside
2. Skidding = outside
c. Climbs
i. Lift momentarily increases as climb is entered, increased AOA
ii. Steady climb, normal lift
iii. Weight component adds to total effective drag, requiring more thrust to
maintain airspeed
d. Descents
i. Nose lowered, AOA momentarily decreases (lift decreases)
ii. Weight is greater than lift, aircraft descends
iii. Flight path goes from level to descending
iv. Power must be reduced to descend at same airspeed, weight component adds
to thrust
3. Aircraft Stability and Controllability
a. Stability defined how an airplane reacts when its equilibrium is disturbed
b. Static Stability (Initial tendency)
i. Positive return to equilibrium after being disturbed
ii. Neutral remain in new attitude when equilibrium is disturbed
iii. Negative continue away from equilibrium after it is disturbed
c. Dynamic Stability (Tendency over time)
i. Positive returns after a series of oscillations
ii. Neutral oscillations continue and stays the same

iii. Negative tries to return but oscillations get worse
d.Longitudinal Stability about the Lateral Axis
i. Airplane said to be longitudinal stable return to trimmed angle of attack
after displacement (resist excessively nose high/low)
ii. Determined by the location of the CG in relation to CP
1.Forward CG
2.Aft CG
iii. Static stability is dependent upon 3 factors
1.Location of the wing with respect to CG
2.Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect to the CG
3.Area or size of the tail surface (coefficient of lift equation)
iv. Pitch Power CG with respect to thrust line, elevator
e. Lateral Stability about the Longitudinal Axis
i. Stabilize the lateral (rolling) effect when one wing gets lower than the other
ii. Main design factors
1.Dihedral low wings need more. lower wing has a higher angle of attack
2.Sweepback the outer wing has a longer leading edge and produces
more drag
3.Keel Effect/Weight Distribution creates a weather vane tendency
iii. Rolling
f. Directional Stability about the Vertical Axis
i. Stability about the vertical axis
ii. Vertical fin more stability aside from that provided by the fuselage
iii. Aft CG with a large vertical fin more stability
iv. Acts like a weather vane
v. Yaw rudder
vi. Dutch Roll
vii. Spiral instability
g.Maneuverability quality of an airplane that permits it to be maneuvered easily
and to withstand stresses imposed by maneuvers
h.Controllability quality of the airplanes response to the pilots application when
maneuvering the airplane, regardless of its stability characteristics
4.Turning tendency (torque effect)
a.Torque affects yaw and roll
i. Newtons Third Law
1.Counter measures
a.Offset engine
b.Trim tabs
c. Rudder pedal
b.Spiraling Slipstream greatest at high speeds and low forward speed
c. Gyroscopic Precession most common on tail-wheels
d.Asymmetric Loading downward blas has a higher angle of attack

5. Load factors in airplane design
a.Load Factor total load supported by wings/total weight of the airplane
i. Limit Load load applied to an aircraft where it doesnt return to its original
shape
ii. Ultimate Load load at which the aircraft material experiences structural failure
b.Straight and level unaccelerated 1 G
Category
Limit Load Factor
Normal
3.8 to 1.52
Utility (mild acrobatics, including spins) 4.4 to 1.76
Acrobatic
6.0 to 3.00
c. More Lift Created structure pilot feel
d.30 turn
e. 60 turn 2x weight to maintain altitude = 2 Gs same for all aircraft
f. Load Factor vs. Stalling Speed
i. Stall speed increases as the square root of load factor
ii. 75 bank load factor is 4, square root 4 is 2, so your stall speed is 2x that of its
normal stall speed
g.All control inputs other causes
i. Turbulence and wind shear
ii. Increased airspeed increases load factor
h.VG Diagram
i. How to calculate VA why does VA increase with an increase in gross weight
i. Equation
ii. New stall speed times square root 3.8 Gs = VA
6. Wingtip vortices and precautions to be taken
a.High pressure seeks low pressure above wing must go around the wingtip
b.Swoop upward around wingtip inward and downward, counter rotating
c. Heavy, clean, and slow
d.Wake turbulence avoidance stay above the vortex at all times
e.Light quartering tailwinds keep the vortices around the longest
CFI Notebook


Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the airplane flight
controls by describing the purpose, location, direction of movement, effect, and proper procedure for use of the:

1. Primary Flight Controls
a. Controls aircraft about 3 axes of rotation
Primary Control Surface
Airplane Movement
Axis of Rotation
Type of Stability
Aileron
Roll
Longitudinal
Lateral
Elevator/Stabilator
Pitch
Lateral
Longitudinal
Rudder
Yaw
Vertical
Directional
2. Secondary Flight Controls
a. Wing flaps
i. Increase angle of descent without increasing airspeed
ii. Permit a lower landing speed, shorter takeoff distance
iii. Four types:
1. Plain simplest type;
hinges down from an
attachment at the
trailing edge of the
wing
2. Split deflected down
from a hinged position
o the bottom of the
wing
3. Slotted most popular;
has an air gap between
the trailing edge of the
wing and the leading
edge of the flap, through which air flows and delays airflow
separation on top of the wing. Reduces stall speed.
4. Fowler - slides out and down on tracks, changing the camber and increasing wing area.
b. Leading edge devices
i. Fixed slots
1. direct airflow to the upper wing surface, delaying
airflow separation at high angles of attack
ii. Movable slats
1. at low angles of attack, each slat is held ush against
the wings leading edge by the high pressure that
forms at the wings leading edge. As the AOA
increases, the high pressure area moves aft below the
lower surface of the wing, allowing the slats to move
forward.
2. Pilot controlled
iii. Leading edge flaps
1. increase camber of the wing
iv. Cuffs
1. fixed device that extends down and forward from
leading edge, increasing camber of wing

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CFI Notebook
c. Spoilers
i. high-drag devices spoil smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag
ii. used for roll control with no adverse yaw
iii. used to destroy lift after landing
d. Trim controls
i. used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain constant pressure on the ight controls
ii. Common types:
1. Trim tabs
a. most common is single trim tab on trailing
edge of elevator
b. Placing the trim control in the full nose-down
position moves the trim tab to its full up
position. With the trim tab up and into the
airstream, the airow over the horizontal tail
surface tends to force the trailing edge of the
elevator down. This causes the tail of the
airplane to move up, and the nose to move
down.
2. Balance tabs
a. coupled to the control surface rod so that
when the primary control surface is moved in
any direction, the tab automatically moves in
the opposite direction to counterbalance the
air pressure
3. Antiservo tabs
a. move in the same direction as the trailing edge
of the stabilator to decrease sensitivity
4. Ground adjustable tabs
a. non-movable metal tab on rudder
5. Adjustable stabilizer
a. rather than using a movable tab on the trailing
edge of the elevator, some aircraft have an
adjustable stabilizer. With this arrangement,
linkages pivot the horizontal stabilizer about its
rear spar
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CFI Notebook
AOE II. Technical Subject Areas


Reference: FAA-H-8083-1, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of airplane weight and
balance by describing:

1. Weight and balance terms
a. Datum imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes
b. Station a location along the airplane fuselage usually given in terms of distance from the reference datum
c. Arm horizontal distance, usually in inches, from the datum to the center of gravity of the item
d. Basic empty weight standard empty weight plus any option equipment that has been installed
e. Standard empty weight weight of the airframe, engines, and all items with fixed locations, includes
unusable fuel and operating liquids such as oil.
f. Center of gravity point at which the airplane would balance if it were suspended at that point
g. Mean aerodynamic chord average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing
h. Center of gravity limits extreme forward and aft locations the CG can be and the airplane be operated
i. Center of gravity range distance between the forward and aft limits
j. Delta shows change in
k. Floor load limit max weight the floor can support
l. Fuel load expendable part of the load of the aircraft, includes only usable fuel
m. Max landing weight max weight approved for landing touchdown
n. Max ramp weight max weight for ground maneuvers, includes start, taxi, and runup fuel
o. Max takeoff weight max weight approved for takeoff run
p. Max weight max authorized weight of the aircraft and all its equipment
q. Moment a force that tries or causes an object to rotate
r. Moment index the moment divided by a number to reduce the math errors
s. Payload weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage
t. Useful load difference between takeoff weight and basic empty weight
u. Usable fuel fuel available for flight planning
v. Unusable fuel fuel remaining in the fuel system after runout test
w. Standard Weights established weights
i. Gasoline 6 lb/US gal
ii. Jet A 6.8 lb/US gal
iii. Jet B 6.5 lb/US gal
iv. Oil 7.5 lb/US gal
v. Water 8.35 lb/US gal
2. Effect of weight and balance on performance
a. Performance deficiencies of an overloaded aircraft:
i. Higher takeoff speed
ii. Longer takeoff run
iii. Reduced rate and angle of climb
iv. Lower max altitude
v. Shorter range
vi. Reduced cruising speed
vii. Reduced maneuverability
viii. Higher stalling speed
ix. Higher approach and landing speed
x. Longer landing roll
xi. Excessive weight on nose wheel

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CFI Notebook
b. Balance
i. Forward CG = (greater downward force on the tail is required)
1. Higher stalling speed
2. May be impossible to flare for landing
3. Lower cruising speed
4. More stable
ii. Aft CG = (less downward force on the tail is required)
1. Lower stalling speed
2. Higher cruising speed
3. May be difficult to recover from a stall
c. Airplane structure
i. If max gross weight exceeded, even load factors within limits can cause structural damage
3. Methods of weight and balance control
a. Fuel management fuel burned in flight changes CG location
b. Load distribution figured before the flight
4. Adding or removing weight
a. Added or removed weight / total weight = CG / distance
between new station and old CG
5. Weight shifting
a. when weight is moved forward, the total moments decrease;
when weight is moved aft, total moments increase.
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CFI Notebook
6. Determination of total weight and center of gravity and the changes that occur when adding, removing, or shifting
weight.
a.
Weight x Arm = Moment
b.
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CFI Notebook


Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of navigation and flight
planning by describing:

1. Terms used in navigation
a. True course course over ground relative to true North
b. True Heading true course corrected for wind
c. Variation angular difference between true North and magnetic north
d. Magnetic Heading magnetic course corrected for wind
e. Magnetic course true course corrected for magnetic variation
f. Deviation magnetic anomaly that affects the compass
g. Compass Heading magnetic heading corrected for deviation
h. Isogonic line connects points of equal magnetic variation
i. Heading direction the nose of the airplane points during flight
j. Track actual path made over the ground in flight
k. Drift angle the angle between heading and track
l. Wind correction angle correction applied to the course to establish a heading so track will coincide with
course
m. Lines of Latitude circles parallel to the equator, measures degrees north and south of the equator
n. Lines of longitude lines drawn North to South at right angles to the equator, measure degrees east and
west of the Prime Meridian
o. Calibrated Airspeed indicated airspeed corrected for instrument position and error
p. Density altitude pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
q. Pressure altitude altitude shown when the altimeter is set to 29.92, altitude corrected for nonstandard
pressure
r. Groundspeed actual speed of the airplane in relation to the ground
s. Indicated airspeed airspeed read off the airspeed indicator
t. Standard pressure and temperature 29.92 HG and 15C
2. Features of aeronautical charts
a. Sectional
i. 1:500,000
ii. airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography
b. VFR Terminal Area Chart (TAC Chart)
i. 1:250,000
ii. provide a more detailed display of topographical information
c. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC Chart)
i. 1:1,000,000
ii. similar to sectional charts and the symbols are the same except there is less detail due to the
smaller scale
3. Importance of using the proper and current aeronautical charts:
a. Ground features and different chartings consistently change
b. Revisions are made to radio frequencies, new obstructions, temporary and permanent runway closings, etc.
c. Terminal area charts usually for large metropolitan areas around class B airspace.
d. World Aeronautical Charts not as detailed as a sectional chart
e. Sectional and Terminal area charts are revised semiannually
4. Method of plotting a course, selection of fuel stops and alternates, and appropriate actions in the event of
unforeseen conditions.
a. Draw line between both airports, make the line easy to read without obscuring features
b. Select appropriate checkpoints (15 to 20 NM apart)
c. Select appropriate alternate airports
d. Make sure route doesnt penetrate prohibited or restricted airspace
e. Make sure you have appropriate fuel reserves FAR 91.151
i. 30 minutes during the day
ii. 45 minutes at night
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CFI Notebook
Other sources to use when planning your flight

i. Flight information publications
1. AIM provides basic information to the aviation community with basic ATC procedures,
contains fundamental requirements to fly in the united states
i. A/FD provides information about an airport, runways, frequencies, diagrams, VOR
checkpoints, routes/waypoints, FSDO, FSS, contact numbers, etc. 7 A/FDs for the
continuous US
ii. Notices to Airman alert pilots of changes.
1. Categorized by keywords
2. FDC NOTAMs
ii. Commercial Publications
Fundamentals of pilotage and dead reckoning
a. Pilotage landmarks and checkpoints
b. Dead reckoning time, airspeed, distance, and direction
c. Single Pilot Resource management
i. Management of materials
ii. Use of resources inside and outside the cockpit
iii. Passenger briefing
d. Magnetic compass errors
i. Turning errors function of latitude, correct on east and west
1. UNOS
ii. Acceleration errors
1. ANDS
iii. Formula for compass heading
1. TC WCA = TH VAR = MH DEV = CH
Fundamentals of radio navigation
a. RNAV generic term that applies to a variety of navigational aids
b. VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
c. Non-directional Radio Beacon (NDB)
d. Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
e. Global Positioning System (GPS)
i. RAIM
Diversion to an alternate.
a. Reasons to divert
i. Fuel
ii. Weather
1. Inadvertent flight into IMC rely on instruments and communicate with ATC
iii. Pilot or passenger fatigue, illness, etc
iv. Airplane or equipment malfunction
v. lost
b. How to divert
i. Follow diversion checklist
Lost procedures
a. Steps to avoid becoming lost
i. Always know where you are
ii. Plan ahead
iii. Use radio navigation and visual references to confirm expectations and locations
b. When lost you should
i. 5 Cs
1. Climb you can see further, better radio aid reception, appear better on radar
2. Confess ATC is there to help you
3. Communicate dont try to cover up the problem, tell them exactly whats going on
4. Comply do what they tell you to
5. Conserve save fuel
Computation of fuel consumption
a. Time in flight x Rate of Consumption = Quantity of Fuel Required
b. E6B
f.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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CFI Notebook
10. Importance of preparing and properly using a flight log

a. Determine exactly where you are, how much time and fuel you will burn, distance traveled, and other vital
info in completing the trip
11. Importance of a weather check and the use of good judgment in making a go/no-go decision.
a. WX can arise in a matter of hours
b. Can reduce visibility, present hazards and turbulent WX
c. FSS is primary source of weather info
i. Standard briefing
ii. Abbreviated briefing
iii. Outlook briefing
iv. Inflight briefing (Flight Watch 122.0)
12. Purpose and procedure used in filing a flight plan
a. Enables search and rescue in the event of an emergency
b. If filing a flight plan
i. Type of operation
ii. Aircraft identification
iii. Aircraft type/equipment
iv. Airspeed
v. Departure
vi. Time
vii. Altitude
viii. Route
ix. Destination
x. Time en route
xi. Remarks
xii. Fuel
xiii. Alternates
xiv. Name/address
xv. Number on board
xvi. Color, &
xvii. Contact telephone should be provided to the briefer

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CFI Notebook


Reference: AIM; FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of night operations by
describing:

1. Factors related to Night Vision
a. Rods react to low light, no color, concentrated outside fovea area
i. 100,000 times more effective after 30 minutes
b. Cones center of retina in fovea, color, bright lights
i. Concentration of cones in the retina creates blind spots
c. Dark adaptation
i. Rods chemical Rhodopsin (Visual purple) loose sensitivity to light
ii. 30 minutes to fully adapt
iii. Off-center viewing 5 to 10
d. Diet & health reduction in vitamins A & C & poor physical health have been shown to reduced night
vision, fatigue, alcohol, smoking, drugs, and medication can all impair your vision
e. To aid in Night Vision
i. Oxygen use above 5,000 ft
ii. Close one eye when exposed to bright light
iii. Dont wear sunglasses after sunset
iv. Move eyes slowly at night
v. Blink if vision becomes blurred
vi. Concentrate on seeing objects
vii. View off center
viii. Avoid smoking, drinking, and using drugs that might be harmful
2. Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions:
a. Sloping runways creates a feeling of being high or low
b. Autokinesis staring at a light long enough, and it appears to move
c. False Horizon mistaking other objects for the horizon. i.e. cloud bank, streets, etc
d. Flickering Vertigo rapid flickering light can cause disorientation, nausea, and unconsciousness
e. Black-Hole Approach featureless terrain gives you no references, feel that theres only the runway there
f. Distance Judgment greatly affected at night
g. Night Landing Illusions
i. Featureless terrain black hole approach
ii. Bright runway lights can disrupt night vision
iii. Street Lights can be mistaken for a runway
3. Proper Adjustment of Interior Lights:
a. Not brighter than necessary preserve night vision
b. Reflections should be minor to none as they can obstruct vision
4. Importance of having a flashlight with red lens
a. Least impact on night vision
b. Dim LED
c. Red lighting and charts can distort appearances especially color on the sectionals
5. Night Preflight Inspection:
a. Lights
i. Navigation

ii. Landing (for hire)

iii. Anti-collision

iv. Panel lights

v. Brighter

b. Fuses 1flashlights
set of spare, or 3 of each kind required
c. Weather check for fog due to temperature decreasing or IM
d. Attention requires more concentration
e. Ramp Area holes, chocks, step ladders, etc.
f. Equipment TOMATOA FLAMES + FLAPS
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CFI Notebook
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Fuses
Landing Light (for hire)
Anti-collision lights
Position Lights
Spare power source
Engine Starting Procedures, Including Use of Position and Anti-collision lights prior to start
a. FAR 91.209 deals with aircraft lights
b. Navigation lights turn on anti-collision when on or crossing an active runway
c. Taxi light/landing light
i. Blinding others, draining battery with low rpm, overheating light
ii. Cockpit management
iii. Propeller clear flash aircraft lights to warn others
Taxiing and orientation on Airport
a. AFD
b. Airport lighting at night taxiway and runway
c. DO not taxi faster than the taxi light
d. Use landing light sparingly to avoid overheating
e. Airplane may creep forward on runup
Takeoff and climb out:
a. Visual cues takeoff and climb normal with exception of reduced visual cues
i. Make certain of positive liftoff/climb
ii. Use runway lighting to help maintain centerline
b. Instrument cues VSI and altimeter should be utilized for climb info, attitude indicator and heading
indicator must be used to change pitch or heading
c. Landing light disorientation light can be turned off in smoke or haze to prevent visual distortions
provided no traffic in the area requires it
In-Flight Orientation:
a. Remain vigilant in knowing position and flight conditions
b. Cloud layers and reduced ground reference can degrade orientation & navigation
c. Continually update position and reference NAVAIDS if available
d. Aircraft Position Lights Location on aircraft
e. Crossing over large bodies of water at night can be especially dangerous
f. May become easier to inadvertently fly into clouds
g. Collision avoidance position lights
Importance of Verifying the airplanes attitude by reference to flight instruments:
a. Reduced visual references rely on instruments to verify aircrafts attitude
Night Emergencies:
a. Maintain positive control
b. Determine cause of emergency
c. Announce emergency
d. Look for dark area near cluster of lights faster response time for emergency personnel
e. Complete emergency checklist
f. After landing turn off all switches and evacuate
Traffic Patterns
a. Identify airport runway lights
i. Fly towards the beacon first, and then orient yourself with the runways
b. Distance may be deceptive
c. Crosscheck instruments to ensure normal patterns entry
Approaches and Landings with & without landing lights:
a. Use all resources available
i. VASI & PAPI
b. Without flare starts when runway lights on opposite end of runway come above nose (this procedure
requires a quick roundout)
c. With do not focus on light beam, flare begins when tire marks become view
d. Haze, Fog, Rain blinding (anti-collision)
i. Not against FAR turning off
Go-Arounds
a. Same as Daytime should always be ready to make immediate go-around due to reduce reaction time
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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CFI Notebook

Reference: 14 CFR Part 91, AC 61-107, AIM, POH/AFM; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081-12.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of night operations by
describing:
1. Regulatory requirements for Use of Oxygen
a. FAR 61.61 (g) Additional training required for operating pressurized aircraft capable of operating at high
altitudes
i. No one may act as Pilot In Command of aircraft with service ceiling or max operation altitude,
whichever is lower, above 25,000 ft. MSL unless:
1. Logged ground training/endorsement
b. FAR 91.211 Supplemental Oxygen
i. 12,500ft 14,000ft MSL (more than 30 minutes)for the crew
ii. Above 14,000ft required for the minimum flight crew
iii. Above 15,000ft pilot must be on oxygen and passengers supplied with it
iv. Above FL250 10 minutes of supplemental oxygen needs to be on bored
v. Above FL 350 1 pilot must be on oxygen or wearing the mask at all times
1. Exceptions pilot away from controls & below FL410 both pilots have quick-donning mask
placed on face within 5 seconds
2. Physiological hazards Associated with High Altitude Operations:
a. Less O2 lower pressure, molecules farther apart
i. Brain normally uses 96% oxygen saturation, at 12,000ft MSL the brain oxygen saturation is 87%
b. Hypoxia refer to Aeromedical factors
i. Hypoxic
ii. Histotoxic
iii. Hypemic
iv. Stagnant
c. Prolonged oxygen effects can produce toxic effects as well
i. Symptoms can consist of bronchial cough, fever, vomiting, nervousness, irregular heartbeat, and
lowered energy
ii. Sudden supply of pure oxygen following decompression can often aggravate the symptoms of
hypoxia
iii. Oxygen should be taken gradually, and build up the supply in small doses
d. Nitrogen trapped in the body can transform back into its gaseous state causing decompression sickness
i. Can cause sever abdominal pain, toothache, pain in ears and sinuses; above 25,000 ft can
cause
severe pain.
gastrointestinal
ii. Overweight people are more susceptible to decompression sickness
e. Vision
i. Light can reverse in appearance and cause glare
ii. have trouble judging speed, size, and distance of other aircraft
iii. Sunglasses are recommended
3. Characteristics of a Pressurized Airplane and Various Types of Supplemental Oxygen Systems
a. Characteristics of a pressurized airplane
i. Cabin pressurization is the compression air in the airplanes cabin to maintain a cabin altitude
lower than the actual flight attitude
ii. Pressurization in most light airplanes is sent to the cabin from the turbochargers compressor or
from an engine driven pneumatic pump
iii. Pressurized airplanes have special structural specifications to withstand differential pressures
iv. A pressurized airplane has cabin pressure control system which provides cabin pressure
regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and the means for selecting the desired cabin
altitude in the isobaric differential pressure range
v. The cabin pressure regulator controls cabin pressure to a selected value in the isobaric range
and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential value in the differential range
vi. The cabin air pressure safety valve is a combination pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
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CFI Notebook
vii. Several instruments are used in conjunction with the pressurization controller
Supplemental Oxygen Systems
i. Continuous Flow - oxygen continuously flows and may be diluted before being breathed in. up to
25,000ft
ii. Diluter Demand regulates the amount of oxygen received, up to 40,000 ft
iii. Pressure Demand air is forced into your lungs, normally installed on high performance airplanes.
Above 40,000 ft
Importance of Aviators Breathing Oxygen
a. 99.5% pure oxygen not more than .005mg of water/liter
i. Medical oxygen contains more and freezes in the lines for pilots
ii. Industrial oxygen contains impurities in water and is not intended for breathing
Care and Storage of High-Pressure oxygen Bottles
a. Bottle pressure between 1,800 2,200 PSI
b. Temperatures need to be below 180F
c. Fastened securely in the aircraft helps to prevent damage
d. Ambient temperature decreases pressure in cylinder will decrease
i. Drop in indicated pressure doesnt necessarily indicate depletion of supply
e. Flammable
Fundamental Concept of Cabin Pressurization
a. Aircrafts altitude and cabin altitude
Characteristics of a pressurized airplane
a. Sources Turbocharger or Turbine
i. Heat exchange unit
b. Aircraft structure
i. Differential pressure difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure
ii. Ambient pressure pressure outside the airplane
c. Component
i. Outflow valve = differential control
ii. Safety valve
iii. Pressure relief valve = max differential pressure
iv. Vacuum relief valve = max ambient pressure
v. Dump valve
d. Instruments
i. Cabin differential pressure gauge
ii. Cabin altimeter
iii. Cabin rate of climb or decent
Operation of a cabin Pressurization System
a. POH normal and emergency operating procedures
Problems associated with Rapid decompression and corresponding Solutions
a. Decompression
i. Rapid decompression lungs decompress faster than the cabin
1. Fog may appear, along with dust and flying debris, hypoxia is the main danger
ii. Explosive decompression cabin depress faster than the lungs
1. When decompression is less than .5 seconds, flying debris is likely
b. Hypoxia primary danger
i. Time of useful consciousness
c. Bends characterized around pain in the joints
d. Chokes- pain in chest desire to cough, collapse or unconsciousness if descent isnt made immediately
e. Parasthesia tingling, red rash resulting from bubbles in the nervous system, can also have paralysis,
sensory disorder, slurred speech and disorientation
f. Shock is a common result from decompression sickness
g. Actions to be taken emergency decent, oxygen masks
b.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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CFI Notebook

Reference: 14 CFR parts 1, 61, 91; AC 00-2, AIM, FAA-H-8083-25, NTSB part 830, POH/AFM
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the Code of
Federal Regulations and related publications by describing:
1. Availability and Method of Revision
a. Purpose
i. Part 1 definitions and abbreviations
ii. Part 61 certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
1. Conditions under which those certificate are necessary
2. Privileges and limitations of those certificates and ratings
iii. Part 91 general operating and flight rules, rules governing operation of aircraft
iv. NTSB 830 pertaining to notification and reporting of aircraft accidents or incidents and overdue
aircraft, and preservation of aircraft wreckage, mail, cargo, and records
b. Availability and method of revision
i. FSS, FSDO, and FAA offices have complete sets of the FARs
ii. FAA issuance AC 00-44 listing of current publication status, prices, order forms
iii. FAR/AIM updates email, internet, fax, and US mail
2. Availability of Flight Info Publications
a. Airport/Facility Directory - A/FD
i. Availability 8 weeks/7 directories by location
ii. Subscription NACO Distribution Division/pilot shops/online
iii. Purpose
1. Airport directory info about airports
2. Vital to cross-country flying
iv. General content
1. Abbreviations/legend
2. FAA & NWS phone numbers
3. FSDO Information
4. VOR checks
5. Parachute Jumping areas
6. EFAS Runway/frequencies/navigational facilities/lighting
b. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
i. Availability subscriptions from government/shops/online
1. Published every 196 days by the FAA
ii. Purpose
1. Basic flight information and ATC procedures in the US
iii. General Content
1. Navigational Aids
2. Aeronautical Lighting and Other airport visual aids
3. Airspace
4. Air traffic Control
5. ATC procedures
6. Emergency Procedures
7. Safety of flight
8. Medical factors for pilots
9. Aeronautical charts and related publications
c. FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
i. Purpose prove a systematic means for issuing Nonregulatory material of interest to the aviation
public
1. Not binding they are only advisory in nature
ii. Availability order free list of AC order form AC 00-2
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CFI Notebook
d. NOTAMs
i. Disseminates time-critical aeronautical info temporary or is not sufficiently known in advance
for publication on aeronautical charts or other publications
ii. NOTAMs characterized by keywords
1. Runway
2. Taxiway
3. Ramp
4. Apron
5. Aerodrome
6. Obstruction
7. Nav-aid
8. Communications
9. Services
10. Airspace
iii. FDC NOTAMs (flight data canter) regulatory in nature amendments to published IAPs and
other current aeronautical charts, TFRs
iv. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) issued every 28 days
1. Once NOTAM published in NTAP not provided during pilot weather briefings unless
requested
e. PTS
i. Availability flight shops/online
ii. Purpose specify areas of knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by applicants
iii. General Content required subjects to be tested
f. Pilots Operating Handbook (POH)
i. Availability manufacturer, bookstores
ii. Purpose FAA requirement (FAR 23.1581)
iii. General Content airplane description, limitations, emergency procedures, normal procedures,
performance, performance, weight & balance, systems, servicing and maintenance, and
supplements
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CFI Notebook


Reference: 14 CFR part 91, AIM; FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the National
Airspace System by describing:

1. Basic VFR Weather Minimums for all classes of airspace.
2. Airspace classes the operating rules, pilot certification, and airplane equipment requirements for the
following:
a. Class A
i. Under Mach 1, IFR
b. Class B
i. Under 250 knots
c. Class C
i. 200 knots under 2,500 AGL and 4NM of primary airport
d. Class D
i. 200 knots under 2,500 AGL and 4NM of primary airport
e. Class E
f. Class G
3. Special use airspace (SUA)
a. Exists where activities must be confined because of their nature
b. Limitations may be placed on aircraft that are not part of activities
c. Prohibited area FAR 91.133
d. Restricted Area FAR 91.133
e. Warning Area
i. 3NM outward from the US coast
f. Military Operations Area (MOA)
g. Alert Area
h. Controlled Firing Area
4. Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR)
a. FDC NOTAM
i. It will begin with the phrase Flight Restrictions followed by location, time period, and defined
statute miles and altitudes affected
b. Examples for a TFR
i. Disaster Relief
ii. Incident
iii. President, Vice President, or other public figures
iv. Space Agency Operations
5. Other Airspace Areas:
a. Military Training Routes
b. Parachute jump areas
c. VFR Routes
d. VFR Flyway
e. VFR Corridor
f. Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)
i. Found in FAR 91
g. Airport advisory area
i. FSS on the field
h. National Security Area
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CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook

Task L: Navigation Systems and Radar Services
Reference: AIM; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to navigation
systems and radar service by describing:
VOR/VORTAC NAVAIDS
1. Ground-based navigational System

class
Altitudes
Distance (nm)
T
12,000 and below
25
a. VOR/VORTAC
L
Below
1
8,000
40
i. 3 types: Terminal, Low, High
H
Below 14,500
40
ii. Referenced from magnetic North
Within
t
he
c
ontinuous
4
8
H
100
iii. Provides radials in each direction(360)
states
o
nly,
b
etween
iv. Feqs 108.0 117.95 MHz
14,500 and 17,999
v. Line of sight
H
18,000 FL450
130
vi. VOR equipment: antenna, receiver
H
60,000 FL450
100
with a tuning device, and a VOR
navigation instrument
vii. Test 30 days
1. FAA VOR test facility (VOT); 4
2. Certified ground checkpoints located on airport surfaces 4
3. Date, time, and signature in log with amount of variation
4. Tune, ID, Verify, Twist
b. Nondirectional Beacon (NDB)
i. Transmits in all direction
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
ii. ADF, used with NDB bearing from aircraft to
Class
Power (Watts)
Distance
station
Compass locator
Under 25
15
iii. Equipment: 2 antennas, a receiver with a tuning
MH
Under 50
25
device, and a navigational display
H
50-1999
50
HH
2000 or more
75
iv. Freqs 190-1750 kHz
v. Susceptible to electronic disturbances
vi. MH + RB = MB
c. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
i. Measures slant rage
ii. UHF band 962-1213 MHz
iii. Line of sight
iv. Least accurate over NAVAID/6,000
d. LORAN (long Range navigation)
i. Land-based transmitters long range navigation system
ii. Brief LF pulses centered at 100kHz
iii. AIM detail explanation
2. Satellite-Based Navigation System:
a. GPS see element 4 (below)
b. Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
i. Improves GPS signal to level where they may be used for precision approaches
ii. Includes a ground segment, space segment, and a user segment
c. Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
i. Ground based augmentation system that improves GPS signals to a level at which they may be
used for precision approaches
ii. More expensive than WAAS
iii. Expected to be able to handle Category III approaches
3. Radar Service and Procedures:
a. ARTCC IFR, controlled airspace, en route phase
i. To participate you must be able to communicate with ATC, be within radar coverage, and be
radar identified by the controller
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CFI Notebook
b. Control towers
c. FSS briefings, en route communication, search and rescue, lost aircraft/emergency, relay ATC
clearances, originate NOTAMs, NAS information, receive and monitor IFR flight plans, monitor NAVAIDs,
Flight Watch
d. Recording and Monitoring
4. Global Positioning System (GPS) RNAV system on a worldwide scale. Can be used for VFR but shouldnt be the
primary source of information and navigation
a. Space 24 satellites
i. 5 are needed for navigation in vertical and horizontal planes
b. 4 allows only horizontal guidance, 3 satellites to triangulate, 1 vertical, 1 backs up the others
c. Control network of ground based GPS monitors
i. Ensure accuracy
d. User positioning, velocity, and precise timing
e. Can be used for VFR flight but shouldnt be heavily relied upon.
i. RAIM receiver autonomous integrity monitoring lets you know if you dont have the
appropriate amount of satellites.
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CFI Notebook

Reference: 14 CFR part 61, AC 61-65
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to logbook entries
and certificate endorsements by describing:
Required Logbook Entries for Instruction Given:
a. FAR 61.51 a flight instructor must endorse logbook for instruction given in a legible manner and include:
i. Description of training (we use a syllabus at OU), make and model of airplane, airplane
identification number, flight time, date, instructor signature, certificate number, and expiration
date
2. Required Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements and Appropriate Logbook Entries:
a. Pre-solo Aeronautical Knowledge 61.87 (b)
b. Pre-solo Flight Training 61.87 (c)
c. Pre-solo Flight Training at Night 61.87 (c) and (o)
d. Solo Flight (each additional 90 day period) 61.87 (p)
e. Solo takeoffs and Landings at another airport within 25 NM 61.93 (b)(1)
f. Initial solo Cross-country flight 61.93 (c)(1)
g. Solo Cross-Country Flight 61.93 (c)(2)
h. Repeated solo cross-country not more than 50 NM from point of departure 61.93 (b)(2)
i. Solo flight in class B airspace 61.65 (a)
j. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in class B airspace 61.95 (a) and 91.131 (b)(1)
1.
Knowledge test endorsements FAR 61.35 (a)(1) and 61.96 (b)(3)

l. Practical test endorsements FAR 61.96 (b)(5), 61.98 (a) & (b), and 61.99
3. Preparation of Recommendation for a Pilot Practical test:
a. Knowledge test within 24 calendar months
b. Accomplished the required aeronautical training for certificate sought FAR 61
rd
c. Hold a current 3 class medical
k.
Have an endorsement if required by an authorized instructor in logbook

e. Received and logged training time within preceding 60 days in preparation for practical test
f. Has completed an 8710 students responsibility, but instructor should review it
i. IACRA web-based application that sends certification documents automatically to registry
1. Processes applications for airman certification via the web
2. Automatically ensures applicants meet regulatory and policy requirements through
business rules and data validations
3. Automatically forwards you 9710-1 application
4. FAA Flight Review:
a. FAR 61 & 91
b. AC 61-98A print out
c. 1 hour flight training, and 1 hour of ground training
d. Maneuvers and procedures appropriate to the pilot certificate
5. Flight Instructor Records:
a. FAR 61.89
b. Flight Instructor must sign the logbook to each person receiving flight or ground training
c. Flight instructor must maintain a record that contains:
d.
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CFI Notebook
i. Name of and date of each endorsement for solo flight

ii. Name, date, and type of knowledge and practical test endorsements
d.
Records must be kept for 3 years

Private Pilot Endorsements
Aeronautical Knowledge Test FAR 61.35 (a)(1), 61.103 (d), and 61.105
o Required training in 61.105
Flight Proficiency/Practical Test FAR 61.103 (f), 61.107 (b), and 61.109
o Required training in 61.107 and 61.109
Commercial Pilot Endorsements

Aeronautical Knowledge Test FAR 61.35 (a)(1) and 61.123 (c)
Flight Proficiency/Practical Test FAR 61.123 (e) and 61.127
o Required training in 61.127 and 61.129
Instrument Rating Endorsements

Aeronautical Knowledge Test FAR 61.35 (a)(1) and 61.65 (a) and (b)
Flight Proficiency/Practical Test FAR61.65 (a)(6)
o Required training in 61.65 (c) and (d)
Flight Instructor Endorsements

Fundamentals of Instruction Knowledge Test FAR 61.183 (d) and 61.185 (a)(1)
o Required Training in 61.185 (a)(1)
Flight Instructor Ground and Flight Proficiency/Practical Test FAR 61.183 (g), 61.187 (a) and (b)
o Required training in 61.187 (b)
Flight Instructor Certificate with Instrument (Category/Class) Rating/Practical Test FAR 61.183 (g), 61.187 (a)
and (b)(7)
o Required training in 61.187 (b)(7)
Spin Training FAR 61.183 (i)(1)
o Required training in 61.187 (i)
o Only for airplane and glider ratings
Additional Endorsements
Completion of a flight Review FAR 61.56 (a) and (c)
o No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance is required
Completion of a Phase of an FAA-Sponsored Pilot Proficiency Award Program FAR 61.56 (e)
o WINGS
Completion of an Instrument Proficiency Check FAR
61.57 (d)
To act as PIC in a Complex Airplane FAR 61.31 (e)
To Act as PIC in a High Performance Airplane FAR
61.31 (f)
To Act as PIC in a Tailwheel Airplane FAR 61.31 (i)
To Act as PIC of an aircraft in Solo Operations when the Pilot who does not hold an Appropriate Category/Class
Rating FAR 61.31 (d)(3)
Retesting after Failure of a Knowledge or Practical Test FAR 61.49
Additional Aircraft Category or Class Rating (other than ATP) FAR 61.63 (b) or (c)
Review of a home Study Curriculum FAR 61.35 (a)(1)
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Area of Operations III

Preflight Preparation

Task D: Performance and Limitations
Task E: Airworthiness Requirements
51
52
54
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CFI Notebook
AOO III. Preflight Preparation

Reference: 14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to certificates and
endorsements by describing:
1. The training requirements for the issuance of a recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificate
a. Recreational Certificate (61.96)
i. Log at least 30 hours of flight time
1. 15 hours from instructor
2. 3 hours within 60 days
3. 3 hours solo
b. Private Certificate (61.109)
i. ASEL
1. 40 hours flight time
a. 20 from an instructor
b. 10 solo hours consisting of:
i. 5 solo XC
ii. One solo XC at least 150nm total distance with full stop landings at 3 points
and one leg of at least 50nm
iii. 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with ATCT
c. At least:
i. 3 hours XC flight training
ii. 3 hours of night flight training
1. One night XC over 100nm
2. 10 takeoffs and landings to a full stop
iii. 3 hours of training solely by reference to instruments
iv. 3 hours of flight training within past 60 days
ii. AMEL
1. Same requirements, except 10 hours of solo time in MEL
c. Commercial Certificate (61.129)
i. ASEL
1. 250 hours of flight time consisting of:
a. 100 hours in aircraft, 50 hours must be in airplanes
b. 100 hours of PIC
i. 50 in airplanes, 50 XC with 10 of those in airplanes
c. 20 hours of training in AOO (61.172(b)(1)) that includes:
i. 10 hours of instrument (5 in SEL)
ii. 10 hours in airplane that has retracts, flaps, and controllable pitch prop, or
is turbine powered
iii. One XC flight of at least 2 hours in a SEL in day VFR
1. More than 100nm
iv. One XC of at least 2 hours in a SE airplane in night VFR
1. More than 100nm
v. 3 hours in SEL within 60 days
d. 10 hours of solo flight in SEL with at least:
i. One XC not less than 300nm including 3 landings, straight line 250nm
ii. 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings with an ATCT
ii. AMEL
1. Same requirements replacing SEL with MEL
2. The privileges and limitations of pilot certificates and ratings at recreational, private, and commercial levels
a. Recreational Certificate (61.101)
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CFI Notebook
i. Carry no more than one pax

ii. Not fly commercially
iii. At less than 400 TT and no PIC time in preceding 180 days, must receive endorsement to fly as PIC
b. Private Pilot
i. May not fly for hire
ii. May fly for charity, nonprofit, or community event
iii. May be reimbursed for SAR
iv. May demonstrate aircraft to buyer if over 200TT and are an aircraft salesman
v. May act of PIC of aircraft towing glider
c. Commercial
i. May fly for hire
ii. With no instrument rating in same category/class, can not fly pax for hire at night or on XC flights
over 50nm
3. Class and duration of medical certificates
i. First
1. 6 cal. months
ii. Second
1. 12 cal. months
iii. Third
1. 24 cal. months (over 40 years old)
2. 60 cal. months (under 40 years old)
4. Recent pilot flight experience requirements
a. PIC
i. To carry pax, must have 3 takeoffs and landings in preceding 90 days
ii. To carry pax at night, 3 takeoffs and landings preceding 90 days to full stop at night
iii. IFR
1. Within preceding 6 cal months:
a. 6 approaches, holding, intercepting/tracking
b. Flight reviews
i. Within 24 cal. months, accomplish a flight review
1. Minimum 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training
a. Covers general operating rules and flight rules of Part 91 and review of maneuvers
5. Required entries in pilot logbook or flight record
a. Must log training used to meet requirements for a certificate, rating, or review
i. Date, total time, location of departure/arrival; type and identification of aircraft; name of safety
pilot
ii. Solo, PIC, SIC, training received, sim or FTD
iii. Conditions of flight day/night, actual instrument, sim instrument
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CFI Notebook

Reference: AC 00-6, AC 00-45; FAA-H-8083-25, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14.
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to weather
information by describing:
1. Importance of a thorough preflight weather briefing:
a. First step in determining if the flight can be conducted safely
b. Away from departure airport FAR 91.103
2. Various Means and Sources of obtaining Weather information
a. Overall awareness of weather conditions
i. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS)
ii. Pilots Automatic Weather Answering Service (PATWAS) updated 5 hours
iii. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)
iv. Good television Weather report (weather channel)
v. Numerous Weather sites online
b. Next, more specific weather briefing tailored to your flight
i. Flight Service Station (FSS/AFSS)
ii. Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS)
iii. National Weather Service (NWS)
iv. Supplemental Weather Service Location (SWSL)
c. In Flight Weather
i. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) Flight Watch
1. Available on 122.0 MHz below 17,500ft
ii. Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS)
iii. TWEB over certain VORs
3. Use of real time WEATHER Reports, Forecasts, and Charts for developing Scenario Based training
a. Show how to obtain, read, and analyze weather reports, forecasts, and charts
i. Aviation WEATHER reports
1. Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
2. Pilot Weather Report (PIREP)
3. Radar Weather Reports (SD)
4. Satellite weather pictures
ii. Aviation Forecasts
1. TAF
2. Aviation Area Forecasts (FA)
3. In-flight advisories (AWW, WST, WS, CWA, WA)
4. Winds and temperatures aloft (FD)
5. TWEB, TIBS, PATWAS
6. Severe Weather Watch Bulletin (WW)
7. Alert Messages (AWW)
iii. Weather Charts
1. Surface Analysis Chart
2. Weather Depiction Chart
3. Radar Summary Chart
4. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
5. Convective Outlook Chart
6. Constant Pressure Analysis Chart
4. In-Flight WEATHER Advisories
a. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)
i. Most helpful, provides direct observations
b. Airmans Meteorological (AIRMET)(WA) interest to all aircraft, potentially hazardous to aircraft not
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CFI Notebook
properly equipped
i. Concerning weather phenomena of interest to all aircraft
ii. Valid 6 hours
iii. Moderate icing/turbulence
iv. Surface winds 30 knots or more
v. Ceiling 1,000 feet an/or visibility -3SM over a 50% area
vi. Extensive mountain obscuration
1. SIERRA
2. TANGO
3. ZULU
c. Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)(WS) non convective potentially hazardous to all
aircraft
i. Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
ii. Severe/extreme turbulence not associated with thunderstorms; CAT
iii. Dust/sandstorms or volcanic ash lowering in flight visibility -3SM
iv. Volcanic eruption
v. Tropical storms or hurricanes
1. Hawaii and Alaska dont have Convective SIGMETs, convective activity included for
Hawaii and Alaska in a SIGMET
d. Convective Significant Meteorological Information (Convective SIGMET)(WST) hazardous to all aircraft
i. Severe thunderstorm due to
1. Surface winds 50+ knots
2. Hail at surface greater than or equal to inch
3. Tornadoes
ii. Embedded thunderstorms
iii. Line of thunderstorms
iv. Thunderstorms greater than or equal to intensity level 4 affecting 40% or 3,000 square miles
5. Recognition of aviation WEATHER Hazards to include Wind Shear:
a. Aviation WEATHER hazards include:
i. Thunderstorms, turbulence, icing, IFR conditions
b. Included in the following aviation WEATHER products
i. Area forecast, WST, WS, WA, hurricane advisory, prognostic charts
6. Factors to be considered in Making a go/No-Go decision:
a. Well-equipped airplane with a proficient pilot flying
b. Ceiling and visibility within WEATHER minimums
c. Poor equipped airplane with a new or rusty pilot
d. MVFR
e. Thunderstorms bad WEATHER in general
f. IMSAFE
55


Reference: PHAK 6, Powerpoint Slides
Objective: To determine the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of
operation of systems by describing:
1. Piper Arrow PA28R-201
2. Airframe
a. Basic airframe is an aluminum alloy (light weight metal)
b. Semi-monocoque
i. Uses sub-structure for added strength
c. Structure not designed for aerobatic loads
d. Semi-tapered wings
i. 3 spars and ribs reinforce wing structure
e. Positive dihedral
i. Contributes to lateral stability
3. Engine
a. Lycoming IO-360-C1C6
i. I: Fuel injected
ii. O: Horizontally opposed
iii. 360: cubic inches of cylinder head displacement
iv. C1C6: Type of crankcase, Type of nose section, Accessory package,
Type of counterweights
b. 200 HP
c. Direct Drive: Propeller is connected directly to the crankshaft
d. 4 cylinders Normally aspirated: Not turbocharged
e. Air-cooled: Air flows through the front of the engine cowling and flows over the
engine components and exits through the rear lower cowling
f. Wet-type oil sump
g. Induction System
i. Bendix RSA-5AD1 fuel injector
1. Essentially replaces the carburetor
2. Measures fuel based on mixture control setting, sends it to fuel
manifold valve at a rate set by the throttle.
ii. Alternate Air
1. Used incase external air source is obstructed
h. Ignition System
i. Dual magnetos, 2 park plugs per cylinder (increased safety and efficiency)
ii. Left magneto has impulse coupler to aid in starting
iii. Magnetos are small AC generators driven by crankshaft rotation to

produce high voltage to a distributor, which directs it to the spark plugs. At
the spark plugs, the current must cross a gap, producing a spark, which
ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders. Magnetos are independent
from the electrical system.
i. Starter System
i. Electric starter motor
ii. Turns engine while starting until the engine catches and runs off its own
power
j. Lubrication System
i. Wet type oil sump
ii. Oil cooler
iii. Oil pump, located inside the engine
iv. FIT recommendation: 6-8 quarts
v. Piper recommendation: 2-8 quarts
vi. Four functions of oil:
1. Cleans (carries contaminants through a filter)
2. Cools
3. Seals (between cylinder walls and pistons)
4. Lubricates
vii. Two types of oil:
1. Mineral (used during first 50 hours of engine use)
2. Ashless dispersant (thereafter)
a. Prevents the development of carbon and ash deposits in the
engine
b. Keeps contaminants in the oil and traps them in the oil filter
c. Prevents contaminants from clinging together and forming
deposits inside the engine
4. Propeller System
a. McCauley
b. Constant Speed
c. Hydraulically Actuated
d. Blade angle 12.5 to 27.5
e. Advantages
i. Improved climb performance
ii. Reduced noise
iii. Reduced engine wear
f. Disadvantages
i. Increased cost
ii. Added weight
iii. More expensive maintenance
g.
h.
i. Onspeed
i. Propeller is at same speed set by the pilot
ii. Centrifugal reaction on flyweights is equal to force of speeder spring
keeping pilot valve neutral
j. Underspeed
i. Shaft rotation slows
ii. Flyweights move in
iii. Pilot valve moves down
iv. Oil flows from propeller hub back to the sump
v. Piston moves forward
vi. Prop pitch gets finer
vii. Prop speeds up, shaft speeds up

viii. Flyweights move to neutral
k.
Overspeed
i. Shaft rotation increases
ii. Flyweights move in
iii. Pilot valve moves up
iv. Oil flows to the propeller hub
v. Piston moves back
vi. Prop pitch coarsens
vii. Prop slows down, shaft slows down
viii. Flyweights move in to neutral
l. Off the governor
i. Occurs at slower speeds when throttle directly controls RPM
ii. Prop set to 2700 RPM but engine is only producing enough power to turn
at 2000 RPM
iii. Engine is underspeed trying to reach 2700 RPM so props move to its finepitch travel limit
iv. Prop now acts as a fixed pitch propeller
5. Fuel System
a. 77 gallons total, 72 usable
b. Left and Right wing tanks
c. 36 usable gallons per side
d. 25 gallons at the tabs
e. Required fuel pressure between 0.5 and 12 psi
f. Fuel system components
i. Fuel selector
ii. Fuel strainer (gascolator)
iii. Electric fuel pump
iv. Engine driven fuel pump
v. Fuel quantity gauges
vi. Fuel flow gauge
vii. Servo regulator
viii. Fuel distributer
ix. Fuel nozzles
g. Fuel injection
i. Advantages
1. Improved fuel economy/distribution
2. No induction icing
3. Easier cold weather start
4. Faster throttle response
ii. Disadvantages
1. Vapor lock
2. Cost
3. Maintenance
4. Complexity
h. Servo Regulator
i. Determines how much fuel is sent to the divider based on amount of air
flowing into the engine and mixture setting
i. Fuel flow divider
i. Distributes fuel evenly to each cylinder
j. Fuel nozzles
6. Landing Gear System
a. Tricycle configuration, retractable gear
b. Hydraulically actuated, electrically driven
c. Single disc hydraulic brakes on each main gear
d. Oleo type struts
e. Shimmy dampener on nose strut to avoid vibrations
f. Main tires should be inflated to 30 psi, nose gear 27 psi
g. Gear held up by hydraulic pressure (1800 psi)
h. Held down by J-locks on main gear, C-lock on the nose gear
i. Nose gear has spring to assist in lowering nose during emergency extension
j. Gear Switches
i. Up-limit switches (1 each gear) all 3 together turn off gear unsafe light
ii. Down-limit switches: all 3 turn off gear unsafe light, turn off hydraulic pump
motor, each switch turns on respective gear down light
iii. Squat switch on left main prevents retraction of gear on the ground (switch
is open)
iv. Hydraulic pressure switch turns of hydraulic pump motor when it reaches
gear up pressure (1800 psi)
v. If pressure is lost during flight and gear comes down, pump will turn on
and retract the gear
k. Gear Warning (gear up)
i. Throttle below 14 manifold pressure
ii. Flaps set >10 degrees
iii. Gear up selected while on the ground if throttle is closed
iv. Gear unsafe light turns on when gear is in transit
l. Emergency Gear Extension
i. Should be used if gear do not extend by use of the gear handle
ii. Refer to checklist
iii. Switch equalizes pressure in the hydraulic system and allows the gear to
fall naturally due to gravity
m. Steering
i. Rudder pedals are connected to the nose wheel

n. Brakes
i. Hydraulic fluid transferred to brake pad by depressing the brake pedals,
compresses brake pads and creates friction on brake disc to slow the
aircraft
7. Electrical System
a. Battery
i. 12 Volt, 35 Amperes
ii. Charged by the alternator
iii. Secondary source of electrical power after the alternator
iv. Can theoretically prove 35 amps for 1 hour
b. Alternator
i. Inside the alternator, a rotating electromagnet, connected to the engine
crankshaft by the alternator belt, generates electrical AC power as it spins
past copper windings
ii. Initially a small charge provided by the battery energizes the
electromagnets until the alternator takes over
iii. 14 Volts
c. Voltage Regulator
i. Controls alternator output, keeps voltage between 11-14V
d. Overvoltage Relay
i. If alternator output exceeds 17 volts it is automatically taken off line to
protect the electrical system
e. External Power
i. Used when battery does not have enough power to start engine
ii. Refer to checklist
f. Secondary System
i. Garmin 430s require 24 volts
ii. 2 power converters convert the 12V to 24V to power them
8. Flight Controls
a. All primary flight controls are actuated through a cable pulley system
b. Flight control surfaces have added strength
c. Rudder
i. Conventional design
ii. Trim control
iii. Spring loaded recentering device
iv. Left and right limits 27 degrees
d. Ailerons
i. Differential ailerons
1. Moves up 25 degrees and down 12.5 degrees
2. Compensate for adverse yaw
ii. Counterweights help balance controls

e. Stabilator
i. Combined stabilizer and elevator
ii. Incorporates anti-servo tab
1. Moves in same direction as the stabilator to provide a dampening
force, prevent over-controlling by pilot
f. Flaps
i. Plain flaps
ii. Extended by using flap lever between the seats
iii. Flap settings 10, 25, 40 degrees
g. Stall Strip
i. Disrupts airflow over a portion of the wing
ii. Induces buffering for pilot to recognize onset of a stall
9. Environmental System
a. Heating
i. Heat provided by shroud attached to the muffler, amount of heat controlled
by switches on right side of the instrument panel
b. Ventilation
i. Fresh air inlets in leading edge of the wing near the fuselage
ii. Air flows out through outflow vents on each side of the aft cabin
iii. Adjustable vents located over each seat, and by the floor next to each seat
10. Pitot-Static System
a. Provides pitot and static pressure to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and VSI
b. Pitot Mast
c. Static Ports
d. Drain Valves
e. Alternate Static Source
11. Vacuum System
a. Dry type vacuum pumps
b. Vacuum regulator keeps pressure between 4.8 and 5.1
c. Filter keeps contaminants from being ingested into the system
d. Auxiliary Vacuum Pump
i. Electrically driven
ii. Can be used if there is low or no suction from the engine driven vacuum
pump

Task E: Airworthiness
Reference: FAR 43(d), 91.7, 91.409, 91.205, PHAK 8-7
airworthiness by describing:
1. What is Airworthiness?
a. Issued by the FAA
b. States aircraft meets its type design, in condition for safe operation
c. Must be maintained to meet type design
2. Required Documents
a. Airworthiness certificate
b. Registration
c. Radio license (if applicable)
i. Required if flying international, or airplane MTOW > 12,500 lbs
ii. Plane and pilot must be certified
d. Operating limitations
i. Including placards
e. Weight and balance
f. MEL (if applicable)
i. Minimum equipment list states the equipment that can be inoperative and still
allow safe operation
ii. Includes procedures for flight crew and maintenance to follow
iii. MMEL is a standard list of equipment for a specific make and model, created
by the FAA to be used as a guide for making a MEL
iv. MMEL does not include procedures, and is not specific to the aircraft tail
number
v. How to make a MEL?
1. Obtain MMEL
2. Develop operating procedures required by MMEL
3. Send to the FAA for review and make changes accordingly
4. FAA will issue LOA to use MEL, which gives you a STC (supplemental
type certificate)
vi. MEL+LOA must be carried on board the aircraft
3. Required Inspections
a. Annual applies to all aircraft
b. 100 hour only for aircraft used in commercial operations
c. ELT 12 calendar months
4.
5.
6.
7.
i. Must be replaced when half battery life is used, or after an hour of cumulative
use
d. Altimeter 24 calendar months
e. Transponder 24 calendar months
f. Static System 24 calendar months
g. Airworthiness Directives recall for aircraft, something is wrong with the aircraft that
needs to be fixed
i. Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM), followed by Final Rule
ii. Final Rule
iii. Emergency AD must be complied with immediately
Required Equipment (91.205)
a. ATOMATOFLAMES day VFR
b. FLAPS nights VFR
How to know if you need a piece of equipment to fly?
a. Check MEL (if applicable), if it is listed on MEL, you are safe to fly.
b. Check KOEL (91.213(d)(2)(ii))
c. Check VFR day type certificate
d. Check any ADs
e. Check 91.205
f. If not required by any of the above, equipment must be removed and placarded inop
g. Final decision must be made by the pilot to continue the flight
Preventative maintenance (Part 43 appendix A(c))
a. Pilot can perform without help of a certified aircraft mechanic
b. Simple or minor preservation operations
c. All preventative maintenance done must be entered in the aircraft logbook
d. Ex) Replacing tires, Adding oil, Replacing seat belts, Cleaning, etc
Special Flight Permit
a. Allows the aircraft to be flown when it is not airworthy, but capable of safe flight
b. Request must be sent to the FAA (Form 8130-6)
i. Purpose of the flight
ii. Proposed itinerary
iii. Required crew
iv. In what way the aircraft is unairworthy
c. Reasons for using a special flight permit
i. Flying the aircraft to a base where maintenance can be done
ii. Delivering a new aircraft (ferry)
iii. Flight testing new equipment (experimental)
iv. Evacuating the aircraft from an area of impending danger
v. Demonstration flight
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations V:
Preflight Procedures
Task D: Taxiing (ASEL)
Task E: Before Takeoff Check
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CFI Notebook
AOO V. Preflight Procedures

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3A, Airplane Flying Handbook
Objective: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a
preflight inspection by describing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Importance of a thorough preflight inspection:

a. To determine that the airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condition for
safe flight.
i. FAR 91.7 PIC is responsible for determining whether the aircraft is
airworthy.
Verify all required documents are onboard, and required inspections are complete.
a. Airworthiness Certificate
b. Registration
c. Radio License (if required)
d. POH
e. Inspections and ADs
Preflight inspection should be performed in accordance with a checklist provided by the
aircraft manufacturer.
a. Checklist usage is important so that important items are not skipped.
i. General aircraft condition (structure).
ii. Check for any fluid leaks.
Inside the Cockpit
a. Doors, windows, and seats.
b. All switches are OFF, remove any locks, and check instruments, nothing
unordinary.
Outside Surfaces
a. Check for signs of deterioration or corrosion.
b. Check aircraft structure and airframe.
c. Any damage to the aircraft renders it unairworthy.
Fuel and Oil
a. Verify the fuel quantity and fuel grade.
b. Sump the fuel and check for contamination.
c. Check for any leaks.
d. Engines certified for higher grade of fuel should never be substituted with lower
grade, this would damage the engine.
e. Check fuel vents for any blockage.
f. Check oil level.
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes
a. Tires should be inspected for proper inflation as well as deterioration.
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CFI Notebook
b. Brakes should be checked for corrosion, proper alignment, and any hydraulic
leaks.
c. Check landing gear struts.
8. Engine and Propeller
a. Check condition of the engine cowling.
b. Check condition of propeller spinner (hub).
c. Check propeller for nicks, cracks, and corrosion.
d. Look inside the cowling for any leaks or foreign objects.
e. Engine intake and exhaust should be checked for obstruction.
9. It is the pilots responsibility to determine if the aircraft is safe to fly. If you are not sure of
something, ask maintenance personnel.
10. Youd rather find a problem with the plane on the ground than in the air.
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CFI Notebook

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3A, Airplane Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-25A, Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
Objective: To determine the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of
cockpit management by describing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is Cockpit Management?

a. Organizing your resources in the cockpit before the flight.
Verify all necessary equipment, documents, checklists, and charts are onboard.
a. Everything should be neatly organized and readily available.
b. Check cabin for any loose items that might be tossed about in turbulence.
Seats should be adjusted properly for the pilot to be able to see inside and outside.
a. Seatbelts and shoulder harnesses should fit comfortably.
b. Shoulder harness should be worn at least during takeoff and landing unless the
pilot is unable to perform their duties.
c. Seatbelts should be worn the entire time the pilot is at their station.
Utilize side pockets for storing checklists, charts, etc.
a. Dont put anything on the glare shield
Organize your resources in a practical way that makes them easily accessible.
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
a. The art and science of managing all the resources available to a single pilot to
ensure the successful outcome of a flight.
b. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
c. Risk Management (RM)
d. Task Management (TM)
e. Automation Management (AM)
f. Situational Awareness (SA)
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CFI Notebook

engine starting by describing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Actual starting procedures vary with different engines, systems, and conditions.
However, before starting procedures and precautions can be applied to all aircraft.
First, make sure the aircraft is positioned so the prop blast will not damage any property
or be discourteous to others.
Before Starting
a. Verify preflight is complete.
b. Follow Before Engine Start checklist.
c. Visually confirm the propeller area is clear.
d. Call CLEAR out the airplane to alert people on the ramp.
During & After Start
a. Always keep one hand on the throttle while cranking the engine.
b. Low RPM setting (800-1000) is recommended after engine starting.
c. Let the engine warm up before overworking it.
d. Let the oil pressure and temperature rise. (cold weather)
If the engine fails to start right away, do not crank the engine longer than 30 seconds
without letting it cool down for 30 seconds to a minute.
a. Check POH or Placards for specific procedures.
If starter is still engaged after start, shutdown immediately.
a. This can be detected by high current draw from the ammeter or a starter
engaged warning.
Engine Fire During Start
a. First thing to do is cut-off fuel flow to the engine, mixture idle, fuel pump off, fuel
selector off.
b. Burn all remaining fuel in the cylinders, throttle full open, continue cranking.
c. If fire continues, evacuate the aircraft with the fire extinguisher and fight the fire
from a safe distance.
Hand Propping
a. Hand propping is used in aircraft without a starter motor, should only be used
when absolutely necessary.
b. Should only be done by two people who are familiar with the airplane and hand
propping procedures and are able to do so.
c. The person pulling the propeller blades is in charge. The other person must be
seated in the cockpit with the brakes set.
i. Chocks can also be placed in front of the main wheels, or the tail tied down.
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CFI Notebook

Task D: Taxiing (ASEL)
taxiing by describing:
1.
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the
ground.
2. Awareness of other aircraft and consideration for right-of-way procedures are important
for safety while taxiing.
a. Runway Incursion Avoidance
3. Taxiing speed can vary depending on your location on the airport.
a. While in a parking area near a lot of other planes or people, speed should be kept
to that of a brisk walk. (Approx. 5 kts)
b. On a main taxiway, speed should be able to be slowed by only reducing the
throttle.
c. It is best to slow down before a turn to reduce side load on the gear struts.
d. More power may be required to start an airplane moving or during a turn.
4. If provided, taxiway centerlines should be followed unless necessary to clear
obstructions.
5. Steering
a. Steering is done by using rudder pedals and brakes.
b. The pilot should not use the brakes instead of the rudder pedals to steer.
c. Brakes and steering should be tested right away.
6. Crosswind corrections
a. Depending on where the wind is coming from and how strong it is, flight controls
should be placed in a certain way to keep the wings level and avoid damage to
the flight controls.
b. With a quartering headwind, ailerons should roll towards the wind.
i. This places the upwind aileron in the UP position, this will prevent the wind
from lifting the upwind wing.
c. With a quartering tailwind, ailerons should roll away from the wind, and elevator
should be down.
i. This will reduce the tendency of the wind to get under the wing or elevator
and nose over the airplane.
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CFI Notebook

Task G: Before Takeoff Check
the before takeoff check by describing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The before takeoff check is a systematic procedure for checking the engine, flight
controls, systems, and avionics prior to flight.
a. Normally done in a run-up area or a location near the takeoff end of the runway.
Before beginning the check, the airplane should be positioned away from other aircraft
and in such a way that nothing will be damaged by the prop blast.
Allow the engine to warm up properly before increasing power for the check.
a. Allow circulation of oil to cool and clean the engine before bringing the power up.
Follow the proper checklist in the POH for specific procedures.
Pilot must divide attention inside and outside the cockpit
a. Make sure the airplane is not moving.
b. Check engine instruments inside the cockpit.
c. Very all engine gauges are within the limitations set by the manufacturer in the
POH.
Review information regarding the takeoff and departure.
a. Takeoff performance, which was calculated before the preflight.
b. Check runway distances and obstruction clearances
c. Review the procedure for the specific takeoff to be performed.
i. Flap setting
ii. Climb-out speed
d. Discuss emergency procedures in the event of an engine failure.
Visually scan the runway environment and approach area for any hazards.
Verify with the checklist that all items are complete before continuing.
Do not proceed onto the runway until you have received clearance from ATC.
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CFI Notebook
Area of Operations VII

Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
Task A: Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb

Task F: Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing
Task G: Slip to a Landing
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CFI Notebook
AOO VII. Takeoffs, Landings, Go-Arounds

Task A: Normal Takeoff and Climb
Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM
Objectives:
To allow the airplane to accelerate to normal climbing speed, with a headwind and the path is
obstruction free.
Procedure:
1. The takeoff roll:

Align the airplane with the runway centerline;
Apply throttle smoothly and continuously to maximum allowable power;
Maintain directional control with rudder; slight rudder pressure will be required to compensate
for torque;
Glance at the engine instruments for any sign of malfunction
2. The liftoff:
As soon as all flight controls become effective during the takeoff roll, back pressure should be
applied gradually to lift the nose wheel off of the runway;
Adjust and maintain liftoff attitude for VX or VY;
Keep the wings level and establish an initial heading
3. The initial climb after becoming airborne:
Establish pitch attitude for VX or VY as necessary;
Retrim aircraft for appropriate speed;
Maintain takeoff power until 500 AGL above surrounding terrain;
Adjust heading to maintain track of extended runway centerline
Schedule:
Preflight discussion and preparation

Transition to and from airspace
Instructor demonstrations
Student practice
Post flight critique
Equipment:
Clean paper and pencil to diagram the maneuver during preflight, and lesson plan
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and
objectives, and emergency considerations
Discuss objectives, take notes, and ask for any needed clarification
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and
rejected takeoff procedures
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions
c) Clears area, taxies onto the takeoff surface and aligns the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path
d) Advances the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to VY
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY 5 knots (private: +10/ 5) to maintain a safe
maneuvering altitude
g) Retracts the landing gear if appropriate, and flaps after positive rate of climb is established
h) Maintains takeoff power and VY to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control, proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
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CFI Notebook
j) Complies with noise abatement procedures

k) Completes appropriate checklists
Common
Errors:
a) Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures

Does not check for traffic before crossing runway hold line and before entering a taxiway
Does not read back runway crossing and hold short instructions
Unfamiliar with airport signage
b) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps. No aileron deflection for crosswind; flaps
not set as recommended
c) Improper power application not applying full power of applying power too quickly or too slowly
d) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during
maneuvers such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
e) Poor directional control
Not correcting for torque effect
Overcorrecting or under correcting with rudder
f) Improper use of ailerons
In a crosswind, as speed increases aileron deflection should be reduced
Allowing the upwind wing to rise causing airplane to skip sideways
g) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Forcing the airplane off the runway; too much pitch attitude too soon
Airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall back on the runway
Allowing the takeoff roll to continue causing the airplane to remain on the runway too long
h) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Not establishing the pitch attitude for the best rate of climb
Not retracting flaps/gear as appropriate
i) During Climb
Allowing the airplane to drift away from the runway extended centerline
Not clearing area directly in front of aircraft during climb
j) Improper use of checklist
Does not use checklist consistently
Fails to complete checklist at appropriate time
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CFI Notebook
Normal Takeoff
1. Takeoff briefing: COMPLETE

2. Pre-Takeoff Checklist
3. Takeoff Procedure:
1. Full power
2. Check instruments
3. Verify airspeed alive
4. Vr = 50kts
5. Establish 80kts (Vx)
6. Retract gear at positive rate no usable runway
7. Establish 88kts (Vy)
4. Set Climb Power: 500 AGL
1. 23" 2300RPM
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CFI Notebook

Task A: Crosswind Takeoff and Climb

Objectives:
To allow the airplane to accelerate to normal climbing speed, with a cross

wind and the path is obstruction free.
Procedure:
1. Crosswind takeoff roll:

Taxi into takeoff position and check strength and direction of wind
Start takeoff roll with full aileron control into the wind
As the forward speed of the airplane increases and the crosswind becomes more and more of a
relative headwind, the mechanical holding of full aileron into the wind should be reduced
2. Crosswind liftoff:
If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheels should be held on the ground slightly longer than in
a normal takeoff so that a smooth but very definite liftoff can be made
As both main wheels leave the runway, adequate drift correction must be maintained by the pilot or
the airplane will slowly be carried sideways with the wind
3. The initial crosswind climb:
If proper correction is being applied, as soon as the airplane becomes airborne it will be slipping into
the wind sufficiently to counteract the drifting effect of wind
This slipping should be continued until the airplane has climbed well above the ground. At that time
the airplane should be headed toward the wind to establish just enough crab to counteract the
wind and the wings rolled level
The climb while in this crab should be continued so as to follow a ground track aligned with the
runway direction
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper drift control techniques, expectations and objectives,
and emergency considerations
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and rejected
takeoff procedures
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions
d) Advances the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to VY
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain VY 5 knots (private: +10/ 5)
g) Retracts the landing gear if appropriate, and flaps after positive rate of climb is established
h) Maintains takeoff power and VY to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control, proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
j) Complies with noise abatement procedures
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CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:

b) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps
If a crosswind exists, full aileron into wind should be applied initially
Flaps should be set as recommended by manufacturer
c) Improper power application
not applying full power
applying power too quickly or too slowly
d) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during maneuvers
such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
e) Poor directional control
f) Improper use of ailerons
In a crosswind, as speed increases aileron deflection should be reduced
Allowing the upwind wing to rise causing airplane to skip sideways
g) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Forcing the airplane off the runway; too much pitch attitude too soon
Airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall back on the runway
h) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Not establishing the pitch attitude for the best rate of climb
Not retracting flaps/gear as appropriate
i) During Climb
j) Improper use of checklist
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CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To operate the airplane at the limit of its takeoff performance.
Procedure:
1. Set flaps as recommended by manufacturer

2. Taxi onto the runway using all available runway length
3. Momentarily apply brakes while applying maximum allowable power
4. Adjust pitch attitude/angle of attack for minimum drag and maximum acceleration
5. Accelerate to recommended liftoff airspeed
6. On liftoff, adjust pitch attitude for VX until obstacles cleared or if no obstacles an altitude at least 50
AGL is obtained
7. Retract flaps and gear (if retractable) when well clear of obstacles and best rate of climb has been
established
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to short field takeoff and maximum performance climb
b) Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions, set flaps as recommended
d) Applies brakes (if appropriate) while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
e) Lifts off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerates to recommended obstacle clearance airspeed
VX
f) Establishes a pitch attitude that will maintain the recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or VX
5 knots (private: +10/ 5) until the airplane is 50 feet above the surface
g) After clearing the obstacle, establishes the pitch attitude for VY accelerates to VY, and maintains VY,
5 knots, during the climb
h) Retracts the landing gear, if appropriate and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by
manufacturer
i) Maintains takeoff power and VY 5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
j) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb

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CFI Notebook
b) Failure to position the airplane for maximum utilization of available takeoff area
c) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps
No aileron deflection for crosswind
flaps not set as recommended
d) Improper power application
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during
maneuvers such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
f) Poor directional control
g) Improper use of brakes
Failure to hold brakes until full power is developed and engine instruments are checked
Failure to remove feet from brakes during takeoff roll
h) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Too much pitch too soon
Forcing the airplane off the runway; airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall
back on the runway
i) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Retracting flaps/landing gear before clear of obstacle
Not maintaining best angle of climb prior to flaps/gear retraction
j) Drift during Climb
k) Improper use of checklist
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CFI Notebook
Short Field Takeoff and Climb
1. Before takeoff briefing: COMPLETE

2. Pre-Takeoff Checklist: COMPLETE
3. Flaps 20
4. Miture: AS REQD
5. Carb Heat: OFF
6. Elevator Trim: SET
7. Elevator: NEUTRAL
8. Taxi onto runway,allowing most available length for takeoff
9. Brakes: APPLY
10. Throttle: FULL
11. Instruments: CHECK
12. Brakes: RELEASE
13. Rotate: 50kts
14. Climb at 59kts (Vx) until clear of obstacle
At 100 AGL
16. Accelerate to 88kts (Vy)
-70kts, flaps 10
-80kts, flaps up
17: Gear: retract after positive rate, no usable runway
18. 500 AGL: Climb power - 23" 2300RPM
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CFI Notebook


Lesson Plan
Objectives:
To operate the airplane off an unimproved surface such as grass, soft sand, mud, snow, or rough terrain, etc.
Procedure:
1. Wing Flaps should be lowered prior to starting the takeoff roll

2. Taxi the airplane at as fast a speed as possible, consistent with safety and surface conditions. Avoid
making sharp turns, using brakes, and any other action which might bog the airplane down
3. The airplane should be kept in continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for takeoff roll
4. As the airplane is aligned, apply power smoothly to maximum allowable power
5. As the airplane accelerates, enough elevator back pressure should be applied to reduce the weight
supported by the nose wheel
6. Maintaining a nose high attitude throughout the takeoff run sufficient to relieve the main gear of
progressively more and more weight. This will minimize drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion
7. As the airplane becomes airborne, lower pitch attitude slightly to gain additional airspeed while in ground
effect
8. Accelerate to VX with obstacle or VY without obstacle before leaving ground effect
9. Continue climb at VX or VY as appropriate
10. Retract the wing flaps and/or landing gear when clear of obstacles
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to soft field takeoff and climb
b) Position the flight controls for the existing conditions, and to maximize lift as quickly as possible
while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power
d) Establishes and maintains a pitch attitude that will transfer the weight of the airplane from the wheels to
the wings as rapidly as possible
e) Lifts off at lowest possible airspeed and remains in ground effect while accelerating to VX or VY, as
appropriate
f) Establishes a pitch attitude for VX or VY as appropriate, and maintains selected airspeed 5 knots (private:
+10/t5) during climb
g) Retracts landing gear, if appropriate and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by the
manufacturer
h) Maintains takeoff power and VX or VY 5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
i) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb
j) Completes appropriate checklists

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CFI Notebook
b) Improper initial positioning of flight controls and wing flaps
No aileron deflection for crosswind
flaps not set as recommended
c) Hazards of allowing the airplane to stop on the takeoff surface prior to initiating takeoff aircraft may not
have enough power to begin takeoff roll again
d) Improper power application
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Hand should always remain on throttle during maneuvers
such as takeoff, landing, slow flight, etc.
f) Poor directional control
g) Improper use of brakes
Failure to hold brakes until full power is developed and engine instruments are checked
Failure to remove feet from brakes during takeoff roll
h) Improper pitch attitude during liftoff
Too much pitch too soon
Forcing the airplane off the runway; airplane lifts off at too slow an airspeed causing it to stall back
on the runway
i) Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed
Retracting flaps/landing gear before clear of obstacle
Not maintaining best angle of climb prior to flaps/gear retraction
Not remaining in ground effect while accelerating to VX or VY as appropriate
j) Drift during Climb
k) Improper use of checklist
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CFI Notebook
Soft-Field Takeoff
1. Before Takeoff Briefing: COMPLETE

2. Pre-Takeoff Checklist: COMPLETE
3. Flaps: 20
4. Mixture: AS REQD
5. Carb Heat: OFF
6. Elevator Trim: SET
7. Elevator: FULL UP
8. Taxi onto runway with minimal use of brakes
9. Throttle: FULL POWER
10. Engine instruments: Check
11. Rotation:
-Full back elevator pressure before entering runway
-Rotate as soon as possible
-Lift off: minimum airspeed (no stall warn)
12. Accelerate in ground effect to Vy 88kts
13. Flaps: RETRACT (Positive rate out of ground effect)
14. Gear up: 80 kts, no runway remaining
15. Climb Vy 88kts
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CFI Notebook

Task F: Normal and Crosswind Landing
Reference: AC 91-73; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM

Objectives:
To establish an angle of descent and airspeed that will permit the airplane to reach the desired
touchdown point at an airspeed which will result in a minimum floating just before touchdown.
Procedure:
1. Establish a normal traffic pattern, corrected for wind drift as necessary

2. At midfield, on downwind, complete the pre landing checklist (GUMPS)
3. Abeam the touchdown point on downwind, reduce power
4. Maintain the altitude and level pitch attitude to momentarily reduce airspeed
5. Lower Flaps to 10 and Retrim the airplane
6. Establish initial approach speed (1.4 x VSO) Retrim the airplane, if necessary
7. At an approximate 45 point from the landing threshold, turn base
8. Extend second notch of flaps
9. Lead turn to final to roll out on runway extended centerline
10. Once the field is assured, extend final flaps
11. Simultaneously adjust power and pitch to control descent. Power for altitude, pitch for airspeed.
12. As the airplane approaches the runway and landing is assured, slowly close throttle and start landing
flare about 5 feet above the runway
13. Continue to apply back pressure as the airplane decelerates (controls will become less effective as
the airplane slows)
14. Land on main wheels first
Crosswind
Approach &
Landing:
1. Use same procedures used for a normal approach

2. On final, lower the upwind wing as necessary to control lateral drift over the extended runway
centerline
3. Use opposite rudder to align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with extended runway centerline
4. Maintain and adjust the control deflections as necessary to track the extended centerline
5. As airspeed slow during the roundout and flare, control deflections must be increased as necessary to
obtain the desired necessary effect
6. After touchdown, slowly increase aileron deflection into the crosswind to assist in directional control
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind approach and landing
b) Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and selects a suitable touchdown point
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CFI Notebook
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed and adjusts pitch and
power as required
d) Maintains a stabilized Approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VS
O, 5 knot, with wind gust factor applied (private is allowed +10/ 5 knots)
e) Makes smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown
f) Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed
g) Touches down at or within 200 feet beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplanes
longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path (private is allowed 400 feet)
h) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
sequence
i) Completes appropriate checklist
Common
Errors:
a) Improper use of landing performance data and limitations. Not calculating landing distances correctly
b) Failure to establish the approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in the proper
sequence. Not following established procedure
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach:
Not establishing correct airspeeds for downwind, base, and final segments
Not adjusting power and pitch attitude as necessary to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not using flaps as necessary to control speed and rate of descent
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base and final
d) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
e) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
Rounding out too late resulting in, if not corrected, a hard landing followed by a bounce and a
stall and another hard landing
Rounding out too high resulting in, if not corrected, an eventual loss in airspeed followed by a
high sink rate and a hard landing
Rounding out and ballooning down the runway; usually caused by misjudging the rate of
descent and overcontrolling
Rounding out and floating down the runway; usually caused by excessive airspeed on final
approach
Touchdown followed by a bounce as a result of an excessive rate of descent on final
Touchdown with the aircraft drifting sideways as a result of not applying enough wing low into
the crosswind
Touchdown in a crab as a result of allowing a wing to rise on roundout or in flare
f) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Allowing a wing to rise after touchdown
Allowing touchdown while in a crab
Over controlling with rudder
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or overcontrolling airplane; this problem can be
significant in Tailwheel aircraft
g) Improper use of brakes:
Not using aerodynamic braking
Excessive use of brakes
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
Normal Traffic Pattern
1. Before Landing Checklist: COMPLETE

2. Airspeed: Flaps up - 70kts
Full flaps - 65kts
3. Trim: ADJUST
4. Touchdown and brake AS REQD
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CFI Notebook

Task G: Slip
p to a Landing
Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM

Objectives:
To instruct the student in how to dissipate altitude without increasing the airplanes speed.
Procedure:
1. Reduce power to idle

2. The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of ailerons
3. Simultaneously, the airplanes nose must be yawed in the opposite direction by applying opposite
rudder so that the airplanes longitudinal axis is at an angle to its original flight path
4. The degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite direction from the bank should be such that
the original ground track is maintained
5. The pitch should be adjusted as necessary to maintain the appropriate airspeed
6. Discontinuing the slip is accomplished by leveling the wings and simultaneously releasing rudder
pressure while readjusting pitch attitude to normal glide attitude
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of a forward slip to a landing
b) Considers wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions, and selects the most suitable
touchdown point
c) Establishes slipping attitude at the point from which a landing can be made using recommended
approach, landing configuration and airspeed; adjusts pitch attitude and power as required
d) Maintains ground track aligned with runway centerline and airspeed which results in minimum float
during roundout
e) Makes a smooth, timely and correct control application during recovery from the slip, roundout and
touchdown
f) Touches down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, at or within 400 feet beyond a specified point
, with no side drift, and with the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over runway centerline
g) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout approach and landing
h) Completes appropriate checklist
a)Improper use of landing performance data and limitations:

Not calculating landing distances correctly
Performing a slip with flaps in an airplane in which operation is prohibited
b) Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in the proper
sequence. Not following established procedure.
c) Failure to maintain a stabilized slip:
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CFI Notebook
Not reducing power

Not applying sufficient aileron and rudder to establish forward slip
Not maintaining equal amounts of aileron and rudder input
Not maintaining a safe airspeed while in slip
d) inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
e) Improper technique during transition from the slip to the touchdown:
The longitudinal axis of the airplane is not aligned with the runway centerline as a result of not
allowing sufficient time between recovery from a slip and touchdown
Underestimating rate of sink during slip and landing hard
f) Poor directional control after touchdown:
Overcontrolling with rudder
Ground Loop: may be caused by a crosswind or overcontrolling airplane; this problem can be
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
Slip to a Landing
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CFI Notebook
AOO VII: Takeoffs, Landings, Go-Arounds

Objectives:
For the pilot to learn when to go around from a rejected landing, and to recognize the need for a go
around early.
Procedure:
1. Make the decision to go around as early as possible

2. Simultaneously increase pitch attitude to stop the descent and apply takeoff power
3. If the aircraft has been trimmed for the approach, expect to hold considerable forward elevator
pressure to maintain a safe climb attitude
4. After the descent has been stopped, the landing flaps may be partially retracted or placed in the
takeoff position, as recommended by the manufacturer
5. Roughly retrim the aircraft to relieve control pressure
6. Establish a best angle (VX) or best rate (VY) of climb as appropriate
7. Retract the landing gear when a positive rate of climb has been established
8. Retrim aircraft
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a go around/rejected landing
b) Makes a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing
c) Applies takeoff power immediately and transitions to climb pitch attitude for VY, and maintains VY 5
knots (private: +10/ 5)
d) Retract flaps as appropriate
e) Retracts landing gear if appropriate after a positive rate of climb is established
f) Maneuvers to the side of runway/landing area to clear and avoid conflicting traffic
g) Maintains takeoff power and VY 5knots to a safe maneuvering altitude
h) Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction throughout the climb
a) Failure to recognize a situation where a go around/rejected landing is necessary. Not recognizing

unsafe conditions that warrant a go around
b) Hazards of delaying a decision to go around/rejected landing. Not making a decision until the last
minute can make the go around an unsafe procedure
c) Improper power application
Not applying full power
Failure to remove carburetor heat
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CFI Notebook
Failure to adjust propeller to a low pitch/high RPM first

Power application not smooth
d) Failure to control pitch attitude.
On initial power application, not controlling the sharp nose up attitude that will occur
Not establishing the pitch attitude for best angle or best rate of climb
e) Failure to compensate for torque effect: not correcting for torque effect in climb
f) Improper trim procedure: not initially re trimming aircraft to relieve heavy control pressure
g) failure to maintain recommended airspeed; not establishing and maintaining best angle or best rate
of climb as appropriate
h) Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure:
Not retracting flaps, retracting flaps all at once or too soon, considering altitude
Retracting the landing gear before a positive rate of climb has been established
i)
Failure to maintain proper track during climb out; allowing aircraft to drift due to crosswind or
poor heading control
j) Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic; in a conflict with departing traffic exists,
not banking away from and establishing a parallel to runway leg, to keep the traffic in sight. Not
listening for and reacting to traffic advisories.
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CFI Notebook
Go-Around/Rejected Landing
1. Throttle: FULL
2. Pitch: CLIMB ATTITUDE
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Flaps: 20
5. Positive Rate, 70kts: Flaps 10
6. 80 kts: Gear up
7. Trim: SET
8. Accelerate to Vy (88kt
9. Flaps: 0
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CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To establish an angle of descent and airspeed that will permit the airplane to reach the desired
touchdown point at an airspeed which will result in a minimum floating just before touchdown.
Procedure:
1. Establish a normal traffic pattern, but flown at 10 knots slower on downwind, base, and final
4. Maintain the altitude and level pitch attitude momentarily to dissipate airspeed
7. At an approximate 45 point from the landing threshold (30 point for a short field with obstacle),
turn base
8. Extend second notch of flaps, Retrim the airplane, and apply wind drift correction
10. Extend final flaps on final
11. Simultaneously adjust power and pitch attitude to control rate of descent. Power for altitude, pitch
for airspeed.
12. If landing over a 50 ft. obstacle, when clear, adjust pitch attitude slightly to establish rate of descent.
Dont reduce power until in ground effect.
13. If landing with no obstacle, adjust descent angle to land just inside of the desired touchdown point
14. After landing, identify and retract flaps, and apply maximum braking and full elevator back pressure
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a short field approach and landing
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed and adjusts pitch and
power as required
f) Touches down smoothly at minimum control airspeed
g) Touches down at or within 100 feet beyond a specified point, with no drift, minimum float and with
the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/
landing path(private is allowed 200 feet)
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CFI Notebook
h) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
sequence
i) Applies brakes as necessary, to stop in the shortest distance consistent with safety. Completes
appropriate checklist
Common
Errors:
Not reducing as necessary to control rate of descent
If short field over an obstacle: when clear of obstacle, reducing power resulting in possible stall;
diving for runway resulting in excessive airspeed and floating
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base, and final
d) Improper technique in use of power, wing flaps, and trim:
Not using pitch and power to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not extending flaps as necessary
Not trimming aircraft for appropriate airspeed
e) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
f) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
descent and overcontrolling
approach
g) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or overcontrolling airplane; this problem can be
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
Short-Field Approach and Landing
1. Pre-Landing Checklist: COMPLETE

2. GUMPS Check
3. Base Leg:
-Flaps 20
-Airspeed: 75kts
-Gear Down: 3 GREEN
4. Final approach
-GUMPS Check
-Prop: FULL
-Man Press: AS REQD
-Flaps: AS REQD
-Airspeed: 65kts
-Landing Gear: 3 GREEN
5. Flare and touchdown
-Touchdown at MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE AIRSPEED
-Elevator: BACK PRESSURE
-Brakes: APPLY
-Flaps: UP
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CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To land on an unimproved surface, keeping the weight supported by the wings as long as possible.
Procedure:
1. Establish a normal traffic pattern

4. Maintain altitude and level pitch attitude momentarily to dissipate airspeed
7. At an approximate 45 point from the landing threshold (30 point for a short field with obstacle),
turn base
8. Extend second notch of flaps, Retrim the airplane, and apply wind drift correction
10. Extend final flaps on final
11. Simultaneously adjust power and pitch attitude to control rate of descent. Power for altitude, pitch
for airspeed.
12. Touchdown at lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose high pitch attitude
13. After the main wheels touch the surface, hold sufficient back elevator pressure to keep the nose
wheel off the ground until it can no longer aerodynamically be held off the surface
14. Gently lower the nose wheel to the surface
15. A slight addition of power during and immediately after the touchdown will aid in easing the nose
wheel down
16. Avoid use of brakes
17. Increase power, as necessary, to keep the airplane moving and from becoming stuck in the surface
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a soft field approach and landing
c) Establishes the recommended approach and landing configuration and adjusts pitch attitude and
power as required
f) Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing
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CFI Notebook
g) Touches down softly, with no drift, and with the airplanes longitudinal axis aligned with the landing
surface
h) Maintains proper position of flight controls and sufficient speed to taxi on soft surface
Common
Errors:
Not reducing as necessary to control rate of descent
Not correcting for wind drift on downwind, base, and final
d) Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface:
Not inspecting area first to determine landing surface
Not considering the effect of a headwind in slowing the airplanes forward speed on touchdown
e) Improper technique in use of power, wing flaps, and trim:
Not using pitch and power to control airspeed and rate of descent
Not extending flaps as necessary
Not trimming aircraft for appropriate airspeed
f) Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle for power increases and
reductions
g) Improper techniques during roundout and touchdown:
descent and over controlling
approach
h) Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown. Not maintaining sufficient back elevator
pressure to keep weight off of the nose wheel and prevent a heavy load on the nose gear causing the
nose wheel to dig in
i) Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown:
Not maintaining some power to increase elevator effectiveness so the weight may be kept off of
the nose wheel as long as possible
Not maintaining some power to keep the aircraft moving and prevent it from becoming stuck
j) Poor Directional control after touchdown
Ground loop: may be caused by a crosswind or over controlling airplane; this problem can be
k) Improper use of brakes:
Skidding the tires
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CFI Notebook
Soft-Field Approach and Landing

2. GUMPS Check
3. Base Leg:
-Flaps 20
-Airspeed: 75kts
-Landing Gear: DOWN 3 GREEN
4. Final Approach:
-GUMPS Check
-Prop: FULL
-Flaps: AS REQD
-Airspeed: 65kts
5. Touchdown
-Hold aircraft in ground effect to dissipate speed
-Land with power to maximize elevator authority and soften touchdown
-Keep nose elevated as long as possible
-Brake as required
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CFI Notebook

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081-12
Objectives:
To instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane without
power to a safe landing.
Procedure:
1. Establish a normal traffic pattern

3. Abeam the touchdown point on downwind, reduce power to idle
4. Pitch and trim the airplane for best glide
5. Start an initial turn toward the runway
6. Add flaps as necessary
7. Touchdown at your point no more than 200ft from the targeted touchdown point
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(7 minutes)
(13 minutes)
(40 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a power off 180 accuracy approach and landing
c) Positions airplane on downwind leg, parallel to landing runway, and not more than 1,000 feet AGL
d) Abeam the specified touchdown point, closes throttle and establishes appropriate glide speed
e) Completes final airplane configuration
f) Touches down in normal landing attitude, at or within 200 feet beyond the specified touchdown point
g) Completes the appropriate checklist
a) Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence not
establishing pitch, power and trim at key points; prematurely extending flaps or delaying flap extension
b) Failure to identify the key points in the pattern not recognizing key point on downwind, or 45key
point on base leg
c) Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach airspeed too fast or too slow on final; not
determining and establishing the necessary descent rate resulting in being too high or too low on final
d) Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface delaying turn to base resulting in
excessively low final; turning base too early resulting in an excessively high final; no consideration of
effect of runway surface (rough or soft)
e) Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim not reducing power; retracting or extending flaps to
reach desired spot; neglecting use of trim after power reduction and configuration changes
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CFI Notebook
f) Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown starting roundout too late in an effort to land
on desired spot; pulling the elevator control back too early in an effort to stretch a glide to reach the
desired spot
g) Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown not using aerodynamic braking to shorten
the landing roll
h) Poor directional control after touchdown careless use of rudder excessive use of brakes control
direction; no use of aileron
i) Improper use of brakes excessive use of braking to stop at desired point
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CFI Notebook
Power-Off 180 Accuracy Approach and Landing

2. GUMPS Check
3. Midfield Downwind:
-Prop: 2400 RPM
-Man Press: 15"
-Airspeed: 85kts
4. Abeam Touchdown Point:
-Carb Heat: ON
-Throttle: IDLE
-Airspeed: 80kts
-Flaps: AS REQD
5. Base Leg:
-Flaps 10-20
-Airspeed: 75kts
6. Final Approach:
-GUMPS Check
-Prop: FULL
-Airspeed: 66kts short final
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Airspeed: 5kts
Touchdown: +100ft, -0ft
No side load, minimal float
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CFI Notebook
Area of Operations VIII

Fundamentals of Flight

Task B: Level Turns
96
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CFI Notebook
AOO VIII: Fundamentals of Flight

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-23 FAA-S-8081-14

Objectives:
To learn the proper use of controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in
relation to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of
dividing attention and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Select some portion of the nose as a reference point, and keep that point fixed on the horizon
2. Cross check this position against the flight instruments
3. Select two or more outside visual reference points directly ahead of the airplane, to form points in an
imaginary line, to help the pilot track along that line
4. Reference instruments to make sure youre maintaining constant direction
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on
instruments inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
b) Application of control movements rather than pressures use of jerky control movements instead of
smooth control pressures
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls not applying right rudder to compensate for torque effect in
straight and level flight
d) Faulty trim technique
Failure to trim the aircraft
Excessive use of trim
Using trim as a primary flight control
Trimming the aircraft before establishing pitch attitude and power setting
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CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook

Task B: Level Turns

Objectives:
To change or return to a desired heading, involves coordination of all three flight controls aileron,
rudder, and elevator.
Procedure:
1. Roll into a banked attitude by coordinating use of ailerons and rudder in the direction of turn
2. When the desired angle of bank is obtained, neutralize the ailerons and rudder to maintain bank
3. Back pressure must be applied in the turn to compensate for the loss of vertical lift and to maintain
altitude
4. Roll out of the turn by applying coordinated aileron and rudder pressure in the opposite direction of
the turn until level attitude is reached. As the angle of bank is decreased the elevator should be
released smoothly as necessary to maintain altitude.
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
c) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Initially too much bank or rudder when establishing the turn
Slipping or skidding during the turn
d) Faulty attitude and bank control
Excessive or insufficient back pressure resulting in a gain or loss of altitude
Bank angle varies due to lack of division of attention between inside and outside references
99
CFI Notebook
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CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To learn the proper use of the controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in relation
to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of dividing attention
and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Establish a climb by applying back pressure on the elevator to increase pitch attitude. Simultaneously
establish the desired bank angle if performing a climbing turn.
2. Apply full power and establish pitch attitude for the climbing airspeed (VY)
3. Cross check the airspeed indicator with the position of the airplanes nose in relation to the horizon as well
as the attitude indicator
4. Trim the aircraft for this attitude/airspeed
5. Use right rudder to correct for torque effect
6. Maintain a constant heading by cross checking visual references as well as instrument references.
Maintain wings level while cross checking heading indicator, attitude indicator, turn coordinator. If
performing a climbing turn, maintain visual references as well as instrument references.
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Failure to cross check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references. Fixating on instruments
inside instead of using a combination of inside and outside references
Not compensating for torque effect in climb
d) Faulty attitude and bank control
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CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To learn the proper use of the controls for maneuvering the airplane, to attain the proper attitude in
relation to the horizon by use of inside and outside references, and to emphasize the importance of
dividing attention and constantly checking all reference points.
Procedure:
1. Maintain a level pitch attitude to reduce airspeed to the recommended glide speed
2. Establish the desired bank angle if performing a descending turn
3. Allow the pitch attitude to decrease as necessary to maintain best glide speed
4. When Airspeed is stabilized, the aircraft should be retrimmed
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Initially too much bank or rudder when establishing the turn
d) Faulty Trim technique
e) Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
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CFI Notebook
Area of Operations IX
Performance Maneuvers
Task A: Steep Turns

Task C: Chandelles
Task D: Lazy Eights
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103
106
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CFI Notebook
AOO IX: Performance Maneuvers

Task A: Steep Turns
Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM
Objectives:
To develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and control techniques while
executing a high performance turn
Procedure:
1. Perform clearing turns and make a traffic call

2. Establish specific heading (into the wind)and altitude (no lower than 1,500 feet AGL)
3. Roll into a 50 bank to the left while maintaining altitude with necessary back pressure; keep the
plane coordinated with using aileron and rudder and add power to maintain airspeed as
necessary
4. Complete the 360 turn to the left (lead your roll out by half your bank angle, 25)
5. Decrease throttle and back pressure as you roll out to counter the increased performance and
ballooning tendency, as lift increases
6. Roll into a turn to the right at 50 of bank while maintaining altitude with necessary back pressure;
keep the plane coordinated with using aileron and rudder and add power to maintain airspeed
as necessary
7. Complete the 360 turn to the right (lead your roll out by half your bank angle, 25)
8. Decrease throttle and back pressure as you roll out to counter the increased performance and
ballooning tendency, as lift increases
9. Use the horizon and glare shield/cowling to maintain pitch attitude
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to steep turns
b) Establishes the manufacturers recommended airspeed or if one is not stated a safe airspeed not to
exceed VA
c) Rolls into a coordinated 360 steep turn with at least a 50 bank, followed by a 360 steep turn in the
opposite direction
d) divides attention between airplane control and orientation
e) maintains the entry altitude, 100 feet, airspeed 10 knots, bank 5 and rolls out on the entry
heading 10
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CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:
a) Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Increasing pitch attitude before establishing bank angle with resulting gain in altitude
Not releasing back pressure in recovery with resulting gain in altitude
Not enough or too much bank
Not use of power to assist in maintaining altitude
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls. Slipping or skidding through maneuver; a skid is common in
turns to the right
c) Inappropriate control applications not making the necessary minor adjustments in altitude and bank
throughout maneuver resulting in the need for major adjustments
d) Improper technique in correcting altitude deviations not reducing bank angle first before increasing
back pressure when trying to correct for loss of altitude
e) Loss of Orientation the initial heading from which the maneuver began is forgotten and/or the
reference point can no longer be found
f) Excessive deviation from desired heading during rollout
Not Planning for rollout
Not leading the heading to be rolled out on by half the amount of bank in degrees
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CFI Notebook
Steep Turn
Objective: To complete two-360 degree turns with 45-50 degrees of bank while maintaining altitude
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: AS REQD
3. Prop: 2300 RPM
4. Man Press: 16" - 17"
5. Airspeed: 95kts
6. Heading: CHECK with prominent landmark
7. Enter a 360 degree turn using at least 50 degrees of bank
8. Rollout on entry heading
9. Immediately repeat in opposite direction
10. Return to straight-and-level cruise flight
106
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Altitude: 100ft
Heading: 10
Bank: 50o, 5o
Airspeed: 10kts
CFI Notebook


Objectives:
To improve pilot techniques for power off turns, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and division of
attention. It is most practical application is providing a procedure for dissipating altitude while
remaining over a selected spot in preparation for landing, especially for emergency forced landings.
Procedure:

2. Select an altitude that will allow you to complete at least three 360 turns
3. Select a suitable point over which you will perform the maneuver
4. Enter the maneuver on the downwind
5. Initial turn should be the steepest gradually shallowing out bank, bank angle is not to exceed 60
6. Adjust turns as necessary to remain over the point
7. On each upwind the engine is allowed on clearing burst (advance the throttle and then retard the
throttle)
8. Exit the maneuver after 3 complete turns have been completed, and return to straight and level flight
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to a steep spiral
b) Selects an altitude sufficient to continue through a series of at least three 360 turns
c) Selects a suitable ground reference point
d) Enters the maneuver on a downwind heading
e) Applies wind drift correction to track a constant radius circle around selected reference point wit
h bank not to exceed 60 at the steepest point in turn
f) Divides attention between airplane control and ground track, while maintaining coordinated flight
g) maintains the specified airspeed, 10 knots, rolls out toward object or specified heading 10.
a) Improper pitch, bank and power coordination during entry or completion not establishing
appropriate pitch, airspeed, and power setting for glide; exceeding 60 of bank during turns; not clearing
engine during maneuver
b) uncoordinated use of flight controls inadvertently slipping or skidding the airplane during turns
c) Improper Planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius not maintaining
constant airspeed as bank is increased and decreased in turns; not recognizing and correcting for wind
drift. Failure to hold airspeed constant will cause the radius of turn and necessary angle of bank to vary
excessively
d) failure to stay oriented to the number of turns and the rollout heading not remaining aware of
number of turns prior to 1,000 feet, or rollout to define object or specified heading
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CFI Notebook
Steep Spiral
Objective: To make a constant radius gliding turn around a selected ground reference.
1. Climb to 5000 AGL
2. Clear Area
PTS Standards
3. Begin maneuver on UPWIND
Commercial:
Select altitude that allows for three 360o turns
5. Mixture: AS REQD
Maintain coordinated flight and constant radius turn
6. Prop: 2400 RPM
Divide attention between airplane, control, track
7. Abeam reference point:
Airspeed: 10kts
-Throttle: IDLE
Heading: 10o
-Enter gliding turn at 70kts
-Do not exceed 60 degree bank
8. Correct for wind drift by steeping bank downwind or shallowing the bank upwind
9. Make three 360 degree constant radius turns around the selected reference point
10. Clear engine on each upwind leg
11. Maintain Vglide
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CFI Notebook

Task C: Chandelles
Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081-1 2

Objectives:
To develop the pilots coordination, orientation, planning, feel for maximum performance flight, and
positive control techniques at varying airspeeds and attitudes.
Procedure:

2. Establish proper heading and altitude (no lower than 1,500ft. AGL with the wind 90o to your left)
3. Select a 90o reference point
4. Establish a 30o bank turn to the left, apply full power, and smoothly apply back pressure to increase
pitch attitude at a constant rate and attain highest pitch attitude as 90o of the turn has been completed
5. When the turn progresses through 90o from the original heading begin rolling out bank at a constant
rate while maintaining pitch attitude
6. As wings become level at the 180o point the pitch attitude should be held momentarily to maintain
altitude
7. Gradually lower the nose as airspeed builds, and maintain altitude
8. Once the airplane has built enough speed repeat the maneuver to the opposite direction
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to chandelles
b) Selects as altitude that will allow the maneuver to be performed no lower than 1,500 AGL
c) Establishes the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed
d) Establishes the angle of bank at approximately 30o
e) Simultaneously applies full power and pitch to maintain a smooth coordinated climbing turn to the
90o point with a constant bank
f) Begins a coordinated constant rate rollout from the 90o point to the 180o point maintaining power
and a constant pitch attitude
g) Completes rollout at the 180o point, 10. Maintains airspeed just
above stall airspeed, and maintaining the airspeed momentarily avoiding a stall
h) Resumes straight and level flight with minimum loss of altitude
a) Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Initial pitch up attitude to quick resulting in the aircraft approaching stall speed before 180 of
direction change has occurred
Initial pitch up attitude too slow resulting in completion of maneuver at an airspeed well above
the stall speed
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CFI Notebook
Initial bank angle exceeded resulting in completion of maneuver at an airspeed well above the
stall speed
Initail bank angle too shallow resulting in the aircraft approaching stall speed before 180 of
direction change has occurred
Failure to add full power at the start of maneuver
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls not using enough rudder to compensate for torque effect
c) Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
d) Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
Not maintaining appropriate bank angles during the maneuver
Not maintaining appropriate pitch attitudes during the maneuver
Not planning ahead
e) A stall during the maneuver
Usually occurs in the last 90 of the turn due to poor planning
At the completion of the maneuver the airspeed should be just above the stall speed
f) Excessive deviation from desired heading during the completion allowing the heading to drift due to
lack of torque correction
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CFI Notebook
Chandelle
Objective: To develop pilot's coordination, orientation, planning, and feel for maximum performance flight
and develop positive control techniques at varying airspeeds and altitudes.
Note: Maneuver must be conducted above 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Miture: AS REQD
4. Prop: 2300 RPM
5. Man Press: 14" - 16"
6. Airspeed: 90kts
7. Select prominent reference points
8. Roll into 30 degree bank
9. Simultaneously:
-Maintainbank angle
-Begin increasing pitch
-Increase power to climb power
10. At 90 degree point:
-Maintain pitch
-Begin roll out
11. At 180 degree point:
-Complete roll out
-Maintain pitch
-Airspeed: Just above stall
12. Establish straight-and-level cruise flight
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Airspeed: just above stall
Altitude: Minimum loss during recovery
Heading: 10o at the 180o point
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CFI Notebook

Task B: Lazy Eights

Objectives:
To develop the pilots feel for varying control forces, and the ability to plan and remain oriented while
maneuvering the airplane with positive, accurate control.
Procedure:
1. Perform clearing turns and a traffic call

2. Establish specific heading and altitude (no lower than 1,500 AGL)
3. Pick a prominent reference point and plan to perform the maneuver into the wind (left) to prevent
drift from the training area. The reference point should be at 45o, 90o and 135o.
4. Establish maneuvering speed or manufacturers recommended speed
5. Start the maneuver from level flight with a gradual climbing turn toward reference points
6. At 45o point: maximum pitch up, bank 15o
7. At 90o point: bank 30o, minimum airspeed, maximum altitude, level pitch attitude
8. 135o point: maximum pitch down, bank 15o
9. 180o point: level flight entry, entry airspeed, altitude same as entry altitude
10. Perform the maneuver back to the other direction
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to lazy eights
b) Selects an altitude that will allow the task to be performed no lower than 1,500 AGL
c) Establishes the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed.
d) Maintains coordinated flight through the maneuver
e) Achieves the following throughout the maneuver
Approximately 30o at the steepest point
Constant change of pitch and roll rate
Altitude tolerance at 180o points, 10 feet from entry altitude
Airspeed tolerance at 180o point, 10 knots from entry airspeed
Heading tolerance at the 180o point, 10o
f) continues the maneuver though the number of symmetrical loops specified and resumes straight and
level flight
a) Poor selection of reference points
Not selecting a reference point that is readily seen
Picking a reference point that is too close
b) Uncoordinated use of flight controls
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CFI Notebook
Due to decreased airspeed, considerable right rudder pressure must be gradually applied to
counteract torque at the top of the eight in both right and left turns
More right rudder pressure will be required during the climbing turn to the right than to the left
because more torque correction is needed to prevent yaw from decreasing the rate of turn
In the left climbing turn the torque will tend to contribute to the turn consequently less rudder
pressure is needed
c) Non symmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
Initial pitch attitude too quickly in the climbing turn resulting in the airplane stalling before
reaching the 90o point
Initial pitch attitude too slow in the climbing turn resulting in the airplane reaching the 90o point
without attaining the minimum airspeed
Initial bank angle excessive resulting in the airplane reaching the 90o point before minimum
airspeed is reached
Allowing the pitch attitude in the last 90o of turn to become excessively low resulting in
exceeding the initial entry airspeed and/or altitude
d) Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points not planning ahead
e) Loss of orientation
Poorly selected reference point not readily seen
Student not looking outside enough; poor division of attention
f) Excessive deviation from reference points not planning ahead
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CFI Notebook
Lazy Eight
Objective: To develop pilot's feel for varying control forces, and the ability to plan and remain oriented while
maneuvering the airplane with positive, accurate control.
NOTE: Maneuver must be conducted above 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Mixture: AS REQD
4. Prop: 2400 RPM
5. Man Press: 14" - 16"
6. Airspeed: 90kts
7. Select prominent reference points
8. Begin gradual climbing turn to reach max putch attitude at 45 degree point with approx 15 degrees bank
9. At the 45 degree point:
-Max pitch, beginning to decrease
-Bank 15 degrees, continuing to increase
PTS Standards
-Pitch attitude passing level flight
Commercial:
-Maximum bank (approx 30 degrees) and decreasing
At 180o points:
Airspeed: 10kts
-Lowest pitch attitude, beginning to increase
Altitude: 100ft
-Bank (approx 15 degrees) continuing to decrease
Heading: 10o
Constant change of pitch and roll
-Straight-and-level
-Airspeed and altitude same as entry
13. Repeat in opposite direction.
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CFI Notebook
Area of Operations X
Ground Reference Maneuvers

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113
116
119
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CFI Notebook
AOO X: Ground Reference Maneuvers

Objectives:
Develop division of attention between the flight path and ground references, while controlling the
airplane at low altitudes and watching for aircraft in the vicinity. To develop recognition of drift toward
or away from a line parallel to the intended ground track.
Procedure:

2. Establish an altitude 600 to 1,000 feet AGL (500 feet above obstructions)
3. Select a square or rectangular field, the sides of which are approximately 1 mile in length
4. Enter a left or right pattern, 45 to the downwind leg, at an appropriate distance (approximately
mile) from field boundaries. Maneuver as necessary to maintain a uniform distance from field
boundaries
5. the bank in each of the turns should be adjusted to compensate for wind drift
Upwind to crosswind: shallow bank, increasing to medium, and less than 90 of turn
Crosswind to downwind: Increasing to steepest bank necessary and more than 90 of turn
Downwind to crosswind: Steepest bank necessary, decreasing to medium, and more than 90 of
turn
Crosswind to upwind: Medium bank, decreasing to shallow, and less than a 90 turn
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge of the elements related to rectangular course
b) Selects a suitable reference area
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter a left or right pattern, 600 1,000 feet AGL at an appropriate
distance from the selected reference area, 45 to the downwind leg
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction during straight and turning flight to maintain a constant
ground track around the rectangular reference area
e) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
f) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed 10knots
a) Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention:

Not planning ahead
Fixating on the field and forgetting to look for other traffic
Not selecting a proper distance from the field boundary
b) Uncoordinated flight control application:
Turns are uncoordinated due to preoccupation with the maneuver
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CFI Notebook
Not dividing attention correctly

c) Improper correction for wind drift:
Failure to recognize or not correcting wind drift
No crab on straight and level segments, which results in drifting toward or away from field
Not using correct bank angles in turns
Not turning the airplane when abeam the corners; instead the student turns the airplane when
the wingtip is abeam the corner
d) Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed. Loss or gain in altitude due to lack of division of
attention
e) Selection of a ground reference where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance. Poor planning when selecting area for maneuver
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CFI Notebook
Rectangular Course
Objective: To maintain a uniform ground track around a rectangular area using visual ground references,
correcting for wind and maintaining altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
PTS Standards
Private:
3. Props: 2200 RPM
Altitude: 100ft
4. Man Press: 17" - 20"
Airspeed: At/below VA and 10kts
5. Entry:
-45 degrees to downwind
-Approx 1/2 to 1/4 mile from reference point
-At 600 - 1000 AGL
6. Apply wind correction as necessary to maintain specified distance from field boundary
7. Begin the turn to the next leg abeam the reference point
8. Complete roll-out:
-Constant distance from reference point
-Appropriate crab and bank angles
9. Exit maneuver on the downwind
118
CFI Notebook

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-8081- 14
Objectives:
To develop the ability to compensate for wind drift during turns, orient the flightpath with ground
references, and divide the pilots attention while controlling the airplane at a relatively low altitude.
Procedure:

3. Select a straight ground reference line or road that lies 90 to the direction of the wind
4. Approach the road from the upwind side on a downwind heading and when directly over the road,
roll into the first turn which should be the steepest
5. As the airplane gradually turns back into the wind, begin to shallow the bank angle so as to arrive over
the road as the wings roll level
6. When directly over the road roll into the next turn, using a shallow bank initially (upwind), then
gradually increasing bank to the steepest (downwind)
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to S Turns
b) Selects a suitable ground reference line
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600 1,000 feet AGL, perpendicular to the selected reference line
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction to track a constant radius turn on each side of the selected
reference line
e) Reverses the direction of turn directly over the selected reference line
f) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
g) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed 10 knots.
a) Faulty entry technique
Entering upwind
Not clearing the area
Entering at an improper altitude
b) Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention:
Appropriate bank angles used too soon or too late due to lack of planning
Forgets wind direction in relation to location
Not dividing attention inside and outside equally
c) Uncoordinated flight control application. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in
uncoordinated turns
d) Improper correction for wind drift:
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CFI Notebook
Forgetting where wind is in relation to the airplane;

Not sure when to use steep and shallow bank angles
e) A non symmetrical ground track: not compensating for the wind, especially on the upwind side
f) Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in
a loss or gain in altitude
g) Selection of a ground reference line where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance not planning ahead
120
CFI Notebook
S-Turns Across a Road
Objective: To maintain a uniform S-Shaped path across a road while correcting for wind drift and
maintaing altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
3. Props: 2200 RPM
4. Man Press: 17" - 20"
5. Select a straight line on the ground (road, fence, etc) perpendicular to the wind
6. Entry:
-Downwind at a 90 degree angle to the reference line with the lateral axis perpendicular
7. Immediately begin the turn when directly over reference line
8. Adjust bank to complete 180 degree turn at 90 degree angle to the road
9. Immediately roll into a turn in the opposite direction to complete 180 degree turn on other side
PTS Standards
Private:
Altitude: 100ft
Airspeed: 10kts
121
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To develop the ability to subconsciously control the at a relatively low altitudes, dividing attention
between the flight path and ground references, and watching for other air traffic in the vicinity
Procedure:

3. Select a prominent point on the ground
4. Enter the maneuver on the downwind at a distance equal to the desired radius of turn
5. Roll into a bank when abeam reference. If any significant wind is present this will be the steepest
bank in the maneuver (highest ground speed)
6. Decrease the bank angle as the aircraft turns into the wind (low ground speed
Downwind turn: Steepest bank
Downwind to crosswind: gradually decrease to medium bank
Crosswind to upwind: gradually decrease from medium to shallow bank
Upwind to crosswind: Gradually increase from shallow to medium bank
Crosswind to downwind: Increase from medium to steep bank
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to Turns around a point
b) Selects a suitable ground reference point
c) Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600 1,000 feet AGL, at an appropriate distance from the
reference point
d) Applies adequate wind drift correction to track a constant radius turn around the selected reference
point
e) Divides attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight
f) Maintains altitude, 100 feet; maintains airspeed, 10 knots

Entering upwind
Not clearing the area
Entering at an improper altitude
Not using the steepest bank on initial turn from downwind
122
CFI Notebook
Appropriate bank angles used too soon or too late due to lack of planning
Forgets wind direction in relation to location
c) Uncoordinated flight control application. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in
uncoordinated turns
d) Improper correction for wind drift:
Forgetting where wind is in relation to the airplane;
Not sure when to use steep and shallow bank angles
e) Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed. Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting
in a loss or gain in altitude/airspeed
f) Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance not planning ahead
123
CFI Notebook
Turns Around a Point
Objective: To maintain a uniform circular ground track around a point while correcting for wind drift
and maintaining altitude.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Altitude: 600 - 1000 AGL
PTS Standards
Private:
4. Props: 2200 RPM
Altitude: 100ft
5. Man Press: 17" - 20"
Airspeed: At/below VA and 10kts
6. Entry:
-Downwind, 1/2 to 1/4 mile away from reference point
7. Begin turn when directly abeam the point
8. Adjust bank angle to maintian constant radius around the reference point
9. Complete two full turns
124
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To develop the ability to maneuver the airplane while dividing attention between the flight path and
maintaining a pivotal position on selected pylons on the ground
Procedure:

2. Establish an approximate pivotal altitude
3. Select 2 points on the ground along a line that lies 90o to the wind. The points should be prominent
and adequately spaced to provide planning for the turns (approximately 3 5 seconds straight and level
flight)
4. Begin the maneuver by flying diagonally crosswind between the pylons to a point downwind from the
first pylon so that the first turn can be made into the wind
5. As the airplane approaches the pylon a turn should be started by lowering the wing to place the
pilots line of sight reference on the pylon
6. As the airplane heads into the wind the groundspeed decreases, and consequently, the pivotal
altitude is lower and the airplane must descend to hold the reference line on the pylon
7. As the turn progresses on the upwind side of the pylon, the wind becomes more of a crosswind and
drifts the airplane closer to the pylon. Since a constant distance is not required no correction should be
applied
8. With the airplane drifting closer to the pylon, the angle of bank must be increased to hold the
reference line on the pylon
9. If the reference line appears to move ahead of the pylon the pilot should increase altitude
10. As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading, the rollout from the turn should be started to
allow the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on the downwind side of the second pylon
11. The rollout must be completed in proper crab angle to correct for wind drift so that the airplane will
arrive at a point downwind from the second pylon
12. Upon reaching second pylon a turn in the opposite direction by lowering the upwind wing to again
place the pilots line of sight reference on the pylon
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to eights on pylons
b) Determines the approximate pivotal altitude
c) Selects suitable pylons that will permit straight and level flight between pylons
d) Enters the maneuver at the appropriate altitude and airspeed and at a bank angle of approximately
30o to 40o at the steepest point
e) Applies the necessary corrections so that the line of sight reference line remain on the pylon
125
CFI Notebook
f) divides attention between accurate coordination airplane control and outside references
g) Holds pylon using appropriate pivotal altitude avoiding slips and skids
Common
Errors:

Poor pylon selection
Not entering by flying diagonally crosswind between pylons
Not clearing the area; not entering at pivotal altitude
Not planning for changes in groundspeed
Losing the pylon
Forgetting wind direction in relation to location
c) Uncoordinated flight control application
Attempting to hold a pylon by use of rudder
Not dividing attention inside and outside resulting in uncoordinated turns
d) Use of an improper line of sight reference; not using a line of sight reference parallel to lateral axis of
the airplane
e) Application of rudder alone to maintain the line of sight on pylon:
When reference line moves ahead of pylon, the pilot will tend to press the inside rudder to yaw
the wing backwards
When the reference line moves behind the pylon, the pilot will press the outside rudder to yaw
the wing forward
f) Improper timing of turn entries and rollouts:
Rolling in too soon or rolling out too late
Rolling in should be started just before the reference line reaches the pylon
The rollout should be started to allow the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on the
downwind side of the second pylon
g) Improper correction for wind drift between pylons not compensating for wind drift between pylons.
The distance from the second pylon will not equal the distance from the first pylon
h) Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance not
planning ahead
126
CFI Notebook
Eights on Pylons
Objective: To maneuver the aircraft about pylons,

maintaining pivotal altitude, while dividing
attention between aircraft and pylons.
Sequence:
1. Clear Area
2. Determine pivotal altitude
-30 degree bank, 500fpm descent
3. Select pylons perp. to wind, 1/2-3/4 miles apart
5. Mixture: AS REQD
6. Prop: 2300 RPM
7. Man Press: 14" - 16"
8. Entry:
-45 degree angle midway between points
9. Pylon just ahead of line of sight:
-Bank to maintain ref line (30-40 steepest)
-Pitch to maintain pivotal altitude
10. Roll out of turn midway between pylons
11. Fly straight-and-level to next pylon
12. Repeat for second pylon
13. Exit on downwind
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Altitude: 100ft
Airspeed: 10kts
127
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations XI
Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

Task G: Spins
128
123
125
128
131
133
135
137
140
CFI Notebook
AOO XI: Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-808 1-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM
Objectives:
to develop the pilots sense of feel and ability to use the controls correctly, and to improve proficiency in
performing maneuvers in which very low airspeeds are required. Pilots must develop this awareness in
order to avoid stalls in airplanes they may fly at slower airspeeds such as in takeoff, climb, and landing
approach.
Procedure:
1. Establish a specific heading no lower than 1,500 feet AGL

3. Reduce power from cruise to slow the airplane to gear extension and flap operating range
4. Extend the landing gear, extend flaps to 40o; when extending gear the plane will want to pitch down
so back pressure is needed, when adding flaps in quick succession the plane will want to pitch up do
apply forward pressure to keep the plane in level flight
5. Pitch the airplane for the desired airspeed by applying back pressure, use power to control altitude,
an increase in throttle will be needed
6. Cross check heading indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, and outside
references to ensure accurate control of the airplane
7. Right rudder as needed for left turning tendencies
8. Complete right and left turns, climbs, and descents. Turns should be standard rate.
Recovery:
1. Apply full power, and apply forward pressure to keep the nose from pitching up
2. Reduce flaps 10o at a time
3. Maintain heading and altitude
4. Accelerate at altitude and retract landing gear and any remaining flaps
5. Retrim the airplane
Standards:
a) shows knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering during slow flight

b) Selects proper entry altitude
c) Establishes and maintains an airspeed at which any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load
factor, or reduction in power, would result in an immediate stall
d) Accomplishes coordinated straight and level flight, turns, climbs, and descents with landing gear and
flap configurations specified by the examiner
e) Divides attention between airplane control and orientation
f) maintains specified altitude, 50 ft, specified heading 10o, airspeed +5/ 0 knots, and specified angle
of bank 5o.
Common
Errors:
a) failure to establish specific gear and flap configuration

b) Improper entry technique
Difficulty in transition from cruise flight to slow flight
Not increasing back pressure as power is reduced
Increasing back pressure too quickly when power is reduced
As airspeed slows, failure to apply pitch and power to control airspeed and altitude
c) Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed not applying correct pitch and power
settings as required; airspeed is usually too high
d) Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are specified
Not dividing attention as necessary
Not cross checking instruments and applying necessary control application
e) Rough or uncoordinated control technique over controlling the aircraft
f) Improper correction for torque effect not recognizing and compensating for torque effect
g) Improper trim technique not trimming aircraft as necessary
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CFI Notebook
h) Unintentional stalls
Not recognizing imminent stall conditions
Over controlling the aircraft resulting in a stall
i)
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle. Not keeping hand on throttle during maneuver
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Objective: To demonstrate ability to fly at minimum controllable airspeed while maintaining heading,
altitude, and coordination.
NOTE: Maneuver must be performed at an altitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1500 AGL
Sequence:
1. Cow Flaps: AS REQD
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing turns:
-First turn: Gear Down, 3 GREEN
-Second turn: FLAPS DOWN
-Establish airspeed at which any increase in pitch or reduction in power would result in stall
6. Prop: 2300 RPM
7: Pitch for airspeed, Power for altitude
8: Max bank: 20 degrees
PTS Standards
Recovery
Private:
1. Throttle: FULL
Altitude: 100ft
2. Pitch: Adjust to maintain airspeed
Heading:
10o
3. Carb Heat: OFF
Airspeed: -0kts, +10kts
4. Flaps 30: Maintain Altitude
Bank:
10o
5. 64 kts: Flaps 20
Commercial:
6. Landing Gear: RETRACT
Altitude: 50ft
7. 70 kts: Flaps UP
Heading: 10o
Airspeed: +5kts, -0kts
Bank: 5o
130
CFI Notebook

Reference: AC 61-67; FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-S-808 1-12, FAA-S-8081-14; POH/AFM
Objectives:
To familiarize pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to assist in recognizing a takeoff and
departure stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action
Procedure:
1. Perform traffic call and clearing turns

2. Establish a specific heading and altitude (recovery by 1,500 feet AGL)
3. Establish departure configuration
4. Slow the airplane to departure speed. Reduce power and slowly apply back pressure to maintain
altitude
5. Once at rotation speed, apply full back pressure until it is obviously impossible for the airplane to
maintain and help at that attitude until full stall occurs
Recovery:
1. Immediately reduce pitch attitude

2. Control yawing tendency with rudders
3. Ensure wings are level
4. Establish a positive rate of climb
5. Clean the airplane if necessary
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge related to power on stalls
b) Selects an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than 1,500ft. AGL
c) Establishes takeoff and departure configuration
d) Transitions smoothly from takeoff or departure attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a stall
e) Maintains specified heading 5 (10 for private) in straight and level flight, maintains a specified
angle of bank, not to exceed a 20, 10, in turning flight while inducing the stall
f) Recognizes and recovers promptly as the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack,
increasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straight and level flight
attitude, with a minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the plane
g) Returns to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the examiner
a) Failure to establish the specified configuration prior to entry

b) Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical takeoff and departure airspeed
131
CFI Notebook
Increasing the pitch attitude too much, too quickly, resulting in an excessively steep nose up
attitude and un unrealistic situation
c) Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical takeoff and departure airspeed
attitude and an unrealistic situation
Not maintaining the specified bank angle
d) Rough or uncoordinated control technique
Not using rudder to assist in maintaining initial directional control
All aileron and no rudder will only aggravate the situation, especially before the wings have had
time to regain sufficient airflow
e) Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall not recognizing initial buffeting and control
ineffectiveness
f) Failure to achieve a stall. Not increasing pitch attitude high enough to induce a stall or initiating
recovery before stall occurs
g) Improper torque correction not correcting for torque with right rudder
h) Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery not reducing back pressure after stall has occurred
i) Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery pitch attitude is reduced to an excessive
nose down attitude or is maintained in a nose down attitude longer than necessary
j) Secondary stall during recovery student hastens recovery by increasing pitch attitude too quickly
132
CFI Notebook
Power-On Stall
Objective: To recognize the indications of a stall with full power, in takeoff configuration and proceed
with prompt, accurate recovery with minimum loss of altitude.
NOTE: Maneuver must be completed no lower than 1500 AGL
Sequence:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 12"
5. Clearing Turns
6. Establish Takeoff Configuration
-Airspeed: 50kts
-Man Press: 20" (65 percent power)
-Carb Heat: OFF
7. Throttle: FULL
8 Carb Heat: OFF
9. Bank: 0-20 degrees
10: Pitch:
-Increase to nose-high attitude (10-20 degrees)
-Maintain attitude until stall occurs
Recovery:
1. Pitch: DECREASE to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Pitch for positive rate
133
PTS Standards
Private:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 0o-20o, 10o
Level Off
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 20o, 10o
Resume Climb
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To familiarize pilot with the conditions that produce stalls, to assist in recognizing a approach and
landing stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt preventive or corrective action
Procedure:

3. Reduce power and extend landing gear once the appropriate speed has been reached
4. Once within the white arc, begin extending flaps. If flaps are added quickly forward pressure may be
required to prevent excessive altitude from being gained.
5. As airplane slows additional back pressure will be needed to maintain altitude
6. Establish a 500 fpm descent and reduce power to idle
7. smoothly bring nose up until stall occurs
Recovery:
1. Immediately reduce pitch attitude

2. Apply full power and retract one notch of flaps
3. Ensure wings are level and add rudder for torque correction
4. Establish a positive rate of climb
5. Retract flaps incrementally and landing gear
6. return to cruise flight
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Shows knowledge related to power off stalls
b) Selects an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than 1,500ft. AGL
c) Establishes a stabilized descent in approach or landing configuration, as specified by the examiner
d) Transitions smoothly from approach or landing attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a stall
e) Maintains a specified heading, 10 in straight and level flight; maintains a specified angle of bank,
not to exceed 20, 5, in turning flight while inducing the stall. (Private standards are 10 from the
specified heading, bank not exceeded by more than 20, and 10 in turning flight)
f) Recognizes and recovers promptly as the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack,
increasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straight and level flight
attitude with minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane
g) Retracts the flaps to the recommended setting, retracts the landing gear if retractable after a positive
rate of climb is established
h) Accelerates to VX or VY speed before final flap retraction, returns to the altitude and airspeed
specified by the examiner
134
CFI Notebook
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
b) Improper pitch, heading, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical approach and landing airspeed
attitude and un unrealistic situation
Not maintaining the specified bank angle
c) Rough or uncoordinated control technique
Not using rudder to assist in maintaining initial directional control
All Aileron and no rudder will only aggravate the situation, especially before the wings have had
time to regain sufficient airflow
d) Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall not recognizing initial buffeting and control
ineffectiveness
e) Failure to achieve a stall. Not increasing pitch attitude high enough to induce a stall or initiating
recovery before stall occurs
f) Improper torque correction not correcting for torque with right rudder
g) Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery not reducing back pressure after stall has occurred
h) Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery pitch attitude is reduced to an
excessive nose down attitude or is maintained in a nose down attitude longer than necessary
i) Secondary stall during recovery student hastens recovery by increasing pitch attitude too quickly
135
CFI Notebook
Power-Off Stall
Objective: To recognize the indication of a stall in landing configuration and proceed with prompt,
accurate recovery with minimum loss of altitude.
Sequence:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
-First Turn: GEAR DOWN, 3 GREEN
-Second Turn: FLAPS DOWN
6. Prop: FULL (Below 90kts)
7. Trim for approach speed (70kts)
8. Man Press: IDLE
9. Establish stabilized descent
10. Pitch:
-Increase to approx 5-15 degrees to induce stall
Recovery:
1. Pitch: decrease to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
5. 64kts: Flaps 20
6. Landing Gear: UP
7. 70kts: Flaps UP
136
PTS Standards
Private:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 10o
Level Off
Commercial:
Heading: 10o
Bank: 5o
Initiate go-around
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
Show the effect of improper control technique and emphasizes the importance of using coordinated
control pressures while making turns
Procedure:

3. Reduce power and lower landing gear
4. maintain altitude until airspeed approaches best glide
5. Roll into a medium banked turn
6. use excessive rudder pressure opposite the turn, while holding bank constant
7. increase back pressure until the aircraft stalls
Recovery:
1. Release control pressures and apply full power

2. Ensure wings are level and add rudder for torque correction
3. Establish a positive rate of climb, and retract landing gear
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of crossed control stalls, with landing
gear extended, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of crossed control stalls
b) Effects of crossed controls in gliding or reduced airspeed descending turns
c) Flight situations where unintentional crossed control stalls may occur
d) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude
e) Recognition of crossed control stalls
f) Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
b) Failure to establish a cross control turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the
hazards of a cross controlled stall
Not reducing power initially to slow the airplane to a typical approach airspeed
Not increasing crossed control pressures enough to induce a stall
Not increasing back elevator pressure enough to induce a stall
137
CFI Notebook
c) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a cross controlled
stall
d) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of a crossed
control condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition. Not explaining the what, why, and how
of crossed control stalls adequately
Objective: To show the effect of improper control technique and to emphasize the importance of
using coordinated control pressures when making turns.
Sequence:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
6. Prop: FULL
7. Trip for approach speed (70kts)
8. Throttle: IDLE
9. Altitude: MAINTAIN
10. Airspeed: 65kts (Vglide)
11. Bank: 30 degrees
12. Apply excessive rudder in direction of the turn
13. Aileron: as necessary to maintian bank angle
14. Elevator: increase back pressure until stall occurs
Recovery
1. Release all control pressures, pitch down
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Landing Gear: UP
138
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
Min loss of altitude
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
Show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, and
maintaining positive control of the airplane to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and timely
trim techniques
Procedure:

3. Reduce power, lower landing gear, and add flaps
4. Close throttle
5. Hold altitude until you reach your normal glide speed
6. Trim the airplane as if to land
7. Advance throttle to full. This will make the pitch attitude go up, and the plane yaw to the left.
Recovery:
1. When Stall is imminent, forward pressure must be applied and return the airplane to normal climbing
attitude
2. Adjust trim
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of elevator trim stalls, with landing gear
extended, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of elevator trim stalls
b) Hazards of inadequate control pressures to compensate for thrust, torque, and up elevator trim
during go around and other related maneuvers
c) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude
d) Recognition of elevator trim stalls
e) Importance of recovering from an elevator trim stall immediately upon recognition
Common
Errors:
a) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up elevator trim during go around and other maneuvers. Not explaining the
what, why, and how of elevator trim stalls adequately
b) Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
c) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from an elevator trim stall
Not allowing the pitch attitude to increase above the normal climbing attitude
139
CFI Notebook
Elevator Trim Stall
Objective: To show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcome strong trim
forces, maintain positive control of the airplane, maintain safe flight altitudes, and use proper
and timely trim techniques
Sequence:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
3. Carb Heat: ON
4. Man Press: 15"
5. Clearing Turns:
-Second Turn: Flaps FULL
6. Prop: FULL (Below 90kts)
7. Trip for approach speed (65kts)
8. Throttle: FULL
9. Carb Heat: OFF
10. No control inputs
Recovery
1. Pitch: decrease to normal climb attitude
2. Trim for climb
3. Immediately: Flaps 30
4. 64kts: Flaps 20
5. Landing Gear: UP
6. 70kts: Flaps UP
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
Imminent stall, min loss of altitude
140
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To aid the pilot in avoiding secondary stalls
Procedure:
Secondary Stalls can be demonstrated during the recovery phase of any the basic stalls. The secondary
stall can be induced by simply pulling the nose up more rapidly than necessary during the recovery from
a full stall.
Recovery:
Lower the nose, and reestablish a positive rate of climb
Schedule:
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
Common
Errors:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
The applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of secondary stalls, in selected flap and
landing gear configuration, by describing the:
a) Aerodynamics of secondary stalls
b) Flight situations where secondary stalls may occur
c) Hazards of secondary stalls during normal stall or spin recovery
e) Recognition of secondary stalls
a) Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry

b) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary stall.
Not applying sufficient back pressure to induce secondary stall
c) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from a primary stall. Not explaining the what, why, and how of secondary
stalls adequately
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CFI Notebook
Secondary Stall
Objective: To demonstrate improper stall recovery technique and show importance of reducing angle of
attack by lowering pitch attitude and regaining proper airspeed upon recovery.
Sequence:
1. Clearing Turns
2. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
3. Mixture: AS REQD
4. Carb Heat: ON
5. Man Press: 15"
6. Clearing Turns:
-Second Turn: Flaps FULL
7. Prop: FULL
8. Throttle: IDLE
9. Establish stable descent at 70kts
10. Increase pitch until aircraft stalls
1st Recovery
1. Release all control pressures
2. Throttle: FULL POWER
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Continue increasing pitch until 2nd stall
2nd Recovery
1. Pitch down to break stall
2. Throttle: FULL
3. Carb Heat: OFF
4. Flaps: UP
5. Landing Gear: UP
PTS Standards
Commercial:
Heading: 5o
Bank: 10o
142
CFI Notebook

Task G: Spins
Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, POH/AFM
Objectives:
Learn the cause of a spin and the proper techniques to prevent and/or recover from the spin, mental
anxiety, and many causes of unintentional spins may be removed.
Procedure:

2. Establish appropriate altitude; recommended minimum altitude for recovery 3,500 feet AGL
3. Configure airplane for a power off stall (no flaps)
4. as airplane approaches stall, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of the desired spin rotation
and continue to apply back elevator to limit the travel. Ailerons should be neutral
5. Maintain full rudder deflection and elevator back pressure throughout the spin
6. Allow the spin to develop (approximately 2 3 rotations)
Recovery:
1. Close throttle
2. Neutralize ailerons
3. Apply full opposite rudder
4. Briskly move the elevator forward to approximately the neutral position
5. Once stall is broken the spinning will stop. Neutralize the rudder when spinning stops
6. When rudder is neutralized, gradually apply enough aft elevator pressure to return to level flight
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Standards:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of spins by describing the:
a) Anxiety factors associated with spin instruction
b) Aerodynamics of spins
c) Airplanes approved for the spin maneuver based on airworthiness category and type certificate
d) Relationship of various factors such as configuration, weight, center of gravity, and control
coordination to spins
e) Flight situations where unintentional spins may occur
f) How to recognize and recover from imminent, unintentional spins
g) Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude for intentional spins
h) Control procedure to maintain a stabilized spin
i) Orientation during a spin
j) Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude for intentional spins
Common
143
CFI Notebook
Errors:
a) Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry. For establishing configuration
recommended by manufacturer for intentional spins
b) Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry. Not maintaining elevator back pressure
after entering the spin resulting in a steep spiral
c) Failure to close throttle when a spin is achieved. Not closing throttle resulting in excessive loss of
altitude
d) Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin. Uncoordinated flight
combined with a fully stalled condition and use of incorrect aileron and rudder application for recovery
are contributing factors to unintentional spins
e) Improper use of flight controls during entry, rotation or recovery
During entry not applying full rudder in direction of spin
During rotation not applying full elevator back pressure, full rudder and neutralized ailerons
During recovery, not applying full opposite rudder to stop rotation
Not applying sufficient forward elevator to break the stalled condition
Not using coordinated flight controls during recovery
f) Disorientation during a spin. Loss of orientation with the outside reference point used to determine
the number of rotations
g) Failure to distinguish between a high speed spiral and a spin. Not recognizing a high airspeed
(increasing), high rate of descent (increasing), steep spiral condition; the nose of aircraft will not be as
low in a steep spiral
h) Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
After spin recovery, being too cautious in pulling out of dive resulting in excessive airspeed
Applying too much back pressure when recovering, resulting in secondary stall
i) Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
Not using correct recovery procedures
Hesitation in applying necessary control applications
j) Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins assuming all airplanes are
capable of recovery from intentional spins
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CFI Notebook
Spins
Sequence:
1. Power: IDLE
2. Ailerons: NEUTRAL
3. Rudder: OPPOSITE direction of rotation
4. Elevator: FORWARD
5. Hold control inputs until rotation stops
6. As rotation stops, neutralize rudder and make a smooth recovery from the resulting dive
145
CFI Notebook

Objectives:
To aid the pilot in recognizing and avoiding accelerated maneuver stalls
Procedure:
1. Perform clearing turns and traffic call

2. Establish specific heading and altitude (recovery by 1,500 feet AGL)
3. From straight and level flight at maneuvering speed or less, the airplane should be rolled into a steep
level flight turn and back elevator pressure gradually applied
4. After the turn and bank are established, back elevator pressure should be smoothly and steadily
increased. The resulting apparent centrifugal force will push the pilots body down in the seat, increase
the wing loading, and decrease the airspeed.
5. After the airspeed reaches the design maneuvering speed of within 20 knots above the unaccelerated
stall speed, back elevator pressure should be firmly increased until a definite stall occurs. These speed
restrictions must be observed to prevent exceeding the load limit of the airplane
6. When the airplane stalls, recovery should be made promptly, by releasing sufficient back elevator
pressure and increasing power to reduce the angle of attack
7. If an uncoordinated turn is made, one wing may tend to drop suddenly, causing the airplane to roll in
that direction. If this occurs the excessive back elevator pressure must be released, power added, and
the airplane returned to straight and level flight with coordinated control pressure
8. The pilot should recognize when the stall is imminent and take prompt action to prevent a completely
stalled condition. It is imperative that a prolonged stall, excessive airspeed, loss of altitude, or spin be
avoided.
Schedule:

Student practice
Equipment:
Instructors
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
a) Aerodynamics of Accelerated stall maneuvers

b) Flight situations where accelerated stalls may occur
c) Hazards of acelerated stalls during normal stall or spin recovery
e) Recognition of secondary stalls
a) Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
146
CFI Notebook
b) Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from an accelerated

maneuver stall
c) Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from an accelerated stall
Objective: To demonstrate that an aircraft will stall at a higher than published indicated stall speed
when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed on the aircraft.
Sequence:
PTS Standards
1. Cowl Flaps: OPEN
Commercial:
2. Mixture: AS REQD
Heading: 5o
3. Clearing Turns
Bank: 10o
4. Prop: FULL
5. Altitude: MAINTAIN
6. Airspeed: 70kts
7. Power: 1800 RPM
8. Enter 45o bank
9: Increase pitch while applying rudder into the direction of turn and aileron opposite the turn
Recovery:
1. Release all control pressures
2. Simultaneously:
-Stop turn, level wings, pitch down to break stall
-Throttle: FULL
-Carb Heat: OFF
147
CFI Notebook
Area of Operations XII

Basic Instrument Maneuvers

148
143
145
147
149
151
CFI Notebook
AOO XII: Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-S-8081-14
Objectives: Demonstrate straight-and-level flight solely by reference to instruments.

Procedure:
Schedule:

2. Establish and maintain specific heading and altitude
3. Trim to relieve control pressures
3. Maintain straight-and-level flight by solely referencing flight instruments using an
effective scanning technique.
4. Crosscheck instruments
5. Adjust for any trends and re-trim
Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Equipment: Model or toy airplane, airplane panel poster or picture, and lesson plan
Instructor'
s Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper scanning techniques, trim procedure, how
to control pitch, power, and airspeed.
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
a) Instrument cross-check, interpretation, and aircraft control.

b) Instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control, and how those instruments are used
to maintain altitude, heading, and airspeed.
c) Trim procedure
a) Fixation, omission, and emphasis errors during instrument cross check
b) Improper instrument interpretation
c) Improper control applications
d) Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or
airspeed corrections.
e) Faulty trim procedure
149
CFI Notebook
150
CFI Notebook

Objectives: Demonstrate straight and turning constant airspeed climbs solely by reference to instruments.
Procedure: 1. Perform clearing turns and make a traffic call
2. Establish an approximate attitude for the desired climb speed and set climb power
6. Level off by simultaneously reducing power and relieving elevator pressure
8. Re-trim for level flight
Schedule:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:

c) Trim procedure
151
CFI Notebook
152
CFI Notebook

Objectives: Demonstrate straight and turning constant airspeed descents solely by reference to instruments.
2. Reduce power and establish an approximate attitude for the desired

descent speed
6. Level off by simultaneously increasing power and elevator pressure
Schedule:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:

c) Trim procedure
153
CFI Notebook
154
CFI Notebook

Objectives: Demonstrate turns to specific headings solely by reference to instruments.

2. From straight-and-level flight, establish a standard rate turn

3. Adjust pitch to maintain altitude, use rudder to maintain coordination
4. Trim to relieve control pressure
6. Roll out of turn by applying coordinated rudder and aileron pressure
Schedule:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:

c) Trim procedure
155
CFI Notebook
150
Maddox
CFI Notebook

Objectives: Demonstrate proper technique to return to straight-and-level flight.

2. Establish straight-and-level flight in cruise configuration

3. Student goes heads down and puts on view-limiting device
4. Instructor maneuvers aircraft into unusual attitude
5. Student goes heads up and recovers solely referencing instruments
Nose low: power idle, wings level, pitch for level flight
Nose high: power full, apply forward pressure to prevent stall, wings level
6. Return to normal cruise flight
Schedule:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Preflight discussions explain to the student proper recovery techniques, principles of

maneuvering speed, load factors, and spin avoidance
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
a) Conditions and situations that may result in unusual flight attitudes.

b) The two basic unusual flight attitudes - nose high and nose low
c) How unusual flight attitudes are recognized
d) Control sequence for recovery from nose-low and nose-high attitude and why
e) Importance of coordination
a) Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
b) Recovering by "feel" instead of by instruments
c) Inappropriate control applications during recovery
d) Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a
level flight attitude.
151
Maddox
CFI Notebook
152
Maddox
CFI Notebook
Maddox
Area of Operations XIII

Task A: Emergency Approach and Landing

Task B: Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
Task C: Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear
153
154
155
CFI Notebook
AOO XIII: Emergency Operations

Task A: Emergency Approach and Landing (Simulated)
Objectives: Demonstrate proper planning, orientation, division of attention, control feel and
emergency procedures for a power-off approach and landing.
2. Upon recognition of emergency:

1. Choose landing area clear of obstacles, people, and other hazards
2. Pitch for best glide speed (Vglide)
3. Configure aircraft (gear down, flaps up, carb heat on)
4. Engine out checklist
5. Simulate squawk 7700 and mayday call on 121.5
6. Forced landing checklist
7. Maneuver as necessary to land on target
3. Once landing assured, go-around before 500 AGL
4. Return to cruise flight
Schedule:

Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
Preflight discussions explain to the student basics of emergency operations,

troubleshooting engine problems, how to select suitable landing areas, 500 AGL hard
deck.
a) Prompt establishment of Vglide
b) How to select suitable landing area
c) Planning and executing an approach to selected landing area
d) Use of emergency checklist
e) Troubleshooting engine problems
f) Importance of division of attention
a) Improper airspeed control
b) Selecting a bad landing area
c) Failure to correct for wind speed and direction
d) Failure to accomplish emergency checklist
e) Improper division of attention
154
Maddox
CFI Notebook
AOO XIII: Emergency Operations

Reference: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8081-12, FAA-S-8081-14, POH/AFM

Objectives: Demonstrate adequate knowledge of emergency descent procedures and
situations where an emergency descent is required.
Procedure:
Schedule:
1. Perform clearing turns and make traffic call

2. Emergency descent checklist
1. Power idle
2. Cowl flaps closed
3. Flaps and gear extended
3. Pitch for specified airspeed
4. Squawk 7700, mayday call 121.5
5. Maneuver as necessary to ensure landing at desired point
6. Recover by 500 AGL
7. Return to cruise flight
Student practice
(15 minutes)
(20 minutes)
(10 minutes)
(30 minutes)
(15 minutes)
Instructor's
Actions:
Students
Actions:
Elements
to be
covered:
Common
Errors:
Preflight discussions explain to the student basics of emergency operations,

troubleshooting engine problems, how to select suitable landing areas, 500 AGL hard
deck.
a) Situations that require an emergency descent
b) Proper use of checklists to verify before commencing descent
c) Proper clearing procedures
d) Procedures for recovering from an emergency descent
e) Manufacturer's procedures
a) Failure to identify the need for an emergency descent

b) Improper use of checklists
c) Improper clearing procedures
d) Improper recovery
155
Maddox
Area Of Operation XIV

Postflight Procedures
Task A: Postflight Procedures
AOO XIV. Postflight Procedures

Task A: Postflight Procedures (ASEL)
postflight procedures by describing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Parking Procedures
a. The pilot should park the plane in a designated parking area if available.
b. If there is no designated parking area, the airplane should be positioned away
from a movement area or anywhere where other airplanes wont be able to strike
the plane.
c. Straighten the nose-wheel before coming to a stop.
Engine Shutdown
a. Use the procedures in the checklist provided by the manufacturer in the POH.
b. Some basic important items are:
i. Parking brake Set
ii. Throttle Set to idle or 1000 rpm
iii. Magneto ground check
iv. Set propeller controls full forward
v. All electrical equipment Off
vi. Mixture Idle cut-off
vii. Magnetos Off
viii. All switches Off
ix. Set control lock
Deplaning passengers
a. Depending on the seating arrangement in the aircraft, passengers should be
briefed on exiting procedures.
Securing Aircraft
a. After everyone has exited the airplane, the pilot should secure the airplane by
doing the following:
i. Closing all doors and windows
ii. Tie down the aircraft
iii. Check fuel and oil levels
Postflight walk-around
a. The pilot should check the general condition of the aircraft after every flight and
report any discrepancies to maintenance personnel.
Appendix I
PHAK Runway Incursion Avoidance

AC 61-98B Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review
AC 61-67C Stall and Spin Awareness Training
AC 61-65E Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
AC 90-66A Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns
Appendix 1
Runway Incursion
Avoidance
Introduction
Runway safety is a significant challenge and a top priority
for everyone in aviation. In the United States, an average of
three runway incursions occur daily. Each of these incidents
have the potential to cause significant damage to both persons
and property. Runway incursions are a serious safety concern
and have involved air carrier aircraft, military aircraft, general
aviation (GA), and pedestrian vehicles. [Figure 1-1] Several
runway incursions have resulted in collisions and fatalities.
Fatalities have occurred at both towered and nontowered
airports. A few seconds of inattention can cause a runway
incursion.
1-1
Figure 1-1. Runway incursions are a top FAA safety concern that
involves pilots, air traffic control (ATC), and ground operations.
You are expected to taxi an airplane safely whether moving

to or from a runway or otherwise moving about the airport.
Scenarios such as bad weather, low visibility, construction,
airport unfamiliarity, time of day, distractions, fatigue, and
miscommunications with air traffic control (ATC) add greatly
to the challenge of surface navigation.
This chapter is designed to help you attain an understanding
of the risks associated with surface navigation and is intended
to provide you with basic information regarding the safe
operation of aircraft at towered and nontowered airports. This
chapter focuses on the following major areas:
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs)http://www.faa.gov/

pilots/flt_plan/notams
Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, part 91 and part 135,

Single-Pilot and Flight School Procedures During Taxi
Operations
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)www.faa.

gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim/
AC 120-74, parts 91, 121, 125, and 135, Flight Crew

Procedures During Taxi Operations
Runway Incursion Overview

Approximately three runway incursions occur each day at
towered airports within the United States. The potential
that these numbers present for a catastrophic accident is
unacceptable. A runway incursion is formally defined by
the FAA as any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the
incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the
protected area of a surface designated for the landing and
takeoff of aircraft. The following are examples of pilot
deviations, operational incidents (OI), and vehicle (driver)
deviations that may lead to runway incursions.
Pilot Deviations:
Crossing a runway hold marking without clearance

from ATC
Taxi route planning
Taking off without clearance
Taxi procedures
Landing without clearance
Communications
Airport signs, markings and lighting
Runway incursion overview
Each section identifies best practices to help you avoid errors

that may potentially lead to runway incursions. Although the
chapter pertains mostly to surface movements for single-pilot
operations, all of the information is relevant for flight crew
operations as well.
Additional information about surface operations is available
through the following sources:
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Runway

Safety websitewww.faa.gov/go/runwaysafety
FAA National Aeronautical Navigation Services

(AeroNav), formerly known as the National
Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)www.faa.
gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav
1-2
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)www.faa.

gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/productcatalog/
supplementalcharts/airportdirectory
Operational Incidents (OI):
Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another

aircraft is landing on the same runway
Issuing a takeoff clearance while the runway is

occupied by another aircraft or vehicle
Vehicle (Driver) Deviations:
Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC

clearance
According to FAA data, approximately 65 percent of all

runway incursions are caused by pilots. Additionally, 75
percent of the 65 percent of runway incursions are caused
by GA pilots.
Causal Factors of Runway Incursions
Detailed investigations of runway incursions over the past
10 years have identified three major areas contributing to
these events:
Failure to comply with ATC instructions
Lack of airport familiarity
Nonconformance with standard operating procedures
Clear, concise, and effective pilot/controller communication

is paramount to safe airport surface operations. You must
fully understand and comply with all ATC instructions. It is
mandatory to read back all runway hold short instructions
verbatim.
Taxiing on an unfamiliar airport can be very challenging,
especially during hours of darkness or low visibility. Ensure
you have a current airport diagram, remain heads-up with
eyes outside, and devote your entire attention to surface
navigation per ATC clearance. All checklists should be
completed while the aircraft is stopped. There is no place
for non-essential chatter or other activities while maintaining
vigilance during taxi. [Figure 1-2]
Not only can airport complexity contribute to a runway

incursion; it can also play a significant role in runway
confusion. If you are operating at an unfamiliar airport and
need assistance in executing the taxi clearance, do not hesitate
to ask ATC for help. Always carry a current airport diagram
and trace or highlight your taxi route to the departure runway
prior to leaving the ramp.
If you are operating from an airport with runway thresholds
in close proximity to one another, exercise extreme caution
when taking the runway. Figure 1-3 shows a perfect example
of a taxiway leading to a runway and a runway with a
displaced threshold. If departing on Runway 36, ensure
that you set your aircraft heading bug to 360, and align
your aircraft to the runway heading to avoid departing from
the wrong runway. Before adding power, make one last
instrument scan to ensure the aircraft heading and runway
heading are aligned.
36
Figure 1-2. Heads-up, eyes outside.
Runway Confusion
Runway confusion is a subset of runway incursions and
often results in you unintentionally taking off or landing on
a taxiway or wrong runway. Generally, you are unaware of
the mistake until after it has occurred.
In August 2006, the flight crew of a commercial regional jet
was cleared for takeoff on Runway 22 but mistakenly lined
up and departed on Runway 26, a much shorter runway. As
a result, the aircraft crashed off the end of the runway.
Causal Factors of Runway Confusion

There are three major factors that increase the risk of runway
confusion and can lead to a wrong runway departure:

Airport complexity
Close proximity of runway thresholds
Joint use of a runway as a taxiway
Figure 1-3. Relocated threshold.
1-3
Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary to

use a runway as a taxiway. For example, during airport
construction some taxiways may be closed requiring rerouting of traffic onto runways. In other cases, departing
traffic may be required to back taxi on the runway in order
to utilize the full runway length.
It is important to remain extremely cautious and maintain
situational awareness (SA). When instructed to use a runway
as a taxiway, do not become confused and take off on the
runway you are using as a taxiway.
Taxi Route Planning
NC-3, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
NC-3, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
Thorough planning is essential for safe taxi operations. Give

as much attention to planning the airport surface movement
as is given to other phases of flight. [Figure 1-4]
Figure 1-4. Taxi route planning helps to make airport surface
movement safer.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of a
temporary nature or not sufficiently known in advance
to permit publication, on aeronautical charts or in other
operational publications receives immediate dissemination
by the NOTAM system. The NOTAM information could
affect your decision to make the flight. It includes such
information as taxiway and runway closures, construction,
communications, changes in status of navigational aids, and
1-4
other information essential to planned en route, terminal, or

landing operations. Exercise good judgment and common
sense by carefully regarding the information readily available
in NOTAMs. For more detailed information on NOTAMs,
refer back to Chapter 1 of this handbook.
Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a
recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent
non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a
looped format. It is normally updated once per hour but is
updated more often when changing local conditions warrant.
Important information is broadcast on ATIS including
weather, runways in use, specific ATC procedures, and any
airport construction activity that could affect taxi planning.
When the ATIS is recorded, it is given a code. This code is
changed with every ATIS update. For example, ATIS Alpha
is replaced by ATIS Bravo. The next hour, ATIS Charlie is
recorded, followed by ATIS Delta and progresses down the
alphabet with every update starting back at Alpha after a
break in service of 12 hours or more.
Prior to calling ATC, tune to the ATIS frequency and listen to
the recorded broadcast. The broadcast ends with a statement
containing the ATIS code. For example, Advise on initial
contact, you have information Bravo. Upon contacting
the tower controller, state information Bravo was received.
This allows the tower controller to verify the pilot has the
current local weather and airport information without having
to state it all to each pilot who calls. This also clears the
tower frequency from being overtaken by the constant relay
of the same information, which would result without an
ATIS broadcast. The use of ATIS broadcasts at departure
and arrival airports is not only a sound practice but a wise
decision.
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) is a pilots manual that
provides information on airports and other aviation facilities.
The directory includes data that cannot be readily depicted
in graphic form, including airport hours, runway widths,
lighting codes, and fuel available. [Figure 1-5]
Airport Diagram
It is essential to have a current airport diagram available for
the departure airport, as well as the arrival airport for safe
operations. [Figure 1-6] In the back section of each A/FD
volume are full page airport diagrams that can help you plan
surface operations. Time should be taken to study the airport
diagram and anticipated taxi routes based on the information
provided from the ATIS and NOTAMs.
fo
5 APR 2012
eu
se
d
9 FEB 2012
Consult NOTAMs for latest information

Warning: Refer to current foreign charts and flight information publications for
information within foreign airspace
Published in accordance with specifications and agreements approved by the
Federal Aviation Administration
No
tt
ob
to 0901Z
NC-2, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
Effective 0901Z
NC-2, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
rn
av
iga
tio
n
AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY
SOUTH CENTRAL U.S.
Figure 1-6. Obtain airport diagrams from the Airport Facility

Figure 1-5. Airport Facility Directory (A/FD).
Directory (A/FD) or www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/

diagrams.
You should not take for granted that the anticipated taxi
route will be the same taxi route received from ATC, which
is why it is so important to write down and read back the taxi
clearance from ATC. Current airport diagrams are available
for download at www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/
diagrams.
Being proactive by knowing all possible taxi routes and

maintaining taxi route awareness helps mitigate runway
incursions, especially when navigating through complex
intersections, known hot spots areas, and intervening
runways.
Hot Spots
An airport hot spot is typically a complex or confusing
taxiway/taxiway or taxiway/runway intersection. This area
of increased risk has either a history of, or potential for,
runway incursions or surface incidents due to a variety of
causes including airport layout, traffic flow, airport marking,
signage, and lighting.
It is important for you to learn and understand how to safely

follow taxi procedures. This section addresses specific ATC
instructions that may be issued while taxiing and procedures
that you should follow. For more information on detailed
taxi procedures to be followed at towered airports, refer to
Chapter 4 of the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
You should pay special attention to any complex intersections

or areas designated on the airport diagram as hot spots
to reduce the risk of a runway incursion. Hot spots are
depicted on airport diagrams as open circles or polygons
designated as HS 1, HS 2, etc. [Figure 1-7] Hot spots
will remain charted on airport diagrams until the increased
risk has been reduced or eliminated.
Taxi Procedures
Situational Awareness (SA)

Situational Awareness (SA) means understanding what is
going on around you. Also, understanding is more than
just information gatheringit requires gathering the right
information, being able to analyze it, and making decisions.
1-5
HOT SPOTS
PHOENIX DEER VALLEY (DVT)
SW-4, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
Figure 1-8. When taxiing, be aware of your location as it relates

to the intended taxi route, other aircraft, and vehicles operating
on the airport.
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SW-4, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
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For information purposes only. Not an official airport diagram
Figure 1-9. Low sun angle is obscuring the runway holding position
sign and marking at a taxiway/runway intersection.
Figure 1-7. Airport diagram for Phoenix Deer Valley (DVT),
Phoenix, Arizona showing where the hot spots are located on
the airport.
SA should be used at all times when operating on an airfield.

For example, prior to brake release for taxi, minimize cockpit
tasks, observe sterile flight deck procedures, and always
practice a heads up, eyes out mode while taxiing. Remain
especially vigilant of hold short, crossing clearances,
and hot spots, if applicable. When taxiing, be aware of
your location as it relates to the intended taxi route, other
aircraft that are taxiing, and vehicles operating on the airport.
[Figure 1-8] If in doubt, stop, remain clear of the runway,
and contact ATC.
The following excerpt, taken from the A/FD, is an example
of information available to you that helps mitigate the loss of
SA: Taxiing aircraft should use caution in early morning and
late afternoon hours. Sun glare may make visual recognition
of signs and pavement markings difficult. [Figure 1-9]
1-6
Movement and Non-Movement Area Boundary

At towered airports, the airport surface area is divided into
two parts: non-movement area and movement area. The
non-movement area is defined as ramps and aprons and is
not controlled by ATC, which means you may move or taxi
the airplane without clearance or communications with the
control tower.
The movement area is defined as all taxiways and runways
and is under the jurisdiction of the control tower, so a taxi
clearance is required prior to entering into the movement
area. The boundary between the ramp and the taxiways is
called the non-movement area boundary and is defined by
two yellow lines: one solid and one dashed. [Figure 1-10]
The solid line is located on the non-movement area side while
the dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side.
Once you are ready to taxi, ATC should be contacted for taxi
instructions. After a taxi clearance is received, movement to
cross the non-movement area boundary marking and onto the
taxiway is authorized.
Read back your complete ATC clearance with your aircraft

call sign. This gives ATC the opportunity to clarify any
misunderstandings and ensure that instructions were given to
the correct aircraft. If, at any time, there is uncertainty about
any ATC instructions or clearances, ask ATC to say again
or ask for progressive taxi instructions.
ATC InstructionsHold Short

Movement area
Non-movement area
Figure 1-10. Non-movement area boundary marking.
ATC Instructions
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14CFR) part
91, section 91.123 requires you to follow all ATC clearances
and instructions. Request clarification if you are unsure of the
clearance or instruction to be followed. If you are unfamiliar
with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, ask ATC for a
progressive taxi. Progressive taxi requires the controller
to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.
The most important sign and marking on the airport is the

hold sign and hold marking. These are located on a stub
taxiway leading directly to a runway. They depict the holding
position or the location where the aircraft is to stop so as not
to enter the runway environment. [Figure 1-12] For example,
Figure 1-13 shows the holding position sign and marking for
Runway 13 and Runway 31.
The final decision to act on ATCs instruction rests with you.

If you cannot safely comply with any of ATCs instructions,
inform them immediately by using the word UNABLE.
There is nothing wrong with telling a controller that you are
unable to safely comply with the clearance.
Another way to mitigate the risk of runway incursions is to
write down all taxi instructions as soon as they are received
from ATC. [Figure 1-11] It is also helpful to monitor ATC
clearances and instructions that are issued to other aircraft.
You should be especially vigilant if another aircraft has a
similar sounding call sign so there is no mistake about who
ATC is contacting or to whom they are giving instructions
and clearances.
Figure 1-12. Do NOT cross a runway holding position marking
without ATC clearance.
Figure 1-13. Runway 13-31 holding position sign and marking
located on taxiway Charlie.
Figure 1-11. A pilot writing down instructions from ATC.
1-7
When ATC issues a hold short clearance, you are expected

to taxi up to, but not cross any part of the runway holding
marking. At a towered airport, runway hold markings should
never be crossed without explicit ATC instructions. Do not
enter a runway at a towered airport unless instructions are
given from ATC to cross, takeoff from, or line up and wait
on that specific runway.
ATC is required to obtain a read-back from the pilot of
all runway hold short instructions. Therefore, you
must read back the entire clearance and hold short
instruction, to include runway identifier and your call sign.
Figure 1-14 shows an example of a controllers taxi and hold
short instructions and the reply from the pilot.
Controller
November 477ZA,
runway four, taxi via
Echo, hold short runway
two five at taxiway Delta.
Pilot
November 477ZA,
runway four via Echo,
hold short of runway
two five at Delta.
Figure 1-14. Example of taxi and hold short instructions from

ATC to a pilot.
ATC InstructionsExplicit Runway Crossing

As of June 30, 2010, ATC is required to issue explicit
instructions to cross or hold short of each runway.
Instructions to cross a runway are normally issued one
at a time, and an aircraft must have crossed the previous
runway before another runway crossing is issued. Exceptions
may apply for closely spaced runways that have less than
1,000 feet between centerlines. This applies to all runways
to include active, inactive, or closed. Figure 1-15 shows
communication between ATC and a pilot who is requesting
a taxi clearance.
Extra caution should be used when directed by ATC to
taxi onto or across a runway, especially at night and during
reduced visibility conditions. Always comply with hold
short or crossing instructions when approaching an entrance
to a runway. Scan the full length of the runway and the final
approaches before entering or crossing any runway, even if
ATC has issued a clearance.
1-8
Pilot
Ground, November 1234
ready to taxi from the GA
ramp with Bravo.
ATC
November 1234,
Runway 27, taxi via
Alpha, hold short
Runway 31.
Pilot
November 1234,
Runway 27, taxi via
Alpha, hold short
Runway 31.
ATC
When able, tower will

issue crossing clearance:
November 1234, cross
Runway 31.
Figure 1-15. Communication between ATC and a pilot who is

requesting taxi procedures.
ATC InstructionsLine Up and Wait (LUAW)

ATC now uses the line up and wait (LUAW) instruction
when a takeoff clearance cannot be issued immediately due
to traffic or other reasons. The words line up and wait have
replaced position and hold in directing you to taxi onto a
runway and await takeoff clearance.
An ATC instruction to line up and wait is not a clearance
for takeoff. It is only a clearance to enter the runway and
hold in position for takeoff. Under LUAW phraseology, the
controller states the aircraft call sign, departure runway, and
line up and wait. Be aware that traffic holding in position
will continue to be used to advise other aircraft that traffic
has been authorized to line up and wait on an active runway.
Pay close attention when instructed to line up and wait,
especially at night or during periods of low visibility. Before
entering the runway, remember to scan the full length of the
runway and its approach end for other aircraft.
There have been collisions and incidents involving aircraft
instructed to line up and wait while ATC waits for the
necessary conditions to issue a takeoff clearance. An OI
caused a 737 to land on a runway occupied by a twin-engine
turboprop. The turboprop was holding in position awaiting
takeoff clearance. Upon landing, the 737 collided with the
twin-engine turboprop.
When ATC instructs you to line up and wait, they should
advise you of any delay in receiving your takeoff clearance.
Possible reasons for ATC takeoff clearance delays may
include other aircraft landing and/or departing, wake
turbulence, or traffic crossing an intersecting runway. If
landing traffic is a factor, ATC is required to:
Inform you of the closest traffic requesting a full-stop,

touch-and-go, stop-and-go, option, or unrestricted low
approach on the same runway.
When ATC issues intersection line up and wait

instructions and takeoff clearances, the taxiway
designator is included.
NOTE: At night or in low visibility, consider lining up

slightly left or right of centerline when holding for takeoff
so that your aircraft is visible and can be differentiated from
runway lights.
ATC InstructionsRunway Shortened

You should review NOTAMs in your preflight planning to
determine any airport changes that will affect your departure
or arrival. When the available runway length has been
temporarily or permanently shortened due to construction,
the ATIS includes the words warning and shortened in
the text of the message. For the duration of the construction
when the runway is temporarily shortened, ATC will
include the word shortened in their clearance instructions.
Furthermore, the use of the term full length will not be
used by ATC during this period of the construction. Some
examples of ATC instructions are:

Runway 36 shortened, line up and wait.
Runway 36 shortened, cleared for takeoff.
Runway 36 shortened, cleared to land.
When an intersection departure is requested on a temporarily

or permanently shortened runway during the construction,
the remaining length of runway is included in the clearance.
For example, Runway 36 at Echo, intersection departure,
5,600 feet available. If following the construction, the
runway is permanently shortened, ATC will include the
word shortened until the A/FD is updated to include the
permanent changes to the runway length.
Pre-Landing, Landing, and After-Landing
While en route and after receiving the destination airport
ATIS/landing information, review the airport diagram
and brief yourself as to your exit taxiway. Determine the
following:

Are there any runway hold markings in close proximity

to the exit taxiway?
Do not cross any hold markings or exit onto any

runways without ATC clearance.
Aircraft Lights
The use of aircraft exterior lights during all flight operations
make an aircraft operating on the airport surface more
conspicuous and help convey location and intent to you and
ATC. Some examples of aircraft exterior light usage are listed
below and shown in Figure 1-16.
Standardized Aircraft Lighting
Turn on
Landing lights
If a takeoff clearance is not received within 90 seconds

after receiving the line up and wait instruction,
contact ATC immediately.
Logo lights
Taxi lights
If advised of a reason for the delay, or the reason is

clearly visible, expect an imminent takeoff clearance
once the reason is no longer an issue.
Strobe light*
After landing, use the utmost caution where the exit taxiways
intersect another runway, and do not exit onto another runway
without ATC authorization. Do not accept last minute
turnoff instructions from the control tower unless you clearly
understand the instructions and are at a speed that ensures you
can safely comply. Finally, after landing and upon exiting
the runway, ensure your aircraft has completely crossed over
the runway hold markings. Once all parts of the aircraft have
crossed the runway holding position markings, you must hold
unless further instructions have been issued by ATC. Do not
initiate non-essential communications or actions until the
aircraft has stopped and the brakes set.
Navigation/Position lights
Advise the landing traffic that traffic is holding in

position on the same runway.
Rotating beacon
Engine(s) running
Taxiing
Crossing a runway
Entering departure runway for
line up and wait
Takeoff
* Strobe lights should not be illuminated if doing so will have an
adverse effect on other aircraft or vehicles.
Figure 1-16. Standard aircraft lighting.
Engines runningbefore starting engines, turn on the

rotating beacon.
Taxiingprior to commencing taxi, turn on

navigation/position, strobe (only if the use of them
does not adversely affect other aircraft), taxi, and logo
lights, if available.
1-9
Crossing a runwayilluminate all external lights

when crossing a runway. You should consider any
possible adverse affects that illuminating the forward
facing lights may have on the vision of other pilots or
ground personnel during runway crossings.
Line up and waitwhen entering the departure

runway without takeoff clearance, turn on all exterior
lights (except landing lights) to make your aircraft
more conspicuous.
Departure runwaywhen entering the departure

runway after takeoff clearance is received or when
commencing takeoff roll, turn on landing lights.
Nontowered Airports
Many GA airports, even those with operating ATC towers,
may not have airport signage and markings that are required
at airports certificated by the FAA. In fact, you may observe
a wide range of airport signage and markings from one GA
airport to the next.
There is no substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an
airport. It is essential that pilots be alert and look for other
traffic and exchange traffic information when approaching
or departing an airport without an operating control tower.
This is of particular importance since other aircraft may not
have communication capability or, in some cases, pilots may
not communicate their presence or intentions when operating
into or out of such airports. To achieve the greatest degree of
safety, it is essential that all radio-equipped aircraft transmit/
receive on a common frequency identified for the purpose
of airport advisories.
An airport may have a full or part-time tower or Flight
Service Station (FSS) located on the airport, a full or parttime UNICOM station, or no aeronautical station at all. There
are three ways for pilots to communicate their intention and
obtain airport/traffic information when operating at an airport
that does not have an operating tower: by communicating
with an FSS, a UNICOM operator, or by making a selfannounced broadcast.
Many airports are now providing completely automated
weather, radio check capability, and airport advisory
information on an automated UNICOM system. These
systems offer a variety of features, typically selectable by
microphone clicks, on the UNICOM frequency. Availability
of the automated UNICOM is published in the A/FD and
approach charts.
NOTE: Line up and wait/holding in position is not
recommended at nontowered airports.
1-10
Communications
In order to have safe surface operations, it is imperative
that you maintain good communication with ATC. The
controllers understanding can be enhanced by you responding
appropriately and using standard phraseology. Figure 1-17
shows a detailed glossary of phraseology that is commonly
used in surface operations. Guidelines for clear and accurate
communications include the use of proper communication
procedures when contacting ATC. Your initial transmission
to ATC should contain the following elements:

Who you areaircrafts complete call sign.
Where you are on the airport.
What you wantyou should think about what you

want to say before communicating it.
Alphabetical code for the ATIS.
NOTE: You must be alert for stuck microphones.

Prior to contacting ATC, transmissions should be well
thought out before keying the transmitter. Know what needs
to be said and always check the radio frequencies to ensure
that the proper one is being used to transmit. Communication
with ATC should be concise and to the point. For unusual
situations or lengthy communications, initial contact should
be established. Then, in the next transmission, describe the
situation. Keep in mind that other aircraft are waiting to
contact ATC, so transmissions should be kept to a minimum
unless it is an emergency situation.
While communicating with ATC, focus on what the controller
is instructing and do not perform any non-essential tasks.
Refer to the AIM, Chapter 5, Section 5, Pilot/Controller
Roles and Responsibilities. Read back any hold short
of runway instructions issued by ATC. This read
back should include the specific runway designator and
taxiway intersection when appropriate, so if there are any
misunderstandings or errors, they are obvious to ATC.
A read back presents the first and most efficient opportunity to
catch any miscommunications. It provides a reality check in
two ways: it tells the controller, This is what the pilot heard;
and it provides the controller the opportunity to reaffirm that
is what he/she meant to say. For detailed information about
radio communication phraseology and techniques, refer to
Chapter 4, Section 2 of the AIM.
Understanding the NOTAMs for the airport is very important
when communicating with ATC. NOTAMs provide
information regarding taxiway/runway closures. With proper
knowledge of the airports NOTAMs, you can assist ATC.
Pilot/Controller Common Phraseology
For example, if ATC clears you to taxi on a closed taxiway

or runway, you can inform them. If you are unsure of any
portion of the taxi clearance, request clarification and/or
progressive taxi instructions. It is important for you to know
that you can request assistance.
ACKNOWLEDGE
Let me know that you have received my

message.
ADVISE INTENTIONS
Tell me what you plan to do.
AFFIRMATIVE
Yes.
FINAL
Commonly used to mean that an aircraft

is on the final approach course or is
aligned with a landing area.
NOTE: When instructed to monitor a particular frequency,

listen on the frequency and stand by for instructions. Under
normal circumstances, do not initiate communications.
HOLD FOR
(takeoff clearance, release,

landing/taxiing aircraft, etc.)
Stay in place where you are currently
located.
Examples of Taxi Instructions
HOLD SHORT
November 477ZA, runway four, taxi via

Echo, hold short runway two five at
taxiway Delta.
HOW DO YOU HEAR

ME?
A question relating to the quality of the

transmission or to determine how well
the transmission is being received.
IMMEDIATELY
Used by ATC or pilots when such action

compliance is required to avoid an
imminent situation.
LINE UP AND WAIT
Used by ATC to inform a pilot to taxi

onto the departure runway in takeoff
position and LINE UP and WAIT.
It is not authorization for takeoff.
It is used when takeoff clearance cannot
immediately be issued because of traffic
or other reasons.
NEGATIVE
No or permission not granted or

that is not correct.
READ BACK
Repeat my message back to me.
ROGER
I have received all of your last

transmission. It should not be used to
answer a question requiring a yes or
no answer.
(See Affirmative, Negative)
STAND BY
Means the controller or pilot must pause

for a few seconds, usually to attend to
other duties of a higher priority. Also
means to wait, as in stand by for
clearance. The caller should reestablish
contact if a delay is lengthy. Stand by
is not an approval or denial.
UNABLE
Indicates inability to comply with a

specific instruction, request, or
clearance.
VERIFY
Request confirmation of information (for

example, verify assigned altitude).
WILCO
I have received your message,

understand it, and will comply with it.
WITHOUT DELAY
With a sense of urgency, proceed with

approved instructions in a rapid manner.
For a complete listing of all ATC phraseology, consult the

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
Figure 1-17. Standard phraseology that should be used between
pilots and ATC.
Initial Call-up with Specific Requests

Pilot: Teterboro ground, Gulfstream November
322ZQ, ACME aviation, with information
Alpha, request taxi to Runway one niner.
Controller: November 322ZQ, Teterboro ground, Runway
one niner, taxi via Lima.
Line Up and Wait

Controller: November 523QQ, Runway two seven, line up
and wait, traffic landing Runway three right.
Pilot: November 523QQ, Runway two seven, line up
and wait.
Line Up and Wait on Intersecting Runways

Line up and wait can be authorized on intersecting runways.
When this is done, traffic advisories shall be issued to both
aircraft.
Departure Instructions for Two Aircraft
Controller: November 523QQ, Runway three six at Golf
four, line up and wait, traffic departing
Runway two seven.
Pilot: N523QQ, Runway three six at Golf four, line
up and wait.
Controller: November 144NM, Runway two seven, cleared
for takeoff, traffic holding in position Runway
three six.
Departure and Arrival Instructions for Two Aircraft
Controller: November 477ZA, Runway six, line up and
wait, traffic landing Runway two seven.
Pilot: November 477ZA, Runway six, line up and
wait.
Controller: November 234AG, Runway two seven, cleared
to land, traffic holding in position Runway six.
1-11
Intersection Departure Clearance

ATC must state the name of the intersection to you before
a line up and wait instruction. You should question ATC
if this does not happen. You should state that they are at an
intersection when requesting a takeoff clearance. A controller
must also state the name of the intersection when issuing a
takeoff clearance.
Controller: November 477ZA, Runway four, Taxiway
Bravo, line up and wait.
Pilot: Line up and wait, Runway four, Taxiway
Bravo, November 477ZA.
Ensure that when you read back a clearance for an intersection
line up and wait or intersection takeoff, you state the name
of the intersection, even if the controller did not include it
in the clearance.
Controller: November 123QY, Waterloo Tower, Runway

three six, cleared to land, hold short Runway
three zero for departing traffic.
Pilot: November 123QY, cleared to land Runway three
six, hold short Runway three zero.
Figure 1-18A and B shows an example of the land and hold
short holding position.
Runway Exiting Clearance

After landing and reaching taxi speed, you are expected to
exit the runway at the first available taxiway or as instructed
by ATC. You should remain on the tower frequency until
advised to contact ground control.
Controller: Unity three two, turn right on Taxiway Golf two
and contact ground point niner when clear of the
runway.
Landing Clearance
ATC may withhold or rescind a landing clearance when an
aircraft is in line up and wait on the runway.
Pilot: Unity three two, right on Golf two, ground point

niner.
Landing Clearance Withheld

Controller: November 477ZA, Runway four, continue,
traffic holding in position.
Initial Contact After Landing and Clearing the

Runway
Landing Clearance Cancelled

Controller: November 477ZA, landing clearance cancelled,
traffic holding in position, continue.
Takeoff Clearance/Landing Clearance

Read back all landing and takeoff clearances with a call sign,
including the runway designator.
Controller: November 123QY, Charlotte tower, Runway
four right, cleared to land.
Pilot: November 123QY, cleared to land, Runway four
right.
Pilot: Lincoln ground, November 123QY, clear of

Runway two at Bravo, taxi to the ramp.
Controller: November 123QY, Lincoln ground, taxi to the
ramp via Bravo.
Light Gun Signals
ATC has a backup system if radio communication fails.
Controllers use a light gun that flashes different colors to
instruct you what to do. Refer to the Pilots Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 13, Airport Operations, for
a light gun signal illustration. Even a failed radio transmission
is not an excuse for proceeding without a proper clearance.
If you are on a runway or taxiway and radio communication
with ATC fails, you should:
1.
Turn toward the tower.
Controller: November 123QY, Charlotte tower, Runway

five, cleared for takeoff.
2.
Flash your landing lights several times.
3.
Wait for the light signal from ATC.
Pilot: November 123QY, cleared for takeoff, Runway

five.
4.
Be patient. If ATCs attention is diverted, it may take

a few minutes for a response.
5.
If your radios are working, try a frequency other than

the one you are currently using.
6.
Call ATC via cell phone if you have the number

available.
Land and Hold Short Clearance

Land and hold short instructions require your acceptance
and read back.
1-12
NC-3, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
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LAHSO
12-30
12-30
Figure 1-18. (A) Airport diagram of Waterloo Regional Airport (ALO) showing the LAHSO holding position. (B) Intersection of Runway
36 and Runway 12-30 at Waterloo Regional Airport. LAHSO hold markings across Runway 36 are clearly visible along with the two
collocated Runway 12-30 hold signs.
1-13
Signs, Markings, and Lighting

It is important for you to know the meanings of the signs,
markings, and lights that are used on airports as surface
navigational aids. All airport markings are painted on the
surface, whereas some signs are vertical and some are painted
on the surface. An overview of the most common signs and
markings are described on the following pages. For more
detailed information on runway signs and markings, refer
to the AIM.
Runway Holding Position Sign
Noncompliance with a runway holding position sign may
result in the FAA filing a Pilot Deviation against you.
A runway holding position sign is an airport version of a
stop sign. [Figure 1-19] It may be seen as a sign and/or its
characters painted on the airport pavement. The sign has white
characters outlined in black on a red background. It is always
collocated with the surface painted holding position markings
and is located where taxiways intersect runways. On taxiways
that intersect the threshold of the takeoff runway, only the
designation of the runway may appear on the sign.
Figure 1-20. Runway holding position sign at a location other than
the takeoff end of Runway 18-36 with collocated Taxiway Alpha

location sign.
runways are shown on the sign along with arrows showing the
approximate alignment of each runway. [Figure 1-21A and B]
In addition to showing the approximate runway alignment,
the arrows indicate the direction(s) to the threshold of the
runway whose designation is immediately next to each
corresponding arrow.
This type of taxiway and runway/runway intersection
geometry can be very confusing and create navigational
challenges. Extreme caution must be exercised when taxiing
onto or crossing this type of intersection. Figure 1-21A and B
shows a depiction of a taxiway, runway/runway intersection
and is also designated as a hot spot on the airport diagram.
In the example, Taxiway Bravo intersects with two runways,
31-13 and 35-17, which cross each other.
Figure 1-19. Runway holding position sign at takeoff end of Runway

14 with collocated Taxiway Alpha location sign.
If a taxiway intersects a runway somewhere other than at

the threshold, the sign has the designation of the intersecting
runway. The runway numbers on the sign are arranged to
correspond to the relative location of the respective runway
thresholds. Figure 1-20 shows 18-36 to indicate the
threshold for Runway 18 is to the left and the threshold for
Runway 36 is to the right. The sign also indicates that you
are located on Taxiway Alpha.
If the runway holding position sign is located on a taxiway
at the intersection of two runways, the designations for both
1-14
Surface painted runway holding position signs may also be

used to aid you in determining the holding position. These
markings consist of white characters with a black border
on a red background and are painted on the left side of the
taxiway centerline. Figure 1-22 shows a surface painted
runway holding position sign that is the holding point for
Runway 32R-14L.
You should never allow any part of your aircraft to cross the
runway holding position sign (either a vertical or surface
painted sign) without a clearance from ATC. Doing so poses
a hazard to yourself and others.
When the tower is closed or you are operating at a nontowered
airport, you may taxi past a runway holding position sign
only when the runway is clear of aircraft, and there are
no aircraft on final approach. You may then proceed with
extreme caution.
io
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at
Runway 13
31-13
35-17
31-13
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NC-3, 08 MAR 2012 to 05 APR 2012
35-17
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5
Runway 31
Figure 1-21. (A) Taxiway Bravo location sign collocated with runway/runway intersection holding signs at Sioux Gateway Airport (SUX)
(B) Airport diagram of Sioux Gateway Airport (SUX), Sioux City, Iowa. The area outlined in red is a designated hot spot (HS1).
1-15
operating at a nontowered airport, you may taxi onto or across

the runway only when the runway is clear and there are no
aircraft on final approach. You should use extreme caution
when crossing or taxiing onto the runway and always look
both ways.
When exiting the runway, the same markings will be seen
except the aircraft will be approaching the double dashed
lines. [Figure 1-24] In order to be clear of the runway, the
entire aircraft must cross both the dashed and solid lines.
An ATC clearance is not needed to cross this marking when
exiting the runway.
Figure 1-22. Surface painted runway holding position signs for

Runway 32R-14L along with the enhanced taxiway centerline
marking.
Runway Holding Position Marking

Noncompliance with a runway holding position marking
may result in the FAA filing a Pilot Deviation against you.
Runway holding position markings consist of four yellow
lines, two solid and two dashed, that are painted on the surface
and extend across the width of the taxiway to indicate where
the aircraft should stop when approaching a runway. These
markings are painted across the entire taxiway pavement, are
in alignment, and are collocated with the holding position
sign as described above.
As you approach the runway, two solid yellow lines and
two dashed lines will be visible. Prior to reaching the solid
lines, it is imperative to stop and ensure that no portion of
the aircraft intersects the first solid yellow line. Do not cross
the double solid lines until a clearance from ATC has been
received. [Figure 1-23] When the tower is closed or when
Figure 1-23. Surface painted holding position marking along with
enhanced taxiway centerline.
1-16
Figure 1-24. Runway holding position markings as seen when
exiting the runway. When exiting the runway, no ATC clearance

is required to cross.
Enhanced Taxiway Centerline Markings

At most towered airports, the enhanced taxiway centerline
marking is used to warn you of an upcoming runway.
It consists of yellow dashed lines on either side of the
normal solid taxiway centerline and the dashes extend up
to 150 feet prior to a runway holding position marking.
[Figure 1-25A and B] They are used to aid you in maintaining
awareness during surface movement to reduce runway
incursions.
Elevated Runway Guard Lights
Elevated runway guard lights (ERGL), commonly known
as wig-wag lights, are collocated with the runway hold
position signs and surface painted hold position markings.
They consist of a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights
installed on either side of the taxiway near the holding
position sign. [Figure 1-26A] Alternatively, they may be a
row of in-pavement yellow lights installed across the taxiway
at the holding position marking. [Figure 1-26B] Runway
guard lights are effective visual aids for helping you identify
the runway holding position.
Enhanced taxiway centerline marking extends 150 feet prior

to a runway holding position marking. Prepare to STOP.
Prepare to STOP unless you have been cleared onto

or across the runway by ATC.
Figure 1-25. (A) Enhanced taxiway centerline marking. (B)
Enhanced taxiway centerline marking and runway position marking.
Figure 1-26. (A) Elevated flashing yellow runway guard lights also
referred to as wig-wag lights. (B) In-pavement flashing yellow
runway guard lights.
Runway Safety Area Boundary Sign

In addition to the runway hold marking, some taxiway stubs
also have a runway safety area boundary sign that faces the
runway and is visible to you only when exiting the runway.
This sign has a yellow background with black markings
and is typically used at towered airports where a controller
commonly requests you to report clear of a runway. This sign
is intended to provide you with another visual cue that is used
as a guide to determine when you are clear of the runway
safety boundary area. The sign shown in Figure 1-27 is what
you would see when exiting the runway at TaxiwayKilo,
and is out of the runway safety area boundary when the
entire aircraft passes the sign and the accompanying surface
painted marking.
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
When simultaneous operations (takeoffs and landings) are
being conducted on intersecting runways, Land and Hold
Short Operations (LAHSO) may also be in effect. LAHSO
is an ATC procedure that may require your participation and
compliance. As pilot in command (PIC), you have the final
authority to accept or decline any LAHSO clearance.
Figure 1-27. Runway safety area boundary sign and marking located
on Taxiway Kilo.
If issued a land and hold short clearance, you must be aware

of the reduced runway distances and whether or not you can
comply before accepting a land and hold short clearance. You
do not have to accept a LAHSO clearance. Pilots should only
receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling
of 1,000 feet and 3 statute miles of visibility.
1-17
Runway holding position signs and markings are installed

only on those runways used for LAHSO. The signs and
markings are placed at the LAHSO point to aid you in
determining where to stop and hold the aircraft and are located
prior to the runway/runway intersection. [Figure 1-28]
If you accept the following clearance from ATC: Cleared

to land Runway 36 hold short Runway 23-5, you must
either exit Runway 36 or stop at the holding position prior
to Runway 23-5.
Location Signs and Markings
Taxiway location signs and markings and runway location
signs aid you in identifying the taxiway or runway on which
you are currently located. They have a black background
with yellow characters. These signs may stand alone or be
collocated with direction or runway holding position signs.
[Figure 1-29A and B]
Figure 1-28. Runway holding position sign and marking for LAHSO.
The holding position sign has a white inscription with black

border around the numbers on a red background and is
installed adjacent to the holding position markings. If you
accept a land and hold short clearance, you must comply
so that no portion of the aircraft extends beyond these hold
markings.
If receiving cleared to land instructions from ATC, you

are authorized to use the entire landing length of the runway
and should disregard any LAHSO holding position markings
located on the runway. If you receive and accept LAHSO
instructions, you must stop short of the intersecting runway
prior to the LAHSO signs and markings.
Below is a list of items which, if thoroughly understood
and complied with, will ensure that LAHSO operations are
conducted properly.
Be advised by ATC as to why LAHSO are being
conducted.
Advise ATC if you cannot comply with LAHSO.
Know what signs and markings are at the LAHSO

point.
LAHSO are not authorized for student pilots who are

performing a solo flight.
Generally, LAHSO are not authorized with air carrier

operations.
Generally, LAHSO are not authorized at night.
LAHSO are not authorized on wet runways.
1-18
30
36
30
Know landing distance available.
36-1
8
30-1
2
Figure 1-29. (A) Taxiway Alpha location sign. (B) Runway 36
location sign. (C) Runway thresholds of Runway 30 and Runway

36, which are nearly collocated.
Runway location signs are intended to complement the

information available to you through your aircraft magnetic
compass. They are installed in areas where the proximity
of two or more runways could cause you to be confused.
Figure 1-29A and B shows that Taxiway Alpha and Runway
36 are stand alone location signs and are not associated with
any other sign.
[Figure 1-31] Direction signs are normally located on

the left side of the taxiway and prior to the intersection.
These signs and markings (with a yellow background and
black characters) indicate the direction toward a different
taxiway, leading off a runway, or out of an intersection.
Figure 1-31 shows Taxiway Delta and how Taxiway Bravo
intersects ahead at 90 both left and right.
Complex airport geometry, a single taxiway leading to

multiple runway thresholds, and/or the close proximity of
multiple runway thresholds can lead to confusion and a
higher risk of you departing on the wrong runway. At airports
where these risk factors are present and the proximity of two
runway thresholds could cause confusion, runway location
signs may be present. Cross-check your aircraft compass
heading with the assigned takeoff runway heading prior to
brake release. Figure 1-29C shows the thresholds of Runway
30 and Runway 36, which are collocated. Runway location
signs are present on these runways along with the runway
designation numbers.
NOTE: Runway designation surface painted markings are
large white block numbers and are located at the threshold
of the runway.
Surface painted taxiway location markings are normally
located on airports where there has been a history of
navigation confusion. [Figure 1-30] These signs and
markings are designed to help you navigate difficult or
potentially confusing intersections. If ever in doubt about
your taxi clearance, ask ATC for help.
Figure 1-31. Taxiway Bravo direction sign with a collocated
Taxiway Delta location sign. When the arrow on the direction

sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior to the intersection.
Taxiway direction signs can also be displayed as surface

painted markings. Figure 1-32 shows Taxiway Bravo as
proceeding straight ahead while Taxiway Alpha turns to the
right at approximately 45.
A
Figure 1-32. Surface painted taxiway direction signs.
Figure 1-30. Surface painted Taxiway Alpha location sign.
Taxiway Direction Signs and Marking

Taxiway direction signs have a yellow background and
black characters, which identifies the designation or
intersecting taxiways. Arrows indicate the direction of turn
that would place the aircraft on the designated taxiway.
Figure 1-33A and B shows an example of a direction sign at

a complex taxiway intersection. Figure 1-33A and B shows
Taxiway Bravo intersects with Taxiway Sierra at 90, but at
45 with Taxiway Foxtrot. This type of array can be displayed
with or without the taxiway location sign, which in this case
would be Taxiway Bravo.
1-19
F
B
Figure 1-33. (A) Orientation of signs is from left to right in a clockwise manner. Left turn signs are on the left and right turn on the
right. In this view, the pilot is on taxiway Bravo. (B) Direction sign array at a complex taxiway/taxiway intersection.
Destination Signs
Destination signs have black characters on a yellow
background indicating a destination at the airport. These
signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxi
route to that destination. [Figure 1-34] When the arrow on
the destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior
to the intersection. Destinations commonly shown on these
types of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military
1-20
areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international areas,

and fixed-base operators. When the inscription for two or
more destinations having a common taxi route are placed
on a sign, the destinations are separated by a dot () and
one arrow would be used as shown in Figure 1-35. When
the inscription on a sign contains two or more destinations
having different taxi routes, each destination is accompanied
by an arrow and separated from the other destination(s) on
The ILS critical area boundary sign has white characters,

outlined in black, on a red background and is installed
adjacent to the ILS holding position markings. [Figure 1-36]
The holding position markings for the ILS critical area appear
on the pavement as a horizontal ladder and consist of two
solid yellow lines spaced two feet apart connected by pairs
of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across the width
of the taxiway.
Figure 1-34. Destination sign to the fixed-base operator (FBO).
Figure 1-36. Instrument landing system (ILS) holding position sign
and marking on Taxiway Golf.
Figure 1-35. Runway destination sign with different taxi routes.
the sign with a vertical black message divider as shown in

Figure 1-35. The example shown in Figure 1-35 shows two
signs. The sign in the foreground explains that Runway 20
threshold is to the left, and Runways 32, 2, and 14 are to
the right. The sign in the background indicates that you are
located on Taxiway Bravo and Taxiway November will take
you to those runways.
Holding Position Signs and Markings for an

Instrument Landing System (ILS)
The instrument landing system (ILS) broadcasts signals to
arriving instrument aircraft to guide them to the runway. Each
of these ILSs has a critical area that must be kept clear of all
obstacles in order to ensure quality of the broadcast signal.
At many airports, taxiways extend into the ILS critical area.
Most of the time, this is of no concern; however, during times
of poor weather, an aircraft on approach may depend on a
good signal quality. When necessary, ATC will protect the
ILS critical area for arrival instrument traffic by instructing
taxiing aircraft to hold short of this critical area.
When instructed to hold short of the ILS critical area, you

must ensure no portion of the aircraft extends beyond these
markings. If ATC does not instruct you to hold at this point,
then you may bypass the ILS critical area hold position
markings and continue with your taxi. Figure 1-36 shows
that the ILS hold sign is located on Taxiway Golf and the
ILS ladder hold position marking is adjacent to the hold sign.
Runway Approach Area Holding Position Signs and

Markings
At some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a
taxiway located in the approach or departure area for a
runway so the aircraft does not interfere with operations on
that runway. In these situations, a sign with a designation of
the approach end of the runway followed by a dash () and
letters APCH will be located at the holding position on the
taxiway. Holding position markings will be located on the
taxiway pavement. [Figure 1-37] In this example, the sign
may protect the approach to Runway 32 and/or the departure
for Runway 14. If you are expected to hold short of a
runway approach (APCH) area, ATC will issue instructions.
1-21
Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways

For temporarily closed runways and taxiways, a visual
indication is often provided with yellow Xs or raised
lighted yellow Xs placed at each end of the runway.
Depending on the reason for the closure, duration of closure,
airfield configuration, and the existence and the hours of
operation of an ATC tower, a visual indication may not be
present. As discussed previously in the chapter, you must
always check NOTAMs and ATIS for runway and taxiway
closure information.
Figure 1-37. Runway 32 approach area sign and marking on
Taxiway Alpha.
Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway

Intersections
Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections
consist of a single dashed yellow line extending across the
width of the taxiway. [Figure 1-38] They are painted on
taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of a
taxiway intersection. When instructed by ATC hold short
of Taxiway X, you should stop so that no part of your
aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking. When
the marking is not present, you should stop your aircraft at
a point that provides adequate clearance from an aircraft on
the intersecting taxiway.
Figure 1-38. Holding position marking on a taxiway.
Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed

Runways and Taxiways
For runways and taxiways that are permanently closed, the
lighting circuits are disconnected. The runway threshold,
runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated
and yellow Xs are placed at each end of the runway and
at 1,000-foot intervals.
1-22
Runway Edge and Centerline Lights

The runway edge lights are white, except on instrument
runways where yellow replaces white on the last 2,000 feet
or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution
zone for landings.
The lights marking the ends of the runway emit red light
toward the runway to indicate the end of runway to a
departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway
end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft.
A very effective and preferable visual aid to depict temporary

closure is the lighted X placed on or near the runway
designation numbers. [Figure 1-39B and C] This device is
much more discernible to approaching aircraft than the other
materials described above.
B
G
Figure 1-39A shows an example of a yellow X laid flat

with an adequate number of heavy rubber weights to keep the
wind from getting under and displacing the vinyl material.
The black rubber weights are positioned along the edge giving
the appearance of a black outline.
Centerline lights are located along the runway centerline

and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the
landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until
the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights begin to
alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet. For the last 1,000
feet of the runway, all centerline lights are red. [Figure 1- 40]
Taxiway Edge Lights or Reflectors

Taxiway edge lights or reflectors are blue in color and used
to outline the edges of taxiways. [Figure 1-41]
Runway Designation Marking

Runway numbers and letters are determined from the
approach direction. The runway number is the whole number
nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of
the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north.
Figure 1-40. Runway lights.
Figure 1-41. Blue taxiway edge lights.
Figure 1-39. (A) Yellow X placed on surface of temporarily closed
runways. (B) Lighted X placed on temporarily closed runways.

(C) Lighted X at night showing a temporarily closed runway.
In the case where there are parallel runways, the letters

differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C).
[Figure 1-42] For example, if there are two parallel runways,
they would show the designation number and then either L
or R beneath it. For three parallel runways, the designation
number would be presented with L, C, or R beneath it.
1-23
35
L
Figure 1-42. Two of three parallel runways.
1-24
35
C
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Advisory
Circular
Subject: Certification: Pilots and Flight and

Ground Instructors
Date: 1/6/14
Initiated by: AFS-200
AC No: 61-65E
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This revision provides guidance for those persons seeking an airline transport
pilot (ATP) certificate with an airplane category and a multiengine class rating.
2. PRINICIPAL CHANGES. This change incorporates changes and updates to AC 61-65E.
It contains revised information to include ATP knowledge test requirements and new ATP
endorsement examples. Information regarding who you may contact with questions regarding
information in this AC, and where you may obtain a copy, are also included.
PAGE CHANGE CONTROL CHART
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Appendix (pg. 2)
Appendix (pg. 5)
Appendix (pg. 12)
Dated
11/29/05
11/29/05
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11/29/05
11/29/05
/s/ John Barbagallo

Deputy Director, Flight Standards Service
Insert Pages
Dated
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Appendix (pg. 12)
1/6/14
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1/6/14
Advisory
Circular
Subject: Certification: Pilots and Flight and

Ground Instructors
Date: 11/29/05
AC No: 61-65E
This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors, ground instructors,
and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and other requirements
in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61. This revision provides
guidance for those persons seeking sport pilot certification.
Original signed by John M. Allen for

James J. Ballough, Director
Flight Standards Service
Page i (and ii)
1/6/14
AC 61-65E CHG 1
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
1. Purpose...................................................................................................................................1
2. Cancellation ..........................................................................................................................1
3. Related Reading Material (Current Editions) ........................................................................1
4. Pilot Training and Testing .....................................................................................................1
5. Knowledge Tests ....................................................................................................................2
6. Completion of Ground Training or a Home Study Curriculum .............................................2
7. Evidence of Identity and Age ................................................................................................3
8. Practical Tests ........................................................................................................................4
9. Light-Sport Aircraft with a Single Pilot Station ....................................................................4
10. Prerequisites for Practical Tests ...........................................................................................5
11. Student Pilot Certification....................................................................................................6
12. Presolo Requirements ..........................................................................................................7
13. Additional Solo Privileges ...................................................................................................7
14. Sport Pilot Certification .......................................................................................................9
15. Recreational Pilot Certification..........................................................................................10
16. Private Pilot Certification ..................................................................................................10
17. Commercial Pilot Certification ..........................................................................................11
18. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification .......................................................................11
19. Flight Instructors Other Than Flight Instructors with a Sport Pilot Rating .......................12
20. Flight Instructors with a Sport Pilot Rating .......................................................................13
21. Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificates (Except Those with a Sport Pilot Rating) ...........14
22. Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificates (With a Sport Pilot Rating) .................................15
23. Renewal of a Flight Instructor Certificate .........................................................................15
24. Expired Flight Instructor Certificate ..................................................................................17
25. Instrument Rating...............................................................................................................17
26. Additional Aircraft Ratings (Other than ATP) ..................................................................17
27. Additional Category/Class Rating at the ATP Certification Level ....................................18
28. Other Instructor Endorsements ..........................................................................................18
29. Ground Instructor Certification..........................................................................................19
30. Authorized Instructors .......................................................................................................19
31. Additional Training for Gliders .........................................................................................19
32. How to Obtain Electronically ............................................................................................20
APPENDIX 1. CONTENTSINSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS (17 PAGES) ...................1
Page iii (and iv)
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AC 61-65E
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for pilots, flight instructors,
ground instructors, and examiners on the certification standards, knowledge test procedures, and
other requirements in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61.
2. CANCELLATION. AC 61-65D, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors,
dated September 20, 1999, is canceled.
3.
RELATED READING MATERIAL (CURRENT EDITIONS).
AC 61-98, Currency and Additional Qualification Requirements for Certificated Pilots.

AC 61-107, Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet Mean Sea Level or
Mach Numbers Greater Than .75.
FAA-G-8082-1, Airline Transport Pilot, Aircraft Dispatcher, and Flight Navigator
Knowledge Test Guide.
FAA-G-8082-5, Commercial Pilot Knowledge Test Guide.
FAA-G-8082-7, Flight and Ground Instructor Knowledge Test Guide.
FAA-G-8082-13, Instrument Rating Knowledge Test Guide.
FAA-G-8082-17, Recreational Pilot and Private Pilot Knowledge Test Guide.
FAA Order 8710.3, Designated Pilot and Flight Engineer Examiners Handbook.
FAA Order 8710.7, Sport Pilot Examiners Handbook.
Part 61 quality assurance (Q&A) and part 141 Q&As are located on the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) General Aviation and Commercial Division (AFS-800)
home page at
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs800/afs81
0/more/. These documents do not include information on sport pilots, flight instructors
with a sport pilot rating, or private weight-shift-control or powered parachute ratings.
FAA Order 8080.6, Conduct of Airman Knowledge Tests.
4. PILOT TRAINING AND TESTING. Part 61 contains the aeronautical experience,

certification requirements, responsibilities, privileges, and limitations for each grade of
certificate: student pilot, sport pilot, recreational pilot, private pilot, commercial pilot, airline
transport pilot, instrument rating, flight instructor, and ground instructor. Under the total
training concept, the areas of operation specified for each grade of certificate by part 61
encompasses the areas of operation and tasks contained in the practical test standards (PTS).
Instructors are responsible for training applicants . . . to acceptable standards in all subject
matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in the tasks within the appropriate practical
test standard. For example:
a. An applicant for a private pilot certificate must have logged the aeronautical experience
as required by part 61 and have had his/her logbook endorsed by his/her certificated flight
instructor (CFI) who determines that the applicant is proficient in the appropriate areas of
operation listed in 61.107(b).
b. The flight maneuvers associated with each of the areas of operation listed in
part 61, 61.107 are found under similar titles in the current editions of the appropriate PTS. The
standards for successful completion of each maneuver and procedure are noted in the elements of
each task in the appropriate PTS.
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
5. KNOWLEDGE TESTS. The knowledge tests for the Sport Pilot Certificate, recreational
pilot certificate, private pilot certificate, commercial pilot certificate, airline transport pilot (ATP)
certificate, flight instructor certificate, ground instructor certificate, and ratings cover the subject
areas in which aeronautical knowledge is required by part 61.
a. Knowledge Test Administration. If required by 61.35(a)(1), an appropriate
knowledge test will only be administered to an applicant who presents acceptable evidence of
completion of the required training.
b. Evidence of Completion. Applicants are not required to show such evidence to take the
ATP, CFI, certificated ground instructor (CGI), military competency, or foreign pilot instrument
knowledge tests unless they are applying to retake a test after failing that test (per 61.49).
However, after July 31, 2014, all persons seeking an ATP certificate with a multiengine class
rating will be required to present a graduation certificate certifying the completion of an ATP
Certification Training Program when applying for the ATP knowledge test.
c. FAA Computerized Knowledge Test Program. The FAA computerized knowledge
test program has been implemented to provide expeditious testing services for applicants at
locations and times convenient to the public. For location of computerized testing centers,
contact the nearest Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) or use the list of computerized
testing centers at http://www.faa.gov/education_research/testing/airmen/media/test_centers.pdf.
6. COMPLETION OF GROUND TRAINING OR A HOME STUDY CURRICULUM.
Ground training courses to prepare for the aeronautical knowledge test may be offered by pilot
schools, colleges, aviation organizations, and individual flight or ground instructors. Home study
curriculums are available from representatives of the aviation industry. Home study curriculums
individually developed by students should be compiled from material described in the applicable
FAA knowledge test guide. The student, to show evidence of a ground school or home study
curriculum completion, may use any one of the following methods.
a. A certificate of graduation from a pilot training course conducted by an
FAA-certificated pilot school, appropriate to the certificate or rating sought, or a statement of
accomplishment from the school certifying satisfactory completion of the ground school portion
of the course;
b. An endorsement from an appropriately rated FAA-certificated ground or flight
instructor who has certified that the applicant has satisfactorily completed the ground training
required for the certificate or rating sought and is prepared for the test;
c. A certificate of graduation or statement of accomplishment from a ground school
course, appropriate to the certificate and rating sought that was conducted by an agency such as a
high school, college, adult education program, the Civil Air Patrol, or a Reserve Officers
Training Corps flight training program;
d. A certificate of graduation from an industry-provided aviation home study course. The
certificate must be developed by the aeronautical enterprise providing the study material. The
certificate of graduation must correspond to the FAA knowledge test for the certificate or rating
sought. The aeronautical enterprise providing the course of study must also supply a
comprehensive knowledge test, which can be scored as evidence that the student has completed
the course of study. The knowledge test must be sent to the course provider for scoring. Upon
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AC 61-65E
satisfactory completion of the examination, a graduation certificate signed by an authorized CFI

of the course provider will be provided to the student; or
e. Applicants are encouraged to obtain ground training from the sources described in
paragraph 6a through 6d above. An applicant who is unable to provide any of the above
documents when applying for a knowledge test may present an individually developed home
study course to an appropriately rated flight or ground instructor. The instructor will review the
course materials and may question the applicant to determine that the course was completed and
that the applicant does possess the knowledge required for the certificate or rating sought. The
instructor will then complete an endorsement certifying that the applicant is prepared for the
knowledge test.
7. EVIDENCE OF IDENTITY AND AGE. Applicants for knowledge tests and airman
certificates must provide positive proof of identification, address, and age at the time of
application.
a. Identification. The identification presented must include a photograph of the applicant,
the applicants signature, and the applicants actual residential address (if different from the
mailing address). This information may be presented in more than one form of identification.
Acceptable methods of identification include, but are not limited to drivers licenses, government
identification cards, passports, and military identification cards. Some applicants may not
possess the identification documentation described. In the case of an applicant under the age of
16 years for a knowledge test or practical test for other than a glider or balloon rating (or
14 years of age for a knowledge test or practical test for a glider or balloon rating), the
applicants parent or guardian may accompany the applicant and present information attesting to
the applicants identity. If this is done, a statement to that effect will be submitted for enclosure
in the airmans permanent record.
b. Address. A temporary mailing address for delivery of the certificate may be indicated
on a separate statement attached to the application. However, the address required for official
record purposes as shown on an airman application for a certificate must represent the airmans
actual permanent residential street address, including apartment number, etc., when appropriate.
An alternate mail delivery service address (commercial mail box provider, flight school, airport
office, etc.) is unacceptable. A post office box or rural route number is unacceptable as a
permanent residence on an application unless unavoidable circumstances require such an
address. An applicant residing on a rural route, in a boat or mobile (recreational) vehicle, or in
some other like residence that requires the use of a post office box or rural route number for an
address, must attest to the circumstances by signing a statement on a separate sheet of paper. The
information provided must include sufficient details to ensure identification of the geographical
location of the airmans residence. If necessary to positively identify the place of residence, the
applicant may be required to provide a hand-drawn map or a typed or written explanation of
directions to the residence that clearly shows or describes the location of the residence. When the
residence is a boat or other mobile vehicle, the registration number, tag number, etc., and dock or
park location must be provided. When applying for the practical test for an airman certificate, a
post office address may be specified for use on the certificate issued. A signed request must be
submitted with the application for this purpose. The permanent residence address must be shown
in the manner specified above.
c. Age. Applicants applying to take a practical test must show they meet the minimum age
requirement for the certificate sought. When applying to take a knowledge test, applicants must
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
show that they will meet the minimum age requirement for the certificate sought within
24 calendar-months of the date of application for the knowledge test, with the exception of those
pilots seeking an ATP certificate with an airplane category and multiengine class rating after
July 31, 2014. An ATP knowledge test report for these applicants certified after July 31, 2014, is
valid for 60 calendar-months. Therefore, the minimum age for an applicant is 18 years of age.
8.
PRACTICAL TESTS.
a. A practical test is conducted to evaluate the applicants knowledge and skill for the pilot
certificate and rating sought. During a practical test, the examiner will quiz the applicant orally
on knowledge elements and ask the applicant to perform the skill elements of the test. However,
oral testing may be used at any time during the practical test. An examiner is responsible for
determining whether the applicant meets the standards outlined in the objectives of each required
task in the appropriate PTS.
b. For elements of a maneuver or procedure on the practical test in which the applicants
are required to be tested orally or by written questions, the PTS uses the words . . . The
applicant exhibits knowledge of . . . or . . . the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of . .
. in the area of each task noted as Objective.
c. For elements of a maneuver or procedure on the practical test in which the applicants
are required to demonstrate their piloting skills, the PTS uses words such as considers situations,
maintains, utilizes, initiates, transitions to, arrives at, establishes and maintains, remains aware,
avoids situations, selects, properly, makes a, recognizes, stops, completes, etc., in the area of
each task noted as Objective.
d. In accordance with 61.45(a), a flight simulator or flight training device may be used
for some elements of the practical test. Authorization and the extent of use of a flight simulator
or flight training device during the practical test is addressed in the appropriate appendix section
of the applicable PTS for the pilot certificate and rating sought.
9.
LIGHT-SPORT AIRCRAFT WITH A SINGLE PILOT STATION.
a. In accordance with 61.45(f), a practical test may be conducted in a light-sport aircraft

that has a single pilot station. The FAA believes that with certain limitations, it is appropriate to
allow the practical test, at the sport pilot certificate level only, to be conducted from the ground
by a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) or an aviation safety inspector (ASI). The examiner or
ASI must agree to conduct the practical test in a single-seat aircraft and must ensure that the
practical test is conducted in accordance with the sport pilot PTS for single-seat aircraft.
Knowledge of all tasks applicable to the category/class of aircraft will be evaluated orally.
Single-seat sport pilots must demonstrate competency in those specific tasks identified in the
PTS and any other tasks selected by the examiner. The examiner must be in a position to observe
the operation of the aircraft and evaluate the proficiency of the applicant from the ground.
b. The limitation No passenger carriage and flight in a single-pilot station aircraft only
will be placed on the persons pilot certificate, which limits a pilot to operations in a single-seat
light-sport aircraft, and no passenger carriage will be authorized. Only a DPE or an ASI is
authorized to remove this limitation. This can be accomplished when the sport pilot takes a
practical test in a two-place light-sport aircraft and conducts the additional tasks identified in the
PTS. This practical test may be conducted in the same or additional category of aircraft.
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c. Upon successful completion of the practical test, the limitation will be removed and the
sport pilot is authorized to act as pilot in command (PIC) in all categories of light-sport aircraft
for which he or she has a make and model endorsement within a set of aircraft to operate. The
limitation can also be removed if the sport pilot completes the certification requirements in an
aircraft with a minimum of two places, for a higher certificate or rating.
d. A sport pilot who is issued a certificate with a single-seat limitation must complete a
flight review, as required by 61.56. If the flight review is conducted in an aircraft, it must be in
an aircraft with a minimum of two pilot stations, in which the pilot is rated, and with an
authorized instructor who is current and qualified to act as PIC.
e. An instructor may perform a proficiency check for an additional category or privilege in
accordance with 61.321 to be added to a sport pilot certificate or higher using a single-seat
light-sport aircraft, provided the instructor is also a DPE or an ASI.
f. The instructor or ASI must agree to conduct the practical test in a single-seat light-sport
aircraft and must ensure that the proficiency check is conducted in accordance with the sport
pilot PTS for single-seat aircraft. Knowledge of all tasks applicable to the category or class of
aircraft will be evaluated orally. Those pilots seeking sport pilot privileges in a single-seat
light-sport aircraft must demonstrate competency in those specific tasks identified in the PTS and
any other tasks selected by the instructor.
g. The instructor or ASI must have radio contact and be in a position to observe the
operation of the light-sport aircraft and evaluate the proficiency of the applicant from the ground.
h. On successful completion of proficiency check, the instructor or ASI will issue an
endorsement with the following limitation: No passenger carriage and flight in a single-pilot
station aircraft only (add category/class/make and model) limiting the pilots operations to a
single-seat aircraft in this category, class, make, and model. The instructor must sign this
endorsement with his or her CFI and examiner number.
i. This limitation can be removed by the pilot having successfully completed a proficiency
check involving the additional tasks identified in the PTS in a two-pilot station light-sport
aircraft for the specific category and class rating sought and in accordance with 61.321. The
proficiency check must be conducted in the same category and class of light-sport aircraft. Upon
successful completion of the proficiency check, the pilot will be issued an endorsement for the
light-sport aircraft privilege sought.
j. A recreational pilot or higher, when exercising sport pilot privileges, is required to have
an endorsement for only the category and/or class of light-sport aircraft for which he/she is
authorized to act as PIC. A sport pilot is required to have an endorsement for the category, class,
make, and model within a set of aircraft (see 61.1(b)(14) for the definition of set of aircraft)
in which he/she is authorized to act as PIC.
10. PREREQUISITES FOR PRACTICAL TESTS. Except as provided by 61.39(c), each
applicant must have received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certified that the
applicant received and logged the required flight time/training in preparation for the practical test
within 60 days preceding the date of the test and has been found proficient to pass the practical
test.
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NOTE: The endorsement must also state that the applicant has satisfactory
knowledge of the subject areas in which he/she was shown to be deficient by
the FAA airman knowledge test report, if required.
a. All applicants must have the required endorsements specified in part 61 for the aircraft
category, class, rating, or privilege of certification sought.
b. All applicants who reapply for a retest for a practical test must present another
endorsement from their instructor that states the applicant has been given the necessary training
and is prepared for the practical test.
c. A practical test, whether or not satisfactorily completed, uses up the instructors
endorsement for that test. An instructors recommendation on FAA Form 8710-1, Airman
Certificate and/or Rating Application, is required for each retest conducted for a certificate or
rating.
d. Except for a practical test for a sport pilot certificate, flight instructor certificate with a
sport pilot rating, glider category rating, or a balloon class rating, applicants must hold at least a
current third class medical certificate. If the practical test/proficiency check is being
administered in a flight simulator/flight training device, the applicant is not required to hold a
medical certificate (see 61.23(b)(8)).
e. The ability to read, speak, write, and understand the English language is an eligibility
requirement that applies to all pilot certificates, ratings, and privileges. No certificate, rating, or
privilege will be issued if the applicant cannot meet this requirement, except when such inability
to read, speak, write, and understand the English language is due to medical reasons and as
permitted under 61.13(b), and as allowed by other CFR sections.
11. STUDENT PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the student pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart C.
a. A student pilot certificate can be issued by a designated aviation medical examiner as
part of a medical certificate. However, an ASI and DPE can also issue student pilot certificates.
Whenever a student pilot certificate (other than a student pilot seeking a sport pilot certificate) is
issued by an ASI or DPE, the applicant must hold a current medical certificate for performing
solo privileges in an airplane, rotorcraft, powered-lift, weight-shift-control aircraft, powered
parachute, or airship. Glider and balloon student pilots are not required to hold a medical
certificate (see 61.23(b)(3)).
(1) Use the following table to determine how to apply for a student pilot certificate for
applicants other than those seeking a sport pilot certificate:
If
(a) An applicant operates a balloon or glider, or
has a current and valid medical certificate
issued under 14 CFR part 67,
Then
(a) The applicant must apply using FAA
Form 8710-1 with a FSDO or an FAA DPE to
receive a student pilot certificate (FAA
Form 8710-2).
(b) An applicant is not operating a balloon or a
(b) The applicant must apply for a student
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glider, and does not have a current and valid
medical certificate issued under part 67,
AC 61-65E
medical certificate (FAA Form 8420-2, Medical
Certificate _______ Class and Student Pilot
Certificate), with at least a third class medical
certificate issued under part 67 with an FAA
aviation medical examiner.
(2) Use the following table to determine how to apply for a student pilot certificate for
applicants seeking a sport pilot certificate:
If
(a) An applicant operates a balloon or glider, or
has a current and valid medical certificate
issued under part 67, or a current and valid U.S.
drivers license,
Then
(a) The applicant must apply for a student pilot
certificate with a FSDO or an FAA DPE.
(b) An applicant is not operating a balloon or a

glider, and has neither a current and valid
medical certificate issued under part 67, nor a
current and valid U.S. drivers license,
(b) The applicant must apply for a student

medical certificate with at least a third class
medical certificate issued under part 67 with an
FAA aviation medical examiner.
b. Additional information on the eligibility requirements for student pilots can be found in
61.83 and the general limitations for student pilots can be found in 61.89.
12. PRESOLO REQUIREMENTS.
a. The 90-day solo endorsement that goes in the student pilots logbook is required
every 90 days for the student to be afforded continuing solo privileges, per 61.87(n).
b. Although 61.19(b) establishes, in a pertinent part, that a student pilot certificate
expires 24 calendar-months from the month in which it is issued, the endorsements on that
student pilot certificate are a matter of record indefinitely. The endorsements are required to be
updated from time-to-time in the student pilots logbook to retain solo privileges.
c. The following pre-solo requirements must be met:
(1) Before being authorized to conduct a solo flight, a student pilot must have
demonstrated satisfactory aeronautical knowledge by completion of a knowledge test (see
61.87(b)). Before being authorized to conduct a solo flight, a student pilot must have received
and logged the flight training required by 61.87(c) and 61.87(d) through 61.87(m), as
appropriate. Satisfactory aeronautical knowledge and an acceptable performance level must have
been demonstrated to an authorized instructor, per 61.87(b).
(2) Prior to solo flight, a student pilot is required to have his or her student pilot
certificate and logbook endorsed for the specific make and model aircraft to be flown.
Thereafter, the student pilots logbook must be endorsed every 90 days to retain solo flight
privileges. These endorsements must be given by an authorized flight instructor who has flown
with the student (per 61.87(p)).
13. ADDITIONAL SOLO PRIVILEGES. The following additional student solo privileges
may be authorized:
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NOTE: The student pilot certificate only provides for listing the aircrafts
category for the solo cross-country privilege endorsement. Per 61.93(c)(1),
the solo cross-country endorsement on the student pilot certificate must be
. . . for the specific category of aircraft to be flown. However, per
61.93(c)(2)(i), the solo cross-country endorsement in the student pilots
logbook must be . . . for the specific make and model of aircraft to be
flown.
a. A student pilot may operate an aircraft in solo flight at night provided that student has
received the required flight training at night and the appropriate endorsements as required by
61.87(o). A student pilot seeking a sport pilot certificate is not authorized to operate a
light-sport aircraft at night, per 61.89(c).
(1) A student pilot may operate an aircraft on a solo cross-country flight provided that
student has received the training required by 61.93(e) through 61.93(m), as appropriate, has
demonstrated acceptable skills, abilities, and competency to his/her instructor who then would
endorse the persons student pilot certificate and logbook. Additionally, before each solo
cross-country flight, an instructor must endorse the students logbook.
NOTE: This endorsement does not need to be made by the instructor who
normally provides training to the student.
(2) The instructor who makes the endorsement to authorize this solo cross-country
flight will personally review the students preflight planning and preparation and attest to the
correctness and preparedness of the students cross-country planning under the known
circumstances. The instructor may add limitations to the endorsement to ensure an accurate
written understanding between the student and the instructor to better ensure the safety of the
flight.
b. When an instructor permits his or her student to make a solo cross-country flight, any
solo flight greater than 25 nautical miles (nm) (or 15 nm in the case of a powered parachute)
from the airport from where the flight originated, or make any solo flight and landing at any
location other than the airport of origination, that student must have received the solo
cross-country training and endorsements requirements of 61.93. Additionally, unless there is an
emergency, no student may make a solo flight landing at any point other than the airport where
the student pilot normally receives cross-country training and endorsements of 61.93.
c. A flight instructor may authorize a student to practice solo takeoffs and landings at an
airport within 25 nm (or 15 nm in the case of a powered parachute) from the airport at which the
student pilot is normally receiving training after meeting the requirements of 61.93(b)(1).
d. A student pilot may be authorized to make repeated, specific solo cross-country flights
that are not greater than 50 nm from the point of departure if the student meets the requirements
of 61.93(b)(2). The authorized instructor should specify in the students logbook endorsement,
the conditions under which the flights may be made.
e. A student pilot who seeks a sport pilot certificate or a recreational pilot certificate and
wants to obtain privileges to operate in Class B, C, and D airspace, at an airport located in Class
B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or at an airport having an operational control tower,
must receive and log ground and flight training from an authorized instructor on the aeronautical
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AC 61-65E
knowledge areas listed in 61.94(a) and have received a logbook endorsement in accordance
with 61.94(b).
f. A student pilot may NOT operate an aircraft in solo flight in Class B airspace or on a
solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace unless that student pilot has
received the ground and flight training and instructor endorsements required by 61.95(a) and
61.95(b).
14. SPORT PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the sport pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart J.
a. An applicant for a sport pilot certificate must possess at least a student pilot certificate
that is current and valid.
b. The flight instructor is given discretion in developing a training program to meet the
requirements of 61.309. The regulation spells out the specific minimum aeronautical
experience requirements that must be met.
c. A sport pilot certificate is issued without a specific category or class listed. An
endorsement is required for each category, class, make, and model of light-sport aircraft a sport
pilot is qualified to fly.
d. Sport pilots will require an endorsement to fly at least one make and model of
light-sport aircraft within the same set of aircraft. Once an endorsement is obtained for a specific
make and model of light-sport aircraft, the sport pilot can fly any other make and model in the
same set without any additional endorsements. The FAA has established a list of sets of
light-sport aircraft, which is available online at
http://www.faa.gov/licenses_certificates/airmen_certification/sport_pilot/media/aircraft_sets.pdf.
(See 61.1(b)(14) for the definition of set of aircraft.)
e. An appropriately authorized flight instructor must supervise the training and experience
required in obtaining additional sport pilot privileges. Additional training requirements and
endorsements are established for the following additional privileges:
(1) Category or class of light-sport aircraft (Section 61.321).
(2) Make and model of light-sport aircraft (Section 61.323).
(3) Operate a light-sport aircraft in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in
Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational control
tower (Section 61.325).
(4) Operate a light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots (kts) Calibrated
Airspeed (CAS) (Section 61.327).
f. Any pilot exercising sport pilot privileges (and applicants for the certificate) must
understand and comply with all sport pilot privileges and limitations, particularly the applicable
operating limits and endorsement requirements in subpart J. Section 61.303 establishes which
operating limits and endorsement requirements apply to the operation of a light-sport aircraft,
depending on the type of certificate or rating a pilot holds and the medical eligibility
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AC 61-65E
requirements the pilot meets. For example, a pilot holds a recreational pilot certificate, but not a
medical certificate, and wishes to exercise sport pilot privileges. The pilot must comply with
cross-country requirements in 61.101(c), even if the flight does not exceed 50 nm from the
departure airport (reference 61.303). The pilot must also comply with the additional training
requirements and endorsements established in paragraph 14c. See also paragraph 13.
g. Each pilot exercising sport pilot privileges must carry his or her logbook and other
evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements on all flights. Other evidence of the
required authorized instructor endorsements may be a preprinted card or record that includes the
endorsements. See 61.51(i)(3).
15. RECREATIONAL PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency,
flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the recreational pilot certificate are located
in part 61, subpart D.
a. Section 61.101 contains all limitations that pertain to the recreational pilot certificate
and outlines procedures for obtaining additional certificates or ratings. An appropriately
authorized flight instructor must supervise the training and experience required in furtherance of
a higher level of certificate. Each flight conducted by the recreational pilot under those
provisions must be authorized by the flight instructors endorsement in the recreational pilots
logbook.
b. Recreational pilots may act as PIC on a flight that is in Class B, C, and D airspace, at an
airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or on an airport having an
operational control tower after having received the required training and endorsement
(per 61.101(d)). Recreational pilots must have their logbook in their personal possession during
flight (per 61.101(d)(3)).
c. Recreational pilots who want to fly beyond 50 nm from the departure airport where
training was received must receive additional ground and flight training on the private pilot
cross-country training requirements of part 61, subpart E, and must receive an instructor
endorsement (per 61.101(c)). Recreational pilots must have their logbook in their personal
possession when operating an aircraft (per 61.101(c)(3)).
16. PRIVATE PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight
experience, and endorsement requirements for the private pilot certificate are located in
part 61, subpart E.
a. An applicant for a private pilot certificate must possess at least a student pilot
certificate, sport pilot certificate, or a recreational pilot certificate that is current and valid.
b. The flight instructor is given discretion in developing a flight training program to meet
the requirements of part 61, subpart E. The regulation spells out the specific minimum
aeronautical experience requirements that must be met.
c. Applicants must meet night experience requirements regardless of medical qualification
considerations. The only exception is in accordance with 61.110.
d. The 3 hours of flight training in a single-engine or multiengine airplane on the control
and maneuvering of an airplane solely by reference to instruments (see 61.109(a)(3) and
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61.109(b)(3)) and the 3 hours of flight training in a powered-lift on the control and maneuvering
of a powered-lift solely by reference to instruments (see 61.109(e)(3)) do not have to be
conducted by a certificated flight instructorinstrument (CFII). However, the training must be
in an aircraft and not in a flight simulator or a flight training device unless it was performed in
accordance with a 14 CFR part 142 approved training program.
e. Except as in accordance with 61.110, a person who does not meet the night flying
requirements in a gyroplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft
( 61.109(d)(2), 61.109(i)(2), or 61.109(j)(2)) may be issued a private pilot certificate with the
limitation Night Flying Prohibited. This limitation may only be removed by an examiner or
ASI if the holder complies with the requirements of 61.109(d)(2), 61.109(i)(2), or
61.109(j)(2), as appropriate.
f. Private pilots (and applicants for the certificate) must understand and comply with all
private pilot privileges and limitations, including compensation or hire and expense sharing, in
accordance with 61.113 through 61.117.
17. COMMERCIAL PILOT CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency,
flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the commercial pilot certificate is located in
part 61, subpart F.
a. An applicant for a commercial pilot certificate must hold at least a private pilot
certificate issued under part 61.
NOTE: This may be a standard U.S. pilot certificate, or a 61.75 pilot
certificate that is based on a foreign pilot license or meets the requirements
of 61.73. The person may be able to apply for a commercial pilot certificate
by being able to meet the requirements of 61.73 (meaning, able to qualify
for the commercial pilot certificate under the special rules for military pilots
or former military pilots). If a person is basing application for a commercial
pilot certificate on a 61.75 pilot certificate, the authenticity of the foreign
pilot license must be verified through the persons foreign civil aviation
authority.
b. An applicant for a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane or powered-lift category
rating must hold or concurrently obtain the appropriate instrument rating.
18. AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT (ATP) CERTIFICATION. Specific knowledge, flight
proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for an ATP certificate, including a
restricted privileges ATP certificate, are located in part 61, subpart G.
a. An Applicant for an ATP Certificate Must Possess One of the Following:
(1) A commercial pilot certificate and an instrument (airplane, helicopter, or
powered-lift) rating issued under part 61;
(2) A foreign ATP license or a foreign commercial pilot license and an instrument
(airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift) rating, without limitations, issued by a contracting state to
the Convention on International Civil Aviation. If applying for an ATP certificate based on
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
holding a foreign pilot license and ratings, the authenticity of that foreign pilot license must be
verified through the foreign civil aviation authority; or
(3) Be a military pilot or former military pilot and have met the requirements of 61.73
that qualifies the applicant for a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument (airplane,
helicopter, or powered-lift) rating.
b. Instructor Recommendation. An instructor recommendation is not required, unless
the applicant has failed the practical test and this is a retest (per 61.49). Applicants for retest
must comply with the appropriate retest requirements of 61.49. In addition, the instructor must
sign the applicants FAA Form 8710-1 application for the retest.
c. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP)
( 61.153(e)). The Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP) is
required for applicants of an ATP certificate with an airplane category multiengine class rating,
or an ATP certificate issued concurrently with a type rating, and is intended to prepare the
applicant to operate safely in those operations which require an ATP certificate by rule. After
July 31, 2014, all persons seeking an ATP certificate with airplane category multiengine class
rating will be required to present a graduation certificate certifying the completion of an ATP
CTP when applying for the ATP knowledge test.
NOTE: A restricted privileges ATP certificate allows the holder to act as
second in command (SIC) in part 121 operations (except flag or
supplemental operations that requires three or more pilots). The holder does
not need to possess the minimum qualification or experience requirements in
61.159 for an ATP certificate and cannot act as PIC in operations requiring
an ATP certificate. All applicants for a restricted privileges ATP certificate
must meet the requirements of 61.160 and, when applying for the ATP
knowledge test after July 31, 2014, they must present a graduation certificate
certifying completion of an ATP CTP.
19. FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS OTHER THAN FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS WITH A
SPORT PILOT RATING. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and
endorsement requirements for the flight instructor certificate, other than flight instructors with a
sport pilot rating, is located in part 61, subpart H. To be eligible for a flight instructor certificate,
an applicant must:
a. Hold a commercial pilot certificate or an ATP certificate with an aircraft rating
appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought and that was issued under part 61.
b. Hold an instrument rating/instrument privileges (e.g., instrument privileges, as on an
ATP certificate the instrument privileges are conferred) on the applicants pilot certificate, if the
applicant is seeking a flight instructor certificate with an airplane category, powered-lift rating,
or instrument rating, and was issued under the pertinent certification requirements of part 61.
c. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has been given the required
ground and flight training and has been found competent to pass the practical test. An instructor
who meets the requirements of 61.195(h) must make the endorsement.
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AC 61-65E
d. Have logged at least 15 hours as PIC in the category and class of aircraft that is
appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought.
e. For applicants applying for a flight instructor certificate with airplane and glider
category ratings, the applicant must have received a logbook endorsement that attests to
satisfactory demonstration of instructional proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and
spin recovery procedures in airplanes or gliders, as appropriate. A logbook endorsement that
attests to satisfactory demonstration of instructional proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry,
spins, and spin recovery procedures is required for the initial flight instructor certificate (for a
rating in airplanes or gliders). This means, even if the applicant were to initially seek a flight
instructor certificate with an airplane multiengine rating, the applicant would still be required to
receive a logbook endorsement that attests to satisfactory demonstration of instructional
proficiency of stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. However, the
training would be required to be performed in an airplane (most likely a single-engine land
airplane) that does not contain any restrictions from spins.
20. FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS WITH A SPORT PILOT RATING. Specific knowledge,
flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for the flight instructor
certificate with a sport pilot rating is located in part 61 subpart K. To be eligible for a flight
instructor certificate with a sport pilot rating an applicant must:
a. Hold a current and valid sport, recreational, or private pilot certificate with category and
class ratings or privileges, as applicable that are appropriate to the flight instructor privileges
sought.
b. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has met the aeronautical
experience required by 61.411, for the category and class privileges, as applicable, that are
appropriate to the flight instructor privileges sought.
c. Have a logbook endorsement certifying that the applicant has been given the ground
and flight training required by 61.409 and has been found competent to pass the practical test.
An instructor who meets the requirements of 61.415 or 14 CFR part 62, 61.429 must make
the endorsement.
d. The training and experience required to obtain additional sport pilot flight instructor
privileges must be supervised by an appropriately authorized flight instructor. Additional training
requirements and endorsements are established for the following additional privileges:
(1) To provide training in an additional category or class of light-sport aircraft, an
applicant must meet the training requirements and endorsements required in 61.419. The
applicant must successfully complete a proficiency check from an authorized instructor other
than the instructor who trained him or her, and provide a completed FAA Form 8710-11, Airman
Certificate and/or Rating ApplicationSport Pilot, to the authorized instructor.
(2) To provide training in an additional make and model of light-sport aircraft, an
applicant must have at least 5 hours of flight time in a make and model of light-sport aircraft
within the same set of aircraft in which he or she provides training.
(3) To provide training to operate a light-sport aircraft in Class B, C, and D airspace, at
an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, and to, from, through, or on an airport having an
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operational control tower, an applicant must have the endorsement specified in 61.325, or be
otherwise authorized to conduct operations in this airspace.
(4) To provide training in a light-sport aircraft with a VH greater than 87 kts CAS, an
applicant must have the endorsement specified in 61.327, or be otherwise authorized to operate
a light-sport aircraft with a VH greater than 87 kts CAS.
e. For applicants applying for a flight instructor certificate with sport pilot rating with
airplane or glider category privileges, the applicant must have received a logbook endorsement
that attests he/she is competent and possesses instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin
entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures after receiving flight training in those training areas in
an airplane or glider, as appropriate, that is certificated for spins.
(1) An applicant who seeks additional category and class privileges to be added to
his/her flight instructor certificate with sport pilot rating in an airplane or glider would be
required to receive the same training and logbook endorsement.
(2) This training would be required to be performed in a single-engine airplane or glider
(preferably a light-sport aircraft) that does not contain any restrictions from spins.
f. For single place aircraft, pre-solo flight training must be provided in an aircraft that has
two pilot stations and is of the same category and class applicable to the certificate, rating, or
privilege sought.
g. To provide ground or flight training for a private pilot certificate with a powered
parachute or weight-shift-control aircraft rating, an applicant must hold at least a private pilot
certificate with the applicable category and class rating; a flight instructor certificate with a sport
pilot rating or privileges, and the applicable flight instructor category and class privileges.
h. All flight instructors with a sport pilot rating or privileges must carry his or her logbook
or other evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements on all flights. Other
evidence of the required authorized instructor endorsements may be a preprinted card or record
that includes the endorsements. See 61.51(i)(5).
21. GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES (EXCEPT THOSE WITH
A SPORT PILOT RATING). The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor
certificate (except those with a sport pilot rating) are contained in FAA Order 8700.1, General
Aviation Operations Inspectors Handbook, Volume 2, Chapter 13 and FAA Order 8710.3,
Designated Pilot and Flight Engineer Examiners Handbook, Chapter 14. Flight instructor
certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued to flight instructors who have maintained a
high level of flight training activity and who meet special criteria. Once issued, a gold seal flight
instructor certificate will be reissued each time the instructors certificate is renewed. Applicants
for gold seal flight instructor certificates must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating
(glider flight instructors need not hold an instrument rating) or an ATP certificate;
b. The flight instructor must hold a ground instructor certificate with an advanced or
instrument ground instructor rating; and
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AC 61-65E
c. The flight instructor must have accomplished the following within the previous
24 calendar-months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for a practical test, and at least
80 percent of the applicants passed their tests on the first attempt;
(2) Conducted at least 20 practical tests as a designated pilot examiner, or graduation
tests as chief instructor of a 14 CFR part 141 approved pilot school course; or
(3) A combination of the above requirements. (Two practical tests conducted equal the
credit given for one applicant trained and recommended for a practical test.)
22. GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES (WITH A SPORT PILOT
RATING). The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor certificate (with a sport
pilot rating) are contained in FAA Order 8700.1, Vol. 2, Ch. 13, and FAA Order 8710.7, Sport
Pilot Examiners Handbook. Flight instructor certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued
to flight instructors who have maintained a high level of flight training activity and who meet
special criteria. Once issued, a gold seal flight instructor certificate will be reissued each time the
instructors certificate is renewed. Applicants for gold seal flight instructor certificates (with a
sport pilot rating) must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold at least a sport pilot certificate;
b. The flight instructor must hold a ground instructor certificate with a basic ground
instructor rating;
c. The flight instructor must have accomplished one of the following within the previous
24 months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for an original certificate with at
least 80 percent of those applicants recommended passing the practical test on his or her first
attempt;
(2) Conducted at least 20 certification practical tests as an examiner or conducted
20 certification graduation tests as a chief flight instructor for an approved pilot school course; or
(3) A combination of the requirements in paragraphs 22c(1) and (2). (Two certification
practical tests/certification graduation tests equate to one trained and recommended applicant.)
23. RENEWAL OF A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATE. The renewal
requirements for a flight instructor certificate are located in 61.197. Renewal of a flight
instructor certificate may be accomplished at any time.
a. A flight instructor certificate that has not expired may be renewed in accordance with
61.197(a) by:
(1) Passing a practical test for one of the ratings listed on the persons current flight
instructor certificate or passing a practical test for an additional flight instructor rating;
(2) Presenting to an ASI the appropriate records that verify the requirements of
61.197(a)(2)(i) or 61.197(a)(2)(ii) were accomplished;
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AC 61-65E
(3) Presenting to an ASI evidence of having graduated from an FAA-approved flight

instructor refresher course (FIRC) within the preceding 3 calendar-months. The instructors
FIRC graduation certificate should be presented to an ASI at the time of application for renewal.
b. For individuals who wish to comply with 61.197(a)(2)(ii), the FAA offers the
following examples of a position involving the regular evaluation of pilots:
(1) Persons who regularly give aircraft checkouts at a fixed-base operator and the ASI
are acquainted with the applicants duties, responsibilities, and quality of instruction.
(2) Title 14 CFR part 121 or 135 airline captains who regularly evaluate pilots and have
satisfactory knowledge of part 61 pilot training, certification, and standards. The ASI must be
acquainted with the duties and responsibilities of those pilot positions.
(3) Company check pilots for 14 CFR part 133 operations who regularly evaluate pilots
and have satisfactory knowledge of part 61 pilot training, certification, and standards. The ASI
must be acquainted with the duties and responsibilities of those pilot positions.
c. Provided that the certificate is renewed within 3 calendar-months before the expiration
month of a current flight instructor certificate, the renewed certificate will be valid for an
additional 24 calendar-months beyond the expiration date shown on the current certificate. For
example:
(1) If a flight instructor renewal applicants current flight instructor certificate expires
in August, then that applicant must accomplish one of the flight instructor renewal actions in the
months of May, June, July, or August to retain the month of August as the expiration month
(per 61.197(b)(2)(i)).
(2) For example, assume a flight instructor renewal applicant has August 31, 2005,
showing on her current flight instructor certificate. The applicant completes an FIRC on
June 1, 2005, and presents her current flight instructor certificate and FIRC graduation certificate
to a FSDO on June 1, 2005. The flight instructor certificate is renewed with a new expiration
date of August 31, 2007 (per 61.197(b)(2)(ii)).
d. If the flight instructor certification renewal action occurs outside the 3 calendar-month
period of the expiration month on the flight instructor certificate, the renewed flight instructor
certificate will be valid for an additional 24 calendar-months from the month the renewal
requirements of 61.197 were accomplished. A FIRC graduation certificate must be presented to
a FSDO within 90 days of completion of the FIRC. The renewal action of 61.197(a) must be
accomplished before the expiration date shown on the applicants flight instructor certificate.
e. There have been several inquires asking about the intent of the phrase or other
documentation acceptable to the Administrator in 61.3(d). During the flight instructor
certification renewal process, when an FIRC graduation certificate is used for renewal and the
applicants flight instructor certificate is being processed for renewal, a copy of the FIRC
graduation certificate is considered acceptable documentation to the Administrator until the
applicant receives his or her permanent flight instructor certificate. Another example of other
acceptable documentation to the Administrator is a copy of the flight instructor renewal
application that the applicant has completed and signed FAA Form 8710-1.
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AC 61-65E
f. Regardless of what has been explained in the paragraphs above, it should be understood
that the FAA has the prerogative to require any applicant to complete a part or the entire
applicable flight instructor practical test. A practical test may be required if there is reason to
believe that it will correct some deficiency in the applicants instructing abilities or it has been
determined necessary to introduce new training procedures or certification requirements.
24. EXPIRED FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATE. The requirements for holders of
an expired flight instructor certificate to obtain new certificates are located in 61.199. A
practical test is required in the exchange of an expired flight instructor certificate. A DPE or an
ASI will not reinstate expired flight instructor certificates unless the applicant passes a practical
test.
a. The holder of an expired flight instructor certificate (i.e., a flight instructor certificate
that conforms to 61.5(c)) may exchange that certificate for a new certificate (except for a flight
instructor certificate with a sport pilot rating) by passing one practical test, per 61.183(h), for
one of the aircraft ratings held on that persons expired flight instructor certificate.
NOTE: If the practical test is for a flight instructor certificate with a sport
pilot rating, the examiner may only issue that rating and provide
endorsements for the category and class privileges tested.
b. Flight instructor ratings or limited flight instructor ratings on a pilot certificate are no
longer valid. To reinstate instructor privileges, all requirements for initial issuance of a flight
instructor certificate must be met.
25. INSTRUMENT RATING. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and
endorsement requirements for the instrument rating are located in 61.65.
26. ADDITIONAL AIRCRAFT RATINGS (OTHER THAN ATP). Specific knowledge,
flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement requirements for additional category,
class, or type rating (for other than at the ATP level) are located in 61.63.
a. Category and Class Ratings. Applicants adding a category and/or class rating to a
recreational pilot certificate or higher must have an instructors recommendations and
appropriate endorsements. An applicant need not take an additional knowledge test, provided the
person holds an airplane, powered-lift, rotorcraft, powered parachute, weight-shift-control
aircraft, or airship rating at or above the pilot certificate level sought. An applicant must pass the
required practical test appropriate to the pilot certificate for the aircraft category and, if
applicable, class rating sought. Additionally, applicants must comply with the requirements of
61.63, as noted below:
(1) Category Ratings. Applicants must receive the training and have the aeronautical
experience required by part 61 that applies to the pilot certificate level for the category, and if
applicable, class rating sought.
(2) Class Ratings. Applicants must be found competent in the knowledge areas and
proficient in the areas of operation for the class rating sought.
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AC 61-65E
(3) Type Ratings. Applicants must have the required training time, logbook, or training
record endorsements, and pass the required practical test in accordance with the ATP/type rating
PTS (see 61.63(d)).
b. Experimental Category and Class RatingSection 61.31(l)(2)(iii)(B) for the
Carriage of Passengers. An applicant holding at least a recreational pilot certificate may apply
for the issuance of a category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of
experimental aircraft in accordance with the provisions of 61.63(l), with the limitation
Authorized Experimental Aircraft: [Category] and [Class] rating [Make] and [Model]. The
applicant is required to receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized flight instructor who
has determined that the applicant is proficient to act as PIC of the same category, class, make,
and model of experimental aircraft for which the application was made. The 5 hours of flight
experience must have been logged between September 1, 2004, and August 31, 2005. Once the
pilot complies with the provisions of 61.63(k), that pilot may be issued the appropriate
category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of experimental aircraft.
27. ADDITIONAL CATEGORY/CLASS RATINGS AT THE ATP CERTIFICATION
LEVEL.
a. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, flight experience, and endorsement
requirements for additional category, class, or type rating (at the ATP certification level) are
located in 61.165.
b. Applicants for a type rating on the ATP certification level must have the required
training time, logbook, or training record endorsements, and pass the required practical test in
accordance with the ATP/type rating PTS (see 61.157(b)).
c. An instructor recommendation is not required, unless the applicant has failed the
practical test and this is a retest (per 61.49). Applicants for retest must comply with the
appropriate retest requirements of 61.49. In addition, the instructor must sign the applicants
FAA Form 8710-1 application for the retest.
d. Experimental category and class rating 61.31(1)(2)(iii)(B). An applicant holding an
ATP certificate may apply for the issuance of a category and class rating limited to a specific
make and model of experimental aircraft in accordance with the provisions of 61.165(f) with
the limitation Authorized Experimental Aircraft: [Category] and [Class] rating [Make] and
[Model]. The applicant is required to receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized flight
instructor who has determined that the applicant is proficient to act as PIC of the same category,
class, make, and model of experimental aircraft for which the application was made. The 5 hours
of flight experience must have been logged between September 1, 2004, and August 31, 2005.
Once the pilot complies with the provisions of 61.165(f), that pilot may be issued the
appropriate category and class rating limited to a specific make and model of experimental
aircraft.
28. OTHER INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS. Specific requirements for knowledge,
aeronautical experience and, as appropriate, testing for the complex airplane, high performance
airplane, tailwheel airplane, high altitude/pressurized airplane, and type specific training are
found in 61.31.
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AC 61-65E
29. GROUND INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATION. The applicability, eligibility, privileges,

and recency requirements for the ground instructor certificate is located in part 61, subpart I.
30. AUTHORIZED INSTRUCTORS. Section 61.1 defines an authorized instructor as any
instructor who holds a valid and current flight or ground instructor certificate with the applicable
privileges and limitations appropriate to the type of instruction provided. Section 61.41
authorizes instructors who are not certificated by FAA to provide training. However, only
instructors who are certificated by FAA are allowed to provide the required endorsements toward
the requirements for a pilot certificate, rating, or privilege issued under part 61.
31. ADDITIONAL TRAINING FOR GLIDERS. Specific knowledge, flight proficiency, and
endorsement requirements for the ground tow, aerotow, and self-launch procedures for gliders
are located in 61.31(j).
a. Pilots who desire to use ground-tow launch procedures must have satisfactorily
accomplished ground and flight training on ground-tow procedures and operations. The pilot
must have received an endorsement from a CFI-Glider instructor who certifies, in the pilots
logbook, that the pilot has been found proficient in ground-tow procedures and operations.
b. Pilots who desire to use aerotow procedures must have satisfactorily accomplished
ground and flight training on aerotow procedures and operations. The pilot must have received
an endorsement from a CFI-Glider instructor who certifies, in the pilots logbook, that the pilot
has been found proficient in aerotow procedures and operations.
c. Pilots who desire to use self-launch procedures must have satisfactorily accomplished
ground and flight training on self-launch procedures and operations. The pilot must have
received an endorsement from a CFI-Glider instructor who certifies, in the pilots logbook, that
the pilot has been found proficient in self-launch procedures and operations.
d. As per 61.31(j)(2), the holder of a glider rating issued prior to August 4, 1997, is
considered to be in compliance with the training and logbook endorsement requirements of this
paragraph for the specific operating privilege for which the holder is already qualified.
e. Prior to September 1, 2004, some weight-shift-control aircraft had been issued an
experimental certificate in the glider category. In these cases only, initial pilot certification for
the issuance of at least a private pilot certificate with a glider rating limited to weight-shift
control or glider-trike privileges was authorized.
NOTE: After September 1, 2004, issuance of at least a private pilot certificate
with a glider rating limited to weight-shift control or glider-trike privileges is
no longer authorized, nor necessary, now that there are established training
and certification requirements for weight-shift control category aircraft
under part 61.
f. Effective January 15, 2005, airmen who conducted their initial pilot certification in a
weight-shift control aircraft that was certificated as an experimental aircraft in the glider
category and received a private pilot certificate or higher with a glider rating limited to
weight-shift control or glider-trike privileges can apply using FAA Form 8710-11 at a FSDO for
a weight-shift-control category and/or class rating to be added to their airman certificate with no
further showing of competency.
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AC 61-65E
32. HOW TO OBTAIN ELECTRONICALLY. This AC is available online at

http://www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl and can also be found at http://www.faa.gov/pilots/ under the
Advisory Circulars link.
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1. CONTENTSINSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS
No.
Endorsement Description ........................................................................................ Page

Student Pilot Endorsements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Presolo aeronautical knowledge: 61.87(b) .....................................................................5

Presolo flight training: 61.87(c) .....................................................................................5
Presolo flight training at night: 61.87(c) and 61.87(o) ................................................5
Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): 61.87(p) ..................................................5
Solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1) ......................5
Initial solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(1) ..................................................................6
Solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(2)............................................................................6
Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2) .....................................................................................................................6
9.
Solo flight in Class B airspace: 61.95(a) .......................................................................6
10. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace: 61.95(a) and
91.131(b)(1) ......................................................................................................................6
11. TSA Endorsement(s) .........................................................................................................6
Student Pilot Seeking Sport Pilot Certificate Endorsements
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Presolo aeronautical knowledge: 61.87(b) .....................................................................6

Presolo flight training: 61.87(c) .....................................................................................7
Solo flight (first 90-day period): 61.87(n)(2) .................................................................7
Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): 61.87(p)(5) ...............................................7
Solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1) ......................7
Initial solo cross-country flight training: 61.93(c)(1) ....................................................7
Solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(2)............................................................................7
Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2) .....................................................................................................................8
20. Solo flight in Class B, C, and D airspace: 61.94(a) .......................................................8
21. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace or on an
airport having an operational control tower: 61.94(a) and 91.131(b)(1) .....................8
22. Presolo flight training at night: 61.87(c) and 61.87(o) ................................................9
Sport Pilot Endorsements
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Taking aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1) and 61.309......................................9

Taking flight proficiency check for different category or class of aircraft:
61.309 and 61.311 ........................................................................................................9
Passing flight proficiency check for different category or class of aircraft:
61.309 and 61.311 ........................................................................................................9
Flight proficiency in same category and class within a different make and model of
aircraft: 61.323 ...............................................................................................................9
Taking sport pilot practical test: 61.309, 61.311, and 61.313 ......................................9
Passing a sport pilot practical test: 61.309, 61.311, and 61.313 ................................10
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
Appendix 1
29.
Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to,

from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower: 61.325 .............10
Light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots CAS: 61.327 ........................10
30.
Recreational Pilot Endorsements

31.
32.
33.
Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), and 61.97(b) .......................10

Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) and (b), and 61.99 ...............10
Recreational pilot to operate within 50 nm of the airport where training was received:
61.101(b) ......................................................................................................................10
34. Recreational pilot to act as PIC on a flight that exceeds 50 nm of the departure
airport: 61.101(c) .........................................................................................................11
35. Recreational pilot with less than 400 flight hours and not logged PIC time within
the preceding 180 days: 61.101(g) ...............................................................................11
36. Recreational pilot to conduct solo flights for the purpose of obtaining an additional
certificate or rating while under the supervision of an authorized flight instructor:
61.101(i) .......................................................................................................................11
37. Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from,
through, or on an airport having an operational control tower 61.101(d).............................11
Private Pilot Endorsements
38.
39.
Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105 ............................11

Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109 ...........................12
Commercial Pilot Endorsements
40
41.
Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), and 61.125 ............................12

Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.123(e), 61.127, and 61.129 ...............................12
Airline Transport Pilot Endorsements
42.
Restricted Privileges Airline Transport Pilot Certificate: Airplane Multiengine Land

Rating, 61.160 ..............................................................................................................12
43. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP), 61.153(e) .......12
Instrument Rating Endorsements
44. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.65(a) and 61.65(b) .............................12

45. Flight proficiency/practical test: s 61.65(a)(6)..............................................................12
46. Prerequisites for practical tests. ......................................................................................13
Flight Instructor (Other Than Flight Instructors with a Sport Pilot Rating) Endorsements
47.
48.
Fundamentals of instructing knowledge test: 61.183(d) and 61.185(a)(1) ................13

Flight instructor ground and flight proficiency/practical test: 61.183(g) and
61.187(a) and 61.187(b) ..................................................................................................13
49. Flight instructor certificate with instrument(category/class) rating/practical test:
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50.
AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
61.183(g), 61.187(a) and 61.187(b)(7) ......................................................................13
Spin training: 61.183(i)(1) ...........................................................................................13
Flight Instructor with a Sport Pilot Rating Endorsements
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Taking the fundamentals of instructing knowledge test: 61.405(a)(1) .......................14

Taking sport pilot flight instructor aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1)
and 61.405(a) ..................................................................................................................14
Taking the flight instructor flight proficiency check to provide training if a different
category or class of aircraft(additional category/class): 61.419 and 61.409..........14
Passing the flight instructor flight proficiency check to provide training in a
different category or class of aircraft(additional category/class): 61.419
and 61.409 .......................................................................................................................14
Taking the flight instructor practical test: 61.409 and 61.411 ...................................14
Passing the flight instructor practical test: 61.409 and 61.411 ..................................14
Spin training: 61.405(b)(1)(ii) .....................................................................................15
Ground Instructor Endorsement
58.
Ground instructor who does not meet the recent experience requirements:
61.217(b) ......................................................................................................................15
Additional Endorsements
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
Completion of a flight review: 61.56(a) and 61.56(c) ...............................................15

Completion of a phase of an FAA-sponsored pilot proficiency award program
(WINGS): 61.56(e) ......................................................................................................15
Completion of an instrument proficiency check: 61.57(d) ..........................................15
To act as PIC in a complex airplane: 61.31(e) .............................................................16
To act as PIC in a high performance airplane: 61.31(f) ...............................................16
To act as PIC in a pressurized aircraft capable of high altitude operations:
61.31(g) ........................................................................................................................16
To act as PIC in a tailwheel airplane: 61.31(i).............................................................16
To act as PIC of an aircraft in solo operations when the pilot does not hold an
appropriate category/class rating: 61.31(d)(2) .............................................................16
Retesting after failure of a knowledge or practical test: 61.49. ...................................16
Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than ATP): 61.63(b) or 61.63(c) .17
Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(d)(2) and 61.63(3) .................................................................................17
Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (other than ATP):
61.63(d)(2) and (3) .....................................................................................................17
Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (at the ATP
level): 61.157(b)(1) ......................................................................................................17
Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (at the ATP level):
61.157(b)(1) .................................................................................................................17
Launch procedures for operating a glider: 61.31(j) .....................................................18
Review of a home study curriculum: 61.35(a)(1) ........................................................18
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
75.
Experimental aircraft onlyadditional aircraft category or class rating (other than

ATP): 61.63(k) ............................................................................................................18
76. Experimental aircraft onlyadditional aircraft category or class rating ATP:
61.165(f) ......................................................................................................................18
77. Aeronautical experience creditultralight vehicles: 61.52 ........................................18
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AC 61-65E CHG 1
Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1. INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENTS
The following examples are recommended sample endorsements for use by authorized
instructors when endorsing logbooks, or other means found acceptable to the Administrator for
airmen applying for a knowledge or practical test, or when certifying accomplishment of
requirements for pilot operating privileges. Each endorsement must be legible and include the
instructors signature, date of signature, certificated flight instructor (CFI) or certificated ground
instructor (CGI) certificate number, and certificate expiration date, if applicable. The purpose for
this advisory circular is to provide guidance and to encourage standardization among instructors.
STUDENT PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
1.
Presolo aeronautical knowledge: 61.87(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has satisfactorily completed the presolo knowledge
exam of 61.87(b) for the (make and model aircraft).
/s/ [date] J. J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
2.
Presolo flight training: 61.87(c).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required presolo training in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87(d) and
is proficient to make solo flights in (make and model aircraft).
3.
Presolo flight training at night: 61.87(c) and 61.87(o).
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87(o) and
is proficient to make solo flights at night in a (make and model aircraft).
4.
Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): 61.87(p).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training to qualify for solo
flying. I have determined he/she meets the applicable requirements of 61.87(p) and is
proficient to make solo flights in (make and model).
5.
Solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.93(b)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to practice solo takeoffs and landings at (airport name).
The takeoffs and landings at (airport name) are subject to the following conditions: (List any
applicable conditions or limitations.)
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6.
AC 61-65E CHG 1
Appendix 1
Initial solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I
find he/she has met the applicable requirements of 61.93, and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a (make and model aircraft).
7.
Solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(2).
I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
8. Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that he/she is proficient of 61.93(b)(2)
to conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the following conditions:
(List any applicable conditions or limitations.)
9.
Solo flight in Class B airspace: 61.95(a).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.95(a). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B) airspace. (List any
10. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B airspace: 61.95(a)
and 91.131(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.95(a)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport).
11. TSA Endorsement(s).
I certify that [insert students name] has presented me a [insert type of document presented, such
as a U.S. birth certificate or U.S. passport, and the relevant control or sequential number on the
document, if any] establishing that [he or she] is a U.S. citizen or national in accordance with
49 CFR 1552.3(h). [Insert date and instructors signature and CFI number.]
Page 6
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
STUDENT PILOT SEEKING SPORT PILOT CERTIFICATE ENDORSEMENTS

12. Presolo aeronautical knowledge: 61.87(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has satisfactorily completed the presolo knowledge
exam of 61.87(b) for the (make and model aircraft).
13. Presolo flight training: 61.87(c).
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87 ((d)
through (m), as appropriate) and is proficient to make solo flights in (aircraft category*: make
and model aircraft).
* Use the following letters to indicate the category of aircraft: (d) Airplane (g) Gyroplane
(i) Glider (j) Airship (k) Balloon (l) powered parachute (m) weight-shift-control
14. Solo flight (first 90-day period): 61.87(n)(2).
flying. I have determined he/she meets the applicable requirements of 61.87(n) and is
15. Solo flight (each additional 90-day period): 61.87(p)(5).
flying. I have determined he/she meets the applicable requirements of 61.87(p) and is
16. Solo takeoffs and landings at another airport within 25 nm: 61.93(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.93(b)(1). I
have determined that he/she is proficient to practice solo takeoffs and landings at (airport name).
The takeoffs and landings at (airport name) are subject to the following conditions: (List any
17. Initial solo cross-country flight training: 61.93(c)(1).
NOTE: The instructor who provided the training places an endorsement in
the students logbook before the first solo cross-country and endorses the
back of the student pilot certificate.
Page 7
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required solo cross-country training. I
find he/she has met the applicable requirements of 61.93, and is proficient to make solo
cross-country flights in a (make and model aircraft).
18. Solo cross-country flight: 61.93(c)(2).
NOTE: This is done before each solo cross-country flight and may be
accomplished by any instructor who reviews the flight planning. This
endorsement is made in the students logbook.
I have reviewed the cross-country planning of (First name, MI, Last name). I find the planning
and preparation to be correct to make the solo flight from (location) to (destination) via (route of
flight) with landings at (name the airports) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date). (List any
19. Repeated solo cross-country flights not more than 50 nm from the point of departure:
61.93(b)(2).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in both directions
between and at both (airport names). I have determined that he/she is proficient of 61.93(b)(2)
to conduct repeated solo cross-country flights over that route, subject to the following conditions:
20. Solo flight in Class B, C, and D airspace: 61.94(a).
NOTE: Required each additional 90-day period.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.94(a). I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct solo flights in (name of Class B, C, or D) airspace and
authorized to operate to, from through and at __________ airport. (List any applicable conditions
or limitations.)
21. Solo flight to, from, or at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace or on an
airport having an operational control tower: 61.94(a) and 91.131(b)(1).
NOTE: Required each additional 90-day period.
have determined that he/she is proficient to conduct solo flight operations at (name of airport)
located in Class B, C, or D airspace or on an airport having an operational control tower. (List
any applicable conditions or limitations.)
Page 8
11/29/05
AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
22. Presolo flight training at night: 61.87(c) and 61.87(o).

and model aircraft) and determined he/she has demonstrated the proficiency of 61.87(o) and is
proficient to make solo flights at night in a (make and model aircraft).
SPORT PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
23. Taking aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1) and 61.309.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required aeronautical knowledge
training of 61.309. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
24. Taking flight proficiency check for different category or class of aircraft: 61.309
and 61.311.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training required in
accordance with 61.309 and 61.311 and have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name
the proficiency check).
25. Passing flight proficiency check for different category or class of aircraft: 61.309
and 61.311.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has met the requirements of 61.309 and 61.311 and
I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of (category and class) of light-sport aircraft.
26. Flight proficiency in same category and class within a different make and model of
aircraft: 61.323.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.323 in (make
and model aircraft) and have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of that light-sport
aircraft.
27. Taking sport pilot practical test: 61.309, 61.311, and 61.313.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the training required in accordance with
61.309 and 61.311 and met the aeronautical experience requirements of 61.313. I have
determined that he/she is prepared for the (type of practical test).
Page 9
11/29/05
AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
28. Passing a sport pilot practical test: 61.309, 61.311, and 61.313.
NOTE: Required by 61.317, issued by a designated pilot examiner (DPE).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has met the requirements of 61.309, 61.311, and
61.313, and I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of (category and class of light
sport aircraft) aircraft.
29. Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to,
from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower: 61.325.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.325. I have
determined he/she is proficient to conduct operations in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport
located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an operational
control tower.
30. Light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots CAS: 61.327.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training required in
accordance with 61.327 in a (make and model aircraft). I have determined him/her proficient to
act as PIC of a light-sport aircraft that has a VH greater than 87 knots (kts) CAS.
RECREATIONAL PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
31. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), and 61.97(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.97(b). I have
determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
32. Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a) and (b), and 61.99.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.98(b) and
61.99. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test).
33. Recreational pilot to operate within 50 nm of the airport where training was received:
61.101(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.101(b). I
have determined he/she is competent to operate at the (name of airport).
Page 10
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
34. Recreational pilot to act as PIC on a flight that exceeds 50 nm of the departure
airport: 61.101(c).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required cross-country training of
61.101(c). I have determined that he/she is proficient in cross-country flying of part 61,
subpart E.
35. Recreational pilot with less than 400 flight hours and not logged PIC time within the
preceding 180 days: 61.101(g).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required 180-day recurrent training of
61.101(g) in a (make and model aircraft). I have determined him/her proficient to act as PIC of
that aircraft.
36. Recreational pilot to conduct solo flights for the purpose of obtaining an additional
certificate or rating while under the supervision of an authorized flight instructor:
61.101(i).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.87 in a (make
and model aircraft). I have determined he/she is prepared to conduct a solo flight on (date) under
the following conditions: (List all conditions which require endorsement, e.g., flight which
requires communication with air traffic control, flight in an aircraft for which the pilot does not
hold a category/class rating, etc.).
37. Class B, C, or D airspace, at an airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to,
from, through, or on an airport having an operational control tower: 61.101(d).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.101(d). I
have determined he/she is proficient to conduct operations in Class B, C, or D airspace, at an
airport located in Class B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through, or on an airport having an
operational control tower.
PRIVATE PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
38. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), and 61.105.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training in accordance with
61.105. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
Page 11
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Appendix 1
39. Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.103(f), 61.107(b), and 61.109.

61.107 and 61.109. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test).
COMMERCIAL PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
40. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), and 61.125.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.125. I have
41. Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.123(e), 61.127, and 61.129.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.127
and 61.129. I have determined he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test).
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT ENDORSEMENTS
42. Restricted Privileges Airline Transport Pilot Certificate: Airplane Multiengine Land
Rating, 61.160.
The [insert institutions name] certifies that the recipient of this degree has successfully
completed all of the aviation coursework requirements of part 61 and therefore meets the
academic eligibility requirements of [insert the 61.160 paragraph applicable to the graduate].
43. Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) Certification Training Program (CTP), 61.153(e).
The applicant named above has successfully completed the Airline Transport Pilot Certification
Training Program as required by 61.156, and therefore has met the prerequisite required by
61.35(a)(2) for the Airline Transport Pilot Multiengine Airplane Knowledge Test.
INSTRUMENT RATING ENDORSEMENTS
44. Aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1), 61.65(a) and 61.35(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.65(b). I have
45. Flight proficiency/practical test: 61.65(a)(6).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.65(c) and
61.65(d). I have determined he/she is prepared for the Instrument(airplane, helicopter, or
powered-lift) practical test.
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Appendix 1
46. Prerequisites for practical tests.

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received and logged the required and logged the
required flight time/training of 61.39(a) in preparation for the practical test within 2 calendar
months preceding the date of the test and has satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in
which he/she was shown to be deficient by the FAA airman knowledge test report. I have
determined he/she is prepared for the Instrument(airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift)
practical test.
/s/ [date] J.J. Jones 987654321CFI Exp. 12-31-05
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR (OTHER THAN FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS WITH
A SPORT PILOT RATING) ENDORSEMENTS
47. Fundamentals of instructing knowledge test: 61.183(d) and 61.185(a)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required fundamentals of instruction
training of 61.185(a)(1).
48. Flight instructor ground and flight proficiency/practical test: 61.183(g), 61.187(a)
and 61.187(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.187(b). I
have determined he/she is prepared for the CFI(aircraft category and class) practical test.
49. Flight instructor certificate with instrument(category/class) rating/practical test:
61.183(g), 61.187(a) and 61.187(b)(7).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required CFII training of
61.187(b)(7). I have determined he/she is prepared for the CFII(airplane, helicopter, or
powered-lift) practical test.
50. Spin training: 61.183(i)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.183(i). I have
determined that he/she is competent in instructional skills for training stall awareness, spin entry,
spins, and spin recovery procedures.
NOTE: The above spin training endorsement is required of flight instructor
applicants for the airplane and glider ratings only.
Page 13
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR WITH A SPORT PILOT RATING ENDORSEMENTS

51. Taking the fundamentals of instructing knowledge test: 61.405(a)(1).
61.405(a)(1). I have determined that he/she is prepared for the Fundamentals of Instruction
Knowledge Test.
52. Taking sport pilot flight instructor aeronautical knowledge test: 61.35(a)(1) and
61.405(a).
have determined that he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
53. Taking the flight instructor flight proficiency check to provide training if a different
category or class of aircraft(additional category/class): 61.419 and 61.409.
61.419 and 61.409 and have determined he/she is prepared for a proficiency check for the
flight instructor with a sport pilot rating in a (aircraft category and class).
54. Passing the flight instructor flight proficiency check to provide training in a different
category or class of aircraft(additional category/class): 61.419 and 61.409.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has met the requirements in accordance with 61.419
and 61.409. I have determined that he/she is proficient and authorized for the additional (aircraft
category and class) flight instructor privilege.
55. Taking the flight instructor practical test: 61.409 and 61.411.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.409 and met
the aeronautical experience requirements of 61.411. I have determined he/she is prepared for
the flight instructor with a sport pilot rating practical test in a (aircraft category and class).
56. Passing the flight instructor practical test: 61.409 and 61.411.
NOTE: Required by 61.417, issued by a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has met the requirements in accordance with 61.409
and 61.411. I have determined that he/she is proficient and authorized for the (aircraft category
and class) flight instructor privilege.
Page 14
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
57. Spin training: 61.405(b)(1)(ii).

I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.405(b)(1)(ii).
I have determined that he/she is competent and possess instructional proficiency in stall
awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures.
NOTE: This spin training endorsement is only required of flight instructor
applicants for the airplane and glider ratings.
GROUND INSTRUCTOR ENDORSEMENT
58. Ground instructor who does not meet the recent experience requirements: 61.217(b).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has demonstrated satisfactory proficiency on the
appropriate ground instructor knowledge and training subjects of 61.213(a)(3) and
61.213(a)(4).
NOTE: Signed by CFI or CGI, as appropriate; the expiration date would
apply only to a CFI.
ADDITIONAL ENDORSEMENTS
59. Completion of a flight review: 61.56(a) and 61.56(c).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has
satisfactorily completed a flight review of 61.56(a) on (date).
NOTE: No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on a flight
review is required.
60. Completion of a phase of an FAA-sponsored pilot proficiency award program
(WINGS): 61.56(e).
satisfactorily completed Phase No. ___ of a WINGS program on (date).
61. Completion of an instrument proficiency check: 61.57(d).
satisfactorily completed the instrument proficiency check of 61.57(d) in a (list make and model
of aircraft) on (date).
Page 15
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
NOTE: No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on an

instrument proficiency check is required.
62. To act as PIC in a complex airplane: 61.31(e).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), has received
the required training of 61.31(e) in a (make and model of complex airplane). I have determined
that he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a complex airplane.
63. To act as PIC in a high performance airplane: 61.31(f).
the required training of 61.31(f) in a (make and model of high performance airplane). I have
determined that he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a high performance airplane.
64. To act as PIC in a pressurized aircraft capable of high altitude operations: 61.31(g).
the required training of 61.31(g) in a (make and model of pressurized aircraft). I have
determined that he/she is proficient in the operation and systems of a pressurized aircraft.
65. To act as PIC in a tailwheel airplane: 61.31(i).
the required training of 61.31(i) in a (make and model of tailwheel airplane). I have determined
that he/she is proficient in the operation of a tailwheel airplane.
66. To act as PIC of an aircraft in solo operations when the pilot does not hold an
appropriate category/class rating: 61.31(d)(2).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the training as required by 61.31(d)(2)
to serve as a PIC in a (category and class of aircraft). I have determined that he/she is prepared to
serve as PIC in that (make and model of aircraft).
67. Retesting after failure of a knowledge or practical test: 61.49.
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the additional (flight and/or ground, as
appropriate) training as required by 61.49. I have determined that he/she is prepared for the
(name the knowledge/practical test).
NOTE: In the case of a failed knowledge test, the instructor may complete
the endorsement in the space provided at the bottom of the applicants
Page 16
11/29/05
AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
airman knowledge test report. The instructor must sign the block provided
for the instructors recommendation on the reverse side of FAA Form 8710-1
application for each retake of a practical test.
68. Additional aircraft category or class rating (other than airline transport pilot (ATP)):
61.63(b) or 61.63(c).
the required training for an additional (name the aircraft category/class rating). I have determined
that he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class rating).
69. Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(d)(2) and 61.63(d)(3).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.63(d)(2) and
61.63(d)(3) for an addition of a (name the type rating).
70. Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(d)(2) and 61.63(d)(3).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.63(d)(2) and
61.63(d)(3) for an addition of a (name the category/class/type rating). I have determined that
he/she is prepared for the (name the practical test) for the addition of a (name the aircraft
category/class/type rating).
71. Type rating only, already holds the appropriate category or class rating (at the ATP
level): 61.157(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.157(b)(1) for
an addition of a (name the type rating).
72. Type rating concurrently with an additional category or class rating (at the ATP
level): 61.157(b)(1).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of 61.157(b)(1) for
an addition of a (name the category/class/type rating).
Page 17
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AC 61-65E
Appendix 1
73. Launch procedures for operating a glider: 61.31(j).

the required training in a (list the glider make and model) for (list the launch procedure). I have
determined that he/she is proficient in (list the launch procedure).
74. Review of a home study curriculum: 61.35(a)(1).
I certify I have reviewed the home study curriculum of (First name, MI, Last name). I have
determined he/she is prepared for the (name the knowledge test).
75. Experimental aircraft onlyadditional aircraft category or class rating (other than
ATP): 61.63(k).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), as required by
61.63(k) is proficient to act as PIC in a (category, class, make, and model) of experimental
aircraft and has logged at least 5 hours flight time logged between September 1, 2004 and
August 31, 2005 while acting as PIC in (name the aircraft category/class rating and make and
model) that has been issued an experimental certificate.
76. Experimental aircraft onlyadditional aircraft category or class rating ATP:
61.165(f).
I certify that (First name, MI, Last name), (pilot certificate), (certificate number), as required by
61.165(f) is proficient to act as PIC in a (category, class, make, and model) of experimental
aircraft and has logged at least 5 hours flight time logged between September 1, 2004 and
August 31, 2005 while acting as PIC in (name the aircraft category/class rating and make and
model) that has been issued an experimental certificate.
77. Aeronautical experience creditultralight vehicles: 61.52.
I certify, I have reviewed the records of (First name, MI, Last name), as required by 61.52(c). I
have determined he/she may use (number of hours) aeronautical experience obtained in an
ultralight vehicle to meet the requirements for (certificate/rating/privilege).
Page 18
Advisory
Circular
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Subject: Stall and Spin Awareness Training
Date: 9/20/07
AC No: 61-67C
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) has been updated to reflect new resources for sport
pilots and warnings about design maneuvering speed.
2. PRINCIPLE CHANGES. This change updates resources for sport pilots and warnings about
design maneuvering speed.
a. Paragraph 2b(12) adds Sports Pilot Practical Test Standards.
b. Paragraph 5 contains the proper Internet address for this AC.
c. Paragraph 100f adds information regarding design maneuvering speed.
d. Paragraph 100g adds information regarding load factor.
PAGE CONTROL CHART
Remove Pages
Dated
Insert Pages
Dated
ii
2
9/25/00
9/25/00
ii
2
9/20/07
9/20/07
ORIGINAL SIGNED BY
Carol Giles for
James J. Ballough
Director, Flight Standards Service
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Subject: Stall and Spin Awareness Training
Advisory
Circular
Date: 9/20/07
AC No: 61-67C
Change: 1
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) explains the stall and spin awareness training required
under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 and offers guidance to flight
instructors who provide it. This AC also informs pilots of the airworthiness standards for the type
certification of normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes prescribed in 14 CFR part 23,
23.221, concerning spin maneuvers, and it emphasizes the importance of observing restrictions
that prohibit the intentional spins of certain airplanes.
2. RELATED READING MATERIAL (current editions).
a. Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation Pilot Stall Awareness Training Study. This
document may be purchased from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S.
Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161. To order by
telephone call: (800) 553-6847. The NTIS identification number is ADA041310.
b. The following documents are available on the Internet at http: www.faa.gov/.
(1) AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.
(2) FAA-H-8083-1, Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook.
(3) FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
(4) FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook.
(5) FAA-S-8081-3, Recreational Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane and
Rotorcraft.
(6) FAA-S-8081-6, Flight Instructor - Practical Test Standards for Airplane (SingleEngine/ Multiengine).
(7) FAA-S-8081-8, Flight Instructor - Practical Test Standards for Glider.
(8) FAA-S-8081-12, Commercial Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane.
(9) FAA-S-8081-14, Private Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane.
(10) FAA-S-8081-22, Private Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Glider.
AC 61-67C CHG 1
9/20/07
(11) FAA-S-8081-23, Commercial Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Glider.

(12) FAA-S-8081-29, Sport Pilot - Practical Test Standards for Airplane, Gyroplane,
Glider, Flight Instructor.
(13) FAA-S-8081-31, Sport Pilot - Practical Standards for Weight Shift Control, Powered
Parachute, Flight Instructor.
3. BACKGROUND. In January 1980, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announced its
policy of incorporating the use of certain distractions during the performance of flight test
maneuvers. This policy came about as a result of Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General Aviation
Pilot Stall Awareness Study, which revealed that stall/spin related accidents accounted for
approximately one-quarter of all fatal general aviation accidents. National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB) statistics indicate that most stall/spin accidents result when a pilot is distracted
momentarily from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Changes to part 61, completed in 1991,
included increased stall and spin awareness training for recreational, private, and commercial pilot
certificate applicants. The training is intended to emphasize recognition of situations that could lead
to an inadvertent stall and/or spin by using realistic distractions such as those suggested in Report
No. FAA-RD-77-26 and incorporated into the performance of flight test maneuvers. Although the
training is intended to emphasize stall and spin awareness and recovery techniques for all pilots,
only flight instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider candidates are required to demonstrate
instructional proficiency in spin entry, spins, and spin recovery techniques as a requirement for
certification. Part 61 was extensively updated in 1997. Sections of part 23 (Airworthiness
Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes) that apply to spin
requirements and placards have changed. This AC incorporates those changes.
4. COMMENTS INVITED. Comments regarding this publication should be directed to:
Federal Aviation Administration
General Aviation and Commercial Division, AFS-800
800 Independence Ave., S.W.
Washington, DC 20591
Every comment will not necessarily generate a direct acknowledgment to the commenter.
Comments received will be considered in the development of upcoming AC revisions or other
related technical material.
5. INTERNET. AC 61-67C, Stall and Spin Awareness Training, can be accessed on the Internet at
http://rgl.faa.gov/.
Page ii
Par 2
9/25/00
AC 61-67C
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING: STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS ................................... 1

100. Stall/Spin Effects and Definitions .......................................................................................... 1
101. Distractions ............................................................................................................................ 3
102. Wing Contamination Effects on Stall Warning, Stall Speed, and Poststall Recovery........... 3
103. Stall Recognition .................................................................................................................... 4
104. Types of Stalls........................................................................................................................ 4
105. Stall Recovery ........................................................................................................................ 4
106. Secondary Stalls ..................................................................................................................... 5
107. Spins ....................................................................................................................................... 5
108. Weight and Balance ............................................................................................................... 5
109. Primary Cause ........................................................................................................................ 5
110. Types of Spins........................................................................................................................ 6
111. Spin Recovery ........................................................................................................................ 6
112. Spiral Mode Recovery............................................................................................................ 7
113. thru 199. Reserved.................................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING: STALLS ................................................................................ 9
200. Stall Training.......................................................................................................................... 9
201. thru 299. Reserved................................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING: SPINS .................................................................................. 13
300. Spin Training........................................................................................................................ 13
301. Spin Training and Parachutes............................................................................................... 14
302. thru 399. Reserved................................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER 4. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS ......................................................................... 15
400. Operating Limitations .......................................................................................................... 15
401. Placards ................................................................................................................................ 16
402. Pilot Awareness.................................................................................................................... 16
403. thru 499. Reserved................................................................................................................ 16
Page iii (and iv)
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AC 61-67C
CHAPTER 1. GROUND TRAINING: STALL AND SPIN AWARENESS

100. STALL/SPIN EFFECTS AND DEFINITIONS. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow
over the airplanes wing is disrupted, and the lift degenerates rapidly. This is caused when the wing
exceeds its critical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power
setting. If recovery from a stall is not achieved in a timely and appropriate manner by reducing the
Angle of Attack (AOA), a secondary stall and/or a spin may result. All spins are preceded by a stall
on at least part of the wing. The angle of the relative wind is determined primarily by the aircraft's
airspeed and attitude. Factors such as aircraft weight, center of gravity, configuration, and the
amount of acceleration used in a turn are also considered. The speed at which the critical angle of
the relative wind is exceeded is the stall speed. Stall speeds are listed in the Airplane Flight Manual
(AFM) or the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) and pertain to certain conditions or aircraft
configurations, e.g., landing configuration. Other specific operational speeds are calculated based
upon the aircraft's stall speed in the landing configuration. Airspeed values specified in the AFM or
POH may vary under different circumstances. Factors such as weight, center of gravity, altitude,
temperature, turbulence, and the presence of snow, ice, or frost on the wings will affect an aircraft's
stall speed. To thoroughly understand the stall/spin phenomenon, some basic factors affecting
aircraft aerodynamics and flight should be reviewed with particular emphasis on their relation to
stall speeds. Much of the information in this AC is also applicable to gliders. The following terms
are defined as they relate to stalls/spins.
a. Angle of Attack. AOA is the angle at which the chord line of the wing meets the relative
wind. The chord line is a straight line drawn through the profile of the wing connecting the
extremities of the leading edge and trailing edge. The AOA must be small enough to allow attached
airflow over and under the airfoil to produce lift. AOA is an element of lift. Change in AOA will
affect the amount of lift that is produced. An excessive AOA will disrupt the flow of air over the
airfoil. If the AOA is not reduced, a section of the airfoil will reach its critical AOA, lose lift, and
stall. Exceeding the critical AOA for a particular airfoil section will always result in a stall of that
section.
b. Airspeed. Airspeed is controlled primarily by the elevator or longitudinal control position
for a given configuration and power. Conversely, airspeed is controlled by power at a given
configuration and AOA. If an airplanes speed is too slow, the AOA required for level flight will be
so large that the air can no longer follow the upper curvature of the wing. The result is a separation
of airflow from the wing, loss of lift, a large increase in drag, and eventually a stall if the AOA is
not reduced. The stall is the result of excessive AOA - not insufficient airspeed. For example, at a
60 banked turn in level coordinated flight, the load factor is 2 Gs and the stall speed increases
40 percent over the straight and level stall speed. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude,
at any power setting.
c. Configuration. Flaps, landing gear, and other configuring devices can affect an airplane's
stall speed. Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will increase drag. Flap extension will
generally increase the lifting ability of the wings, thus reducing the airplane's stall speed. The effect
of flaps on an airplane's stall speed can be seen by markings on the airplane's airspeed indicator,
where the lower airspeed limit of the white arc (power-off stall speed with gear and flaps in the
landing configuration) is less than the lower airspeed limit of the green arc (power-off stall speed in
the clean configuration).
d. VSO. VSO is the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration.
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e. VS1. VS1 is the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified
configuration.
f. VA. VA is the design maneuvering speed. Do not use full or abrupt control movements at or
above this speed. It is possible to exceed the airplane structural limits at or above VA. Rapid and
large alternating control inputs, especially in combination with large changes in pitch, roll, or yaw
(e.g., large side slip angles) may result in structural failures at any speed, even below VA.
g. Load Factor. Load factor is the ratio of the lifting force produced by the wings to the
actual weight of the airplane and its contents. Load factors are usually expressed in terms of G.
The aircraft's stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor. For example,
an airplane that has a normal unaccelerated stall speed of 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when
subjected to a load factor of 4 G's. The possibility of inadvertently stalling the airplane by
increasing the load factor (i.e., by putting the airplane in a steep turn or spiral) is much greater than
in normal cruise flight. When an airplane stalls at a higher indicated air speed due to excessive
maneuvering loads, it is called an accelerated maneuver stall. A stall entered from straight and level
flight or from an unaccelerated straight climb will not produce additional load factors. In a constant
rate turn, increased load factors will cause an airplane's stall speed to increase as the angle of bank
increases. Excessively steep banks should be avoided because the airplane will stall at a much
higher speed. If the aircraft exceeds maneuvering speed, structural damage to the aircraft may result
before it stalls. If the nose falls during a steep turn, the pilot might attempt to raise it to the level
flight attitude without shallowing the bank. This situation tightens the turn and can lead to a diving
spiral. A feeling of weightlessness will result if a stall recovery is performed by abruptly pushing
the elevator control forward, which will reduce the up load on the wings. Recoveries from stalls and
spins involve a tradeoff between loss of altitude (and an increase in airspeed) and an increase in
load factor in the pullup. However, recovery from the dive following spin recovery generally causes
higher airspeeds and consequently higher load factors than stall recoveries due to the much lower
position of the nose. Significant load factor increases are sometimes induced during pullup after
recovery from a stall or spin. It should be noted that structural damage can result from the high load
factors that could be imposed on the aircraft by intentional stalls practiced above the airplane's
design maneuvering speed. Large, aggressive control reversals can also lead to loads that can
exceed the structural design limits, even at speeds below the airplanes design maneuvering speed.
h. Center of Gravity (CG). The CG location has a direct effect on the effective lift and AOA
of the wing, the amount and direction of force on the tail, and the degree of stabilizer deflection
needed to supply the proper tail force for equilibrium. The CG position, therefore, has a significant
effect on stability and stall/spin recovery. As the CG is moved aft, the amount of elevator deflection
needed to stall the airplane at a given load factor will be reduced. An increased AOA will be
achieved with less elevator control force. This could make the entry into inadvertent stalls easier,
and during the subsequent recovery, it would be easier to generate higher load factors due to the
reduced elevator control forces. In an airplane with an extremely aft CG, very light back elevator
control forces may lead to inadvertent stall entries and if a spin is entered, the balance of forces on
the airplane may result in a flat spin. Recovery from a flat spin is often impossible. A forward CG
location will often cause the stalling AOA to be reached at a higher airspeed. Increased back
elevator control force is generally required with a forward CG location.
i. Weight. Although the distribution of weight has the most direct effect on stability,
increased gross weight can also have an effect on an aircraft's flight characteristics, regardless of the
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CG position. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the stall speed increases. The increased
weight requires a higher AOA to produce additional lift to support the weight.
j. Altitude and Temperature. Altitude has little or no effect on an airplane's indicated stall
speed. Thinner air at higher altitudes will result in decreased aircraft performance and a higher true
airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. Higher than standard temperatures will also contribute to
increased true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. However, the higher true airspeed has no
effect on indicated approach or stall speeds. The manufacturer's recommended indicated airspeeds
should therefore be maintained during the landing approach, regardless of the elevation or the
density altitude at the airport of landing.
k. Snow, Ice, or Frost on the Wings. Even a small accumulation of snow, ice, or frost on an
aircraft's surface can cause an increase in that aircraft's stall speed. Such accumulation changes the
shape of the wing, disrupting the smooth flow of air over the surface and, consequently, increasing
drag and decreasing lift. Flight should not be attempted when snow, ice, or frost have accumulated
on the aircraft surfaces.
l. Turbulence. Turbulence can cause an aircraft to stall at a significantly higher airspeed
than in stable conditions. A vertical gust or windshear can cause a sudden change in the relative
wind, and result in an abrupt increase in AOA. Although a gust may not be maintained long enough
for a stall to develop, the aircraft may stall while the pilot is attempting to control the flightpath,
particularly during an approach in gusty conditions. When flying in moderate to severe turbulence
or strong crosswinds, a higher than normal approach speed should be maintained. In cruise flight in
moderate or severe turbulence, an airspeed well above the indicated stall speed and below
maneuvering speed should be used. Maneuvering speed is lower at a lower weight.
101. DISTRACTIONS. Stalls resulting from improper airspeed management are most likely to
occur when the pilot is distracted by one or more other tasks, such as locating a checklist or
attempting a restart after an engine failure; flying a traffic pattern on a windy day; reading a chart or
making fuel and/or distance calculations; or attempting to retrieve items from the floor, back seat, or
glove compartment. Pilots at all skill levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an
inadvertent stall or spin while performing tasks that are secondary to controlling the aircraft.
102. WING CONTAMINATION EFFECTS ON STALL WARNING, STALL SPEED, AND
POSTSTALL RECOVERY. Stall speeds and stall characteristics are usually determined with
uncontaminated airfoils. For airplanes that are certified for flight in icing conditions, ice shapes may
have also been considered for their effects on aircraft. However, not all possible icing conditions
and configurations can be tested. Icing is the primary concern, but any contamination or alteration
of the leading edge caused by factors such as mud, insect residue, or ice can significantly alter the
aerodynamic characteristics of the wing, but it is icing that is of primary concern.
a. In some icing conditions there are adverse changes to the stall speed, stall characteristics,
performance, and handling characteristics of the airplane. These adverse changes are potentially
hazardous for several reasons. First, aerodynamic stall may occur with little or none of the usual
cues in advance. These cues include airframe or control surface buffet, reduced control
effectiveness, and activation of the stall warning horn, stick shaker, and stick pusher. Next, because
insufficient power or thrust to increase speed while holding constant altitude to reduce the AOA.
Finally, postal recovery of a contaminated airplane may be complicated by gross changes in control
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effectiveness, airplane response characteristics, and abnormal control forces. As a result of these
factors, large losses in altitude can occur during recovery.
b. Accordingly, in these conditions, a prompt control input to decrease pitch attitude to
recover lateral control, with aggressive power application ensures the most rapid recovery with
minimum altitude loss. The AOA must be reduced immediately as the wing, or part of the wing is
already stalled and no margin remains to allow holding altitude/ attitude as power is applied. The
pilot should note the AOA (or airspeed) at upset and not approach that AOA (airspeed) during the
recovery or another upset may occur. This AOA may be well below the normal stall AOA (below
shaker AOA) and the airspeed may be well above normal stall airspeed. Stall speed increases as
high as 50 knots have been observed in post upset data review.
c. Further complications involve use of the autopilot. The autopilot may apply control inputs
that will mask detection of some of these tactile cues by the pilot or attempt to control the airplane
in the stall. Sudden autopilot self-disconnect with control surfaces trimmed into extreme positions
or with controls trimmed into uncoordinated flight will complicate poststall recovery and may lead
to a spin or spiral.
103. STALL RECOGNITION. There are several ways to recognize that a stall is impending
before it actually occurs. When one or more of these indicators is noted, initiation of a recovery
should be instinctive (unless a full stall is being practiced intentionally from an altitude that allows
recovery at least 1,500 feet above ground level (AGL) for single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet
AGL for multiengine airplanes). One indication of a stall is a mushy feeling in the flight controls
and less control effect as the aircraft's speed is reduced. This reduction in control effectiveness is
attributed in part to reduced airflow over the flight control surfaces. In fixed pitch propeller
airplanes, a loss of revolutions per minute (rpm) may be evident when approaching a stall in poweron conditions. For both airplanes and gliders, a reduction in the sound of air flowing along the
fuselage is usually evident. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting, uncontrollable pitching, or
vibrations may begin. Many aircraft are equipped with stall warning devices that will alert the pilot
4 to 8 knots prior to the onset of a stall. Finally, kinesthesia (the sensing of changes in direction or
speed of motion), when properly learned and developed, will warn the pilot of a decrease in speed
or the beginning of a mushing of the aircraft. These preliminary indications serve as a warning to
the pilot to increase airspeed by adding power, lowering the nose, and/or decreasing the angle of
bank.
104. TYPES OF STALLS. Stalls can be practiced both with and without power. Stalls should be
practiced to familiarize the student with the aircraft's particular stall characteristics without putting
the aircraft into a potentially dangerous condition. In multiengine airplanes, single-engine stalls
must be avoided. Descriptions of some different types of stalls follows:
a. Power-off stalls (also known as approach-to-landing stalls) are practiced to simulate
normal approach-to-landing conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred
in these power-off situations, such as crossed control turns from base leg to final approach
(resulting in a skidding or slipping turn); attempting to recover from a high sink rate on final
approach by using only an increased pitch attitude; and improper airspeed control on final approach
or in other segments of the traffic pattern.
b. Power-on stalls (also known as departure stalls) are practiced to simulate takeoff and
climbout conditions and configuration. Many stall/spin accidents have occurred during these phases
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of flight, particularly during go-arounds. A causal factor in such accidents has been the pilot's
failure to maintain positive control due to a nose-high trim setting or premature flap retraction, and
during short field takeoffs has also been a causal accident factor.
c. Accelerated stalls can occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds due to abrupt and/or excessive
control applications. These stalls may occur in steep turns, pullups, or other abrupt changes in
flightpath. Accelerated stalls usually are more severe than unaccelerated stalls and are often
unexpected because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds.
105. STALL RECOVERY. The key factor in recovering from a stall is regaining positive control
of the aircraft by reducing the AOA. At the first indication of a stall, the aircraft AOA must be
decreased to allow the wings to regain lift. Every aircraft in upright flight may require a different
amount of forward pressure or relaxation of elevator back pressure to regain lift. It should be noted
that too much forward pressure can hinder recovery by imposing a negative load on the wing. The
next step in recovering from a stall is to smoothly apply maximum allowable power (if applicable)
to increase the airspeed and to minimize the loss of altitude. Certain high performance airplanes
may require only an increase in thrust and relaxation of the back pressure on the yoke to effect
recovery. As airspeed increases and the recovery is completed, power should be adjusted to return
the airplane to the desired flight condition. Straight and level flight should be established with full
coordinated use of the controls. The airspeed indicator or tachometer, if installed, should never be
allowed to reach their high speed red lines at anytime during a practice stall.
106. SECONDARY STALLS. If recovery from a stall is not made properly, a secondary stall or a
spin may result. A secondary stall is caused by attempting to hasten the completion of a stall
recovery before the aircraft has regained sufficient flying speed. When this stall occurs, appropriate
forward pressure or the relaxation of back elevator pressure should again be performed just as in a
normal stall recovery. When sufficient airspeed has been regained, the aircraft can then be returned
to straight and level flight.
107. SPINS. A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that results in what is termed
autorotation wherein the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates
around a vertical axis, the rising wing is less stalled than the descending wing creating a rolling,
yawing, and pitching motion. The airplane is basically being forced downward by gravity, rolling,
yawing, and pitching in a spiral path.
108. WEIGHT AND BALANCE. Minor weight or balance changes can affect an aircraft's spin
characteristics. For example, the addition of a suitcase in the aft baggage compartment will affect
the weight and balance of the aircraft. An aircraft that may be difficult to spin intentionally in the
utility category (restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could have less resistance to spin entry in the
normal category (less restricted aft CG and increased weight) due to its ability to generate a higher
AOA and increased load factor. Furthermore, an aircraft that is approved for spins in the utility
category, but loaded in the normal category, may not be recoverable from a spin that is allowed to
progress beyond one turn or 3-second spin, whichever is longer (refer to 23.221(a)).
109. PRIMARY CAUSE. The primary cause of an inadvertent spin is exceeding the critical AOA
while applying excessive or insufficient rudder and, to a lesser extent, aileron. Insufficient or
excessive control inputs to correct for Power Factor (PF), or asymmetric propeller loading, could
aggravate the precipitation of a spin. At a high AOA the downward moving blade, which is
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normally on the right side of the propeller arc, has a higher AOA and therefore higher thrust than
the upward moving blade on the left. This results in a tendency for the airplane to yaw around the
vertical axis to the left. If insufficient or excessive rudder correction is applied to counteract PF,
uncoordinated flight may result. A classic situation where PF could play an important role in a
stall/spin accident is during a go-around or short field takeoff where the airplane is at a high pitch
attitude, high power setting, and low airspeed. In an uncoordinated maneuver, the pitot/static
instruments, especially the altimeter and airspeed indicator, are unreliable due to the uneven
distribution of air pressure over the fuselage. The pilot may not be aware that a critical AOA is
approaching until the stall warning device activates. If a stall recovery is not promptly initiated, the
airplane is more likely to enter an inadvertent spin. For example, stall/spin accidents have occurred
during a turn from base to final because the pilot attempted to rudder the airplane around (skid) so
as not to overshoot the runway nor use excessive bank angle in the traffic pattern. The spin that
occurs from cross controlling an aircraft usually results in rotation in the direction of the rudder
being applied, regardless of which wingtip is raised. In a skidding turn, where both aileron and
rudder are applied in the same direction, rotation will be in the direction the controls are applied.
However, in a slipping turn, where opposite aileron is held against the rudder, the resultant spin will
usually occur in the direction opposite the aileron that is being applied.
110. TYPES OF SPINS.
a. An incipient spin is that portion of a spin from the time the airplane stalls and rotation
starts, until the spin becomes fully developed. Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a
steady state spin are commonly used as an introduction to spin training and recovery techniques.
b. A fully developed, steady state spin occurs when the aircraft angular rotation rate, airspeed,
and vertical speed are stabilized from turn-to-turn in a flightpath that is close to vertical.
c. A flat spin is characterized by a near level pitch and roll attitude with the spin axis near the
CG of the airplane. Recovery from a flat spin may be extremely difficult and, in some cases,
impossible.
111. SPIN RECOVERY. Before flying any aircraft, in which spins are to be conducted, the pilot
should be familiar with the operating characteristics and standard operating procedures, including
spin recovery techniques, specified in the approved AFM or POH. The first step in recovering from
an upright spin is to close the throttle completely to eliminate power and minimize the loss of
altitude. If the particular aircraft spin recovery techniques are not known, the next step is to
neutralize the ailerons, determine the direction of the turn, and apply full opposite rudder. When the
rotation slows, briskly move the elevator control forward to approximately the neutral position.
Some aircraft require merely a relaxation of back pressure; others require full forward elevator
control pressure. Forward movement of the elevator control will decrease the AOA. Once the stall is
broken, the spinning will stop. Neutralize the rudder when the spinning stops to avoid entering a
spin in the opposite direction. When the rudder is neutralized, gradually apply enough aft elevator
pressure to return to level flight. Too much or abrupt aft elevator pressure and/or application of
rudder and ailerons during the recovery can result in a secondary stall and possibly another spin. If
the spin is being performed in an airplane, the engine will sometimes stop developing power due to
centrifugal force acting on the fuel in the airplane's tanks causing fuel interruption. It is, therefore,
recommended to assume that power is not available when practicing spin recovery. As a rough
estimate, an altitude loss of approximately 500 feet per each 3-second turn can be expected in most
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small aircraft in which spins are authorized. Greater losses can be expected at higher density
altitudes.
112. SPIRAL MODE RECOVERY. The spiral mode is an autorotation mode similar to a spin.
The center of rotation is close to the centerline of the airplane but the airplane is not stalled. Many
airplanes and gliders will not spin at forward CG locations but will spiral. Many airplanes will enter
a spin but the spin will become more vertical and degenerate into a spiral. It is important to note that
when the spin transitions into the spiral the airspeed will increase as the nose goes down to near
vertical. The side forces on the airplane build very rapidly and recovery must be effected
immediately before exceeding the structural limits of the airplane. Release the back pressure on the
stick (yoke), neutralize the rudder and recover from the steep dive. As in stall and spin recovery,
avoid abrupt or excessive elevator inputs that could lead to a secondary stall.
113. THRU 199. RESERVED.
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CHAPTER 2. FLIGHT TRAINING: STALLS

200. STALL TRAINING. Flight instructor-airplane and flight instructor-glider applicants must be
able to give stall training. The flight instructor should emphasize that techniques and procedures for
each aircraft may differ and that pilots should be aware of the flight characteristics of each aircraft
flown. The most effective training method contained in Report No. FAA-RD-77-26, General
Aviation Pilot Stall Awareness Study, is the simulation of scenarios that can lead to inadvertent
stalls by creating distractions while the student is practicing certain maneuvers. Stall demonstrations
and practice, including maneuvering during slow flight and other maneuvers with distractions that
can lead to inadvertent stalls, should be conducted at a sufficient altitude to enable recovery above
1,500 feet AGL in single-engine airplanes and 3,000 feet AGL in multiengine airplanes. Because of
the possible catastrophic consequences, single-engine stalls should not be demonstrated or practiced
in multiengine airplanes. Airplanes with normally aspirated engines will lose power as altitude
increases because of the reduced density of the air entering the induction system of the engines.
This loss of power will result in a VMC lower than the stall speed at higher altitudes. (VMC is the
minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative). Also, some airplanes have such an
effective rudder that even at sea level VMC is lower than stall speed. For these airplanes,
demonstrating loss of directional control may be safely conducted by limiting rudder travel to
simulate maximum rudder available. Limiting rudder travel should be accomplished well above the
power-off stall speed (approximately 20 knots). This will avoid the hazards of stalling one wing
with the maximum allowable power applied to the engine on the other wing. The flight training
required by part 61 does not entail the actual practicing of spins for other than flight instructorairplane and flight instructor-glider applicants, but emphasizes stall and spin avoidance. The
following training elements are based on Report No. FAA-RD-77-26:
a. Stall Avoidance Practice at Slow Airspeeds.
(1) Assign a heading and an altitude. Have the student reduce power and slow to an
airspeed just above the stall speed, using trim as necessary.
(2) Have the student maintain heading and altitude with the stall warning device activated.
(3) Demonstrate the effect of elevator trim (use neutral and full noseup settings) and
rudder trim, if available.
(4) Note the left turning tendency and rudder effectiveness for lateral/directional control.
(5) Emphasize how right rudder pressure is necessary to center the ball indicator and
maintain heading.
(6) Release the rudder and advise the student to observe the left yaw.
(7) Adverse yaw demonstration. While at a low airspeed, have the student enter left and
right turns without using rudder pedals.
(8) Have the student practice turns, climbs, and descents at low airspeeds.
(9) Demonstrate the proper flap extension and retraction procedures while in level flight
to avoid a stall at low airspeeds. Note the change in stall speeds with flaps extended and retracted.
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(10) Utilize realistic distractions at low airspeeds. Give the student a task to perform
while flying at a low airspeed. Instruct the student to divide his/her attention between the task and
flying the aircraft to maintain control and avoid a stall. The following distractions can be used:
(a) Drop a pencil. Ask the student to pick it up.
(b) Ask the student to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
(c) Ask the student to reset the clock to Universal Coordinated Time.
(d) Ask the student to get something from the back seat.
(e) Ask the student to read the outside air temperature.
(f) Ask the student to call the Flight Service Station (FSS) for weather information.
(g) Ask the student to compute true airspeed with a flight computer.
(h) Ask the student to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
(i) Ask the student to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
(j) Have the student climb 200 feet and maintain altitude, then descend 200 feet and
maintain altitude.
(k) Have the student reverse course after a series of S-turns.
(11) Fly at low airspeeds with the airspeed indicator covered. Use various flap settings
and distractions.
b. Power-on (Departure) Stall.
(1) At a safe altitude, have the student attempt coordinated power-on (departure) stalls
straight ahead and in turns. Emphasize how these stalls could occur during takeoff.
(2) Ask the student to demonstrate a power-on (departure) stall and distract him/her just
before the stall occurs. Explain any effects the distraction may have had on the stall or recovery.
c. Engine Failure in a Climb Followed by a Gliding Turn. This demonstration will show
the student how much altitude the airplane loses following a power failure after takeoff and during a
turn back to the runway and why returning to the airport after losing an engine is not a
recommended procedure. This can be performed using either a medium or a steep bank in the turn,
but emphasis should be given to stall avoidance.
(1) Set up best rate of climb (VY). Directly below you there should be a straight line
landmark (i.e., road or power line) parallel to your flightpath.
(2) Reduce power smoothly to idle as the airplane passes through a cardinal altitude.
(3) Lower the nose to maintain the best glide speed and make a 260 turn at the best glide
speed. Emphasize that this turn should be into the wind (if there is a crosswind).
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(4) Re-intercept your final outbound course over the landmark you chose, inbound with an
80 turn in the opposite direction.
(5) Point out the altitude loss and emphasize how rapidly airspeed decreases following a
power failure in a climb attitude.
NOTE: Depending on winds, length of runway, and altitude the 260/80 turns
may need to be modified (250/70 or 270/90) to meet the existing situation.
d. Cross Controlled Stalls in Gliding Turns. Perform stalls in gliding turns to simulate
turns from base to final. Perform the stalls from a properly coordinated turn, a slipping turn, and a
skidding turn. Explain the difference between slipping and skidding turns. Explain the ball indicator
position in each turn and the aircraft behavior in each of the stalls.
e. Power-off (Approach-To-Landing) Stalls.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall with the correct
recovery and cleanup procedures. Note the loss of altitude.
(2) Have the student repeat this procedure and distract the student during the stall and
recovery and note the effect of the distraction. Show how errors in flap retraction procedure can
cause a secondary stall.
f. Stalls During Go-arounds.
(1) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall, then recover and
attempt to climb with flaps extended. If a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held, a
secondary stall will occur. (In some airplanes, a stall will occur if a normal climb pitch attitude is
held).
(2) Have the student perform a full-flap, gear extended, power-off stall, then recover and
retract the flaps rapidly as a higher than normal climb pitch attitude is held. A secondary stall or
settling with a loss of altitude may result.
g. Elevator Trim Stall.
(1) Have the student place the airplane in a landing approach configuration, in a trimmed
descent.
(2) After the descent is established, initiate a go-around by adding full power, holding
only light elevator and right rudder pressure.
(3) Allow the nose to pitch up and torque to swerve the airplane left. At the first indication
of a stall, recover to a normal climbing pitch attitude.
(4) Emphasize the importance of correct attitude control, application of control pressures,
and proper trim during go-arounds.
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CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT TRAINING: SPINS

300. SPIN TRAINING. Spin training is required for flight instructor-airplane and flight
instructor-glider applicants only. Upon completion of the training, the applicant's log book or
training record should be endorsed by the flight instructor who provided the training. A sample
endorsement of spin training for flight instructor applicants is available in the current edition of
AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.
a. Spin training must be accomplished in an aircraft that is approved for spins. Before
practicing intentional spins, the AFM or POH should be consulted for the proper entry and
recovery techniques.
b. The training should begin by practicing both power-on and power-off stalls to
familiarize the applicant with the aircraft's stall characteristics. Spin avoidance, incipient spins,
actual spin entry, spin, and spin recovery techniques should be practiced from an altitude above
3,500 feet AGL.
c. Spin avoidance training should consist of stalls and maneuvering during slow flight
using realistic distractions such as those listed in chapter 2. Performance is considered
unsatisfactory if it becomes necessary for the instructor to take control of the aircraft to avoid a
fully developed spin.
d. Incipient spins should be practiced to train the instructor applicant to recover from a
student's poorly performed stall or unusual attitude that could lead to a spin. Configure the
aircraft for a power-on or power-off stall, and continue to apply back elevator pressure. As the
stall occurs, apply right or left rudder and allow the nose to yaw toward the stalled wing. Release
the spin inducing controls and recover as the spin begins by applying opposite rudder and
forward elevator pressure. The instructor should discuss control application in the recovery.
e. Spin entry, spin, and spin recovery should be demonstrated by the instructor and
repeated in both directions by the applicant.
(1) Apply the entry procedure for a power-off stall. As the airplane approaches a stall,
smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin rotation and continue to apply back
elevator to the limit of travel. The ailerons should be neutral.
(2) Allow the spin to develop, and be fully recovered no later than one full turn.
Observe the airspeed indicator during the spin and subsequent recovery to ensure that it does not
reach the red line (VNE).
(3) Follow the recovery procedures recommended by the manufacturer in the AFM or
POH. In most aircraft, spin recovery techniques consist of retarding power (if in a powered
aircraft), applying opposite rudder to slow the rotation, neutralizing the ailerons, applying
positive forward elevator movement to break the stall, neutralizing the rudder as the spinning
stops, and returning to level flight.
f. During spin training if a spin is not fully developed, the aircraft may instead go into a
spiral. A spiral may be recognized by a rapidly increasing airspeed after the attempted spin entry.
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AC 61-67C
9/25/00
(In an actual spin, the airspeed normally stabilizes below stall speed). The pilot must recognize a
spiral and initiate immediate recovery to prevent exceeding structural limits of the airplane.
301. SPIN TRAINING AND PARACHUTES. Part 91, 91.307(c), prohibits the pilot of a
civil aircraft from executing any intentional maneuver that exceeds 60 of bank relative to the
horizon, or exceeds 30 noseup or nosedown attitude relative to the horizon, unless an approved
parachute is worn by each occupant (other than a crewmember). Section 91.307(d) states, in part,
that 91.307(c) does not apply to flight tests for a pilot certificate or rating; or spins and other
flight maneuvers required by the regulations for any certificate or rating when given by a
certified flight instructor (CFI) or an airline transport pilot (ATP) instructing in accordance with
61.167.
a. Section 61.183(i) requires an applicant for a flight instructor certificate or rating to
receive flight training in stall awareness, spin entry, spins, and spin recovery procedures. The
applicant must also possess and demonstrate instructional proficiency in these areas to receive
the certificate or rating.
b. Because spin entry, spins, and spin recovery are required for a flight instructor
certificate or rating, a person receiving instruction from a CFI (or an ATP instructing in
accordance with 61.167) need not wear an approved parachute while instruction is being
provided in these maneuvers. This provision applies regardless of the certificate or rating for
which the person is receiving training and also if the person is receiving instruction that is not
being provided for the purpose of obtaining any additional certificate or rating. The instructor
providing the training is also not required to wear an approved parachute while providing this
flight training.
c. Any pilot or required crewmember may perform a maneuver that exceeds the limits
prescribed in 91.307(c) without wearing an approved parachute, provided there are no other
occupants in the aircraft or the other occupants are wearing approved parachutes.
Page 14
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9/25/00
AC 61-67C
CHAPTER 4. AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS

400. OPERATING LIMITATIONS. Operating limitations are imposed for the safety of pilots
and their passengers. Operations contrary to these restrictions are a serious compromise of
safety. It is important that all pilots and flight and ground instructors, and pilot examiners apply
the following information on spins to pilot training and flight operations.
a. Normal Category. These airplanes are not approved for performing acrobatic
maneuvers, including spins, and are placarded against intentional spins. However, to provide a
margin of safety when recovery from a stall is delayed, normal category airplanes are tested
during certification and must be able to recover from a one turn spin or a 3-second spin,
whichever takes longer, in no longer than one additional turn with the controls used in the
normally used for recovery or demonstrating the airplanes resistance to spins. In addition for
airplanes demonstrating compliance with one turn or 3-second requirements:
(1) For both the flaps retracted and flaps extended conditions, the applicable airspeed
limit and positive limit maneuvering load factor must not be exceeded;
(2) No control forces or characteristic encountered during the spin of the recovery may
adversely affect prompt recovery;
(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins with any use of the flight or
engine power controls either at the entry or during the spin; and
(4) In extended condition, the flaps may be retracted during recovery but not before the
rotation has ceased.
NOTE: Since airplanes certificated in the normal category have not been
tested for more than a one turn or 3-second spin, their performance
characteristics beyond these limits are unknown. This is the reason they are
placarded against intentional spins.
b. Acrobatic Category. An acrobatic category airplane must meet the spin requirements
for normal category aircraft and the following additional requirements:
(1) The airplane must recover from any point in a spin, up to and including six turns, or
any greater number of turns for which certification is requested, in no more than one and a half
additional turns after initiation of the first control action for recovery. However, beyond three
turns, the spin may be discontinued if spiral characteristics appear.
(2) The applicable airspeed limits and limit maneuvering load factor must not be
exceeded. For the flaps extended configuration for which approval is requested, the flaps must
not be retracted during recovery.
(3) It must be impossible to obtain uncontrollable spins with any use of the flight or
engine power controls either at the entry or during the spin.
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AC 61-67C
9/25/00
(4) There must be no characteristics during the spin (such as excessive rates of rotation
or extreme oscillatory motion) that might prevent a successful recovery due to disorientation or
incapacitation of the pilot.
NOTE: Unless a greater number of turns are requested for certification
acrobatic category airplanes have not been tested for more than six turns. The
recovery characteristics for additional turns are unknown.
c. Utility Category. A utility category airplane must meet the spin requirements for both
normal and acrobatic category airplanes and the applicable emergency exit requirements of
23.807 if the aircraft is approved for spins.
401. PLACARDS. Under 23.1567, all airplanes type-certificated under part 23 must have a
flight maneuver placard containing the following information:
a. For normal category airplanes, there must be a placard in front of and in clear view of
the pilot stating, No acrobatic maneuvers, including spins, approved.
b. For utility category airplanes that meet the spin requirements, there must be a placard in
front of and in clear view of the pilot stating, Acrobatic maneuvers are limited to the following
(list approved maneuvers and the recommended entry speed for each).
c. For utility category airplanes that do not meet the spin requirements for acrobatic
category airplanes, there must be an additional placard in clear view of the pilot stating: Spins
Prohibited.
d. For acrobatic category airplanes, there must be a placard in clear view of the pilot
listing the approved acrobatic maneuvers and the recommended entry airspeed for each. If
inverted flight maneuvers are not approved, the placard must include a notation to this effect.
e. For acrobatic category airplanes and utility category airplanes approved for spin, there
must be a placard in clear view of the pilot listing the control actions for the recovery from
spinning maneuvers; and stating that recovery must be initiated when spiral characteristics
appear, or after not more than six turns or not more than any greater number of turns for which
the airplane has been certificated.
402. PILOT AWARENESS. The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional spins should
assume that the airplane may become uncontrollable in a spin. In addition, stall warning devices
should not be deactivated for pilot certification flight tests in airplanes for which they are
required equipment.
Page 16
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Advisory
Circular
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Subject: Currency Requirements and
Guidance for the Flight Review
and Instrument Proficiency Check
Date: 4/30/12
AC No: 61-98B
Change:
FOREWORD
This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots and flight instructors to
use in complying with the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 61, 61.56 and the recent flight experience requirements of 61.57. This AC is
particularly directed to General Aviation (GA) pilots holding sport or higher grades of pilot
certificates who wish to maintain currency and to certificated flight instructors (CFI) who give
flight instruction to support such activities. This AC does not apply to training programs or
proficiency checks conducted pursuant to 14 CFR part 121 or 135, nor to curriculums approved
pursuant to 14 CFR part 142.
/s/
for
John M. Allen
Director, Flight Standards Service
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CONTENTS
Paragraph
Page
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1-1.
1-2.
1-3.
1-4
1-5.
1-6.
1-7.
Purpose...........................................................................................................................1
Cancellation ...................................................................................................................1
Related CFR Sections ....................................................................................................1
Focus ..............................................................................................................................1
Related Reading Materials.............................................................................................1
Background ....................................................................................................................1
Personal Currency Program ...........................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2. RECENT FLIGHT EXPERIENCE

2-1.
2-2.
Recent General Experience............................................................................................5
Recent Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Experience.........................................................6
CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT REVIEW

3-1.
3-2.
3-3.
3-4.
Structure and the Intent of the Flight Review................................................................7
Pre-Review Considerations............................................................................................7
Planning and Recording the Review..............................................................................9
Post-Review Considerations ........................................................................................11
CHAPTER 4. INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK

4-1.
4-2.
4-3.
4-4.
Structuring and Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC)..................................................13
IPC Knowledge Portion ............................................................................................14
IPC Skill Portion .......................................................................................................15
Post-IPC Considerations and Recordkeeping ..............................................................15
APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CERTIFICATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS FLIGHT

REVIEW CHECKLIST (1 page) .........................................................................1
APPENDIX 2. REGULATORY REVIEW GUIDE (2 pages) ...................................................1
APPENDIX 3. SAMPLE PILOTS PERSONAL AERONAUTICAL GOALS (1 page)........1
APPENDIX 4. SAMPLE AIRPLANE PILOTS PROFICIENCY PRACTICE PLAN
(1 page)....................................................................................................................1
APPENDIX 5. SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKLIST (2 pages) ....................................1
APPENDIX 6. SAMPLE PILOTS INSTRUMENT EXPERIENCE SUMMARY (1 page)..1
APPENDIX 7. SAMPLE INSTRUMENT TRAINING AND PROFICIENCY PLAN
(1 page)....................................................................................................................1
APPENDIX 8. SAMPLE CERTIFICATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS INSTRUMENT
PROFICIENCY CHECK CHECKLIST (2 pages).............................................1
APPENDIX 9. RESOURCES (1 page).........................................................................................1
Page iii (and iv)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL
1-1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides information for certificated pilots and
flight instructors to use in complying with the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61, 61.56 and the recent flight experience requirements of
61.57.
1-2. CANCELLATION. This AC cancels AC 61-98A, Currency and Additional Qualification
Requirements for Certificated Pilots, current edition. You can now find information on transition
training in the current edition of FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
1-3. RELATED CFR SECTIONS:

Section 61.189, Flight instructor records.

Section 61.193, Flight instructor privileges.
Section 61.195, Flight instructor limitations and qualifications.
Section 61.413, What are the privileges of my flight instructor certificate with a sport
pilot rating?
Section 61.415, What are the limits of a flight instructor certificate with a sport pilot
rating?
1-4. FOCUS. This AC is for General Aviation (GA) pilots holding sport or higher grades of
pilot certificates who wish to maintain currency and to certificated flight instructors (CFI) who
give flight instruction to support such activities.
1-5. RELATED READING MATERIALS. You should discuss the practical test standards
(PTS) document(s) appropriate to the certificates and ratings held by the pilot seeking a flight
review during or prior to the review. You can find additional information regarding original pilot
certification and addition of category, class, and type ratings in AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots
and Flight and Ground Instructors, current edition. AC 61-107, Operations of Aircraft at
Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet MSL and/or Mach Numbers (Mmo) Greater than .75, current
edition, provides information on operation of high altitude aircraft. Guidance on advanced
training criteria that is available in AC 61-89, Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings, current
addition, may also be appropriate. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), commercial
sources, and industry associations such as the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA),
the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the Society of Aviation and
Flight Educators (SAFE) make many additional sources of media on pilot currency and
qualification available.
1-6. BACKGROUND.
a. Regulatory Review. In 1997, the FAA initiated a major regulatory review and update
of 14 CFR parts 61 and 141to ensure that these regulations conformed to the then-current
technological and operational environment and to address future pilot certification needs. That
was the last major review of those regulations.
Par 1-1
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
(1) The initial phases of the regulatory review addressed regulations requiring priority
action by the FAA as a result of National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommendations
and other factors. These recommendations addressed requirements such as the flight review
required by 61.56.
(2) That AC provided additional information for pilots and flight instructors to use in
accomplishing flight reviews, but did not address specific maneuvers and procedures, which
pilots should consider for various categories and classes of aircraft. Many comments cited a need
for additional FAA guidance material regarding pilot certification and currency that would
enable the GA public to comply with present currency regulations and to tailor currency
programs to individual pilot needs. The comments also cited a need for increased uniformity in
the conduct of currency programs.
b. Previous Edition of AC 61-98. In 1987, the FAA issued AC 61-98, Scope and Content
of the Biennial Flight Review. That AC provided additional information for pilots and flight
instructors to use in accomplishing flight reviews, but did not address specific maneuvers and
procedures, which should be considered for various categories and classes of aircraft. In addition,
the original intention of AC 61-98 was not to cover other currency regulations or transition
training requirements for pilots who had already received certification. The material previously
contained in AC 61-98 is available in Chapter 2.
c. GA Pilots. As a result of initiatives designed to encourage voluntary compliance with
existing regulations and to maintain and further improve the GA safety record with a minimum
of new regulations, the FAA has determined that updated advisory guidance is necessary with
respect to the currency and qualification needs of GA pilots. The guidance contained in this
version of AC 61-98 provides such information and accomplishes the goals of the flight review
and other currency requirements.
1-7. PERSONAL CURRENCY PROGRAM.
a. Currency Criteria. Pilots should design a currency program tailored to their individual
operating environments and needs. In some cases, pilots may integrate currency criteria with
normal operations to reduce the need for separate currency flights. For example, pilots could
incorporate additional takeoffs and landings or specialized takeoffs and landings (such as short
or soft field) into a previously-scheduled flight. In most cases, pilots should consider the need for
currency beyond that specified by the 14 CFR.
b. FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam). The FAA highly encourages pilots to participate in
the FAASTeams Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS), which includes numerous forms of
training media such as online programs and recommended topics for pilots to review with CFIs.
Additionally the FAASTeam conducts safety seminars which are open to the public.
c. Aviation Publications and Commercially-Developed Materials. Pilots should also
explore the wide range of publications and other commercially-developed materials available for
use in personal currency programs. To ensure staying up to date in regulatory changes and flying
techniques, the FAA also encourages pilots to regularly read aviation periodicals.
Page 2
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4/30/12
AC 61-98B
d. Sources for Developing a Personal Currency Program. For assistance in developing

a personal currency program, pilots may consult a wide variety of sources. These sources
include:
Pilot examiners,
Pilot schools,
Individual CFIs,
FAASTeam Program Managers, and
FAASTeam representatives.
NOTE: For information on local sources, pilots should contact the

FAASTeam Program Manager at the nearest FAA Flight Standards District
Office (FSDO).
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Page 3 (and 4)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 2. RECENT FLIGHT EXPERIENCE
2-1. RECENT GENERAL EXPERIENCE. Section 61.57(a) and (b) specifies the minimum
requirements for recent flight experience, specifically takeoffs and landings, in each category and
class of aircraft in order to act as pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft carrying passengers.
a. Requirements Specified in 61.57(a) and (b). Pilots should regard these requirements
as minimums that should be modified to address factors such as overall pilot experience,
different operating environments, complexity of the facilities used, and variations in makes and
models of aircraft within specific categories and classes. For example, a pilot may meet recent
flight experience in a given make and model of aircraft but may have operated only in light or
moderate wind conditions from airports with long runways. The pilot should consider acquiring
additional takeoff and landing experience in stronger wind conditions or at airports with short
runways before acting as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers in similar conditions. Under
some circumstances, the change in the customary operating environment may be great enough
that the pilot should seek flight instruction or refresher training before attempting solo
operations.
b. Basic Currency and Recent Flight Experience. There are many excellent sources of
information available to pilots who wish to enhance currency under a variety of conditions. The
FAA recommends that all pilots participate in WINGS, which provides online courses, seminars,
and guided flight training; and take advantage of free online safety courses such as those offered
by the AOPA Air Safety Foundation.
c. Night Currency Requirements. Night currency requirements deserve additional
consideration. The night experience of most pilots represents only a small portion of their total
flight experience. The impact of marginal weather conditions on night operations is so significant
that pilots should evaluate their own need for both increased currency and additional planning
when contemplating flights under unfavorable conditions at night.
d. Obtaining Currency for each Make and Model. Special considerations apply when
pilots operate aircraft makes and models they do not customarily fly. Analysis of accident data
has shown that accident rates increase for pilots with little or no time-in-type in the aircraft
flown. Section 61.31(e) specifies additional experience requirements for operating high
performance aircraft. For non-high performance small aircraft, basic currency requirements of
61.57(a) and (b) apply only to category and class. For example, a pilot who meets the
requirement in a Cessna 152 would also meet the requirement in a Cessna 172. However, the
FAA recommends that pilots attain currency in each separate make and model before conducting
passenger-carrying operations. This currency should include familiarity with the pilots operating
handbook (POH), the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM), and/or any other available information on
that aircraft. The FAA recommends that all pilots obtain a comprehensive checkout in each make
and model aircraft from an appropriately-rated CFI. Airmen are encouraged to search for aircraft
clubs for information and familiarization on specific makes and models.
Par 2-1
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
NOTE: Considerations regarding basic currency apply not only to

single-engine land airplanes but to other categories and classes of aircraft,
including multiengine aircraft, seaplanes, gliders, helicopters, gyroplanes,
and free balloons.
2-2. RECENT INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) EXPERIENCE. In accordance with
61.57, pilots may complete the six required approaches and holding procedures, intercepting
and tracking (all aircraft except gliders) in a ground trainer, level 3-or-below flight training
device (FTD), or Aviation Training Device (ATD) that meets the requirements of 61.4 (refer to
the current edition of AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Basic Aviation Devices (BATD) and
Advanced Aviation Training Devices (AATD)).
NOTE: In order to receive flight training credit in FTDs qualified by the
National Simulator Program Manager (NSPM) at levels 4 or above, or full
flight simulators, such devices must be used pursuant to a curriculum
approved under 14 CFR part 121, 135, or 142.
Page 6
Par 2-1
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 3. FLIGHT REVIEW
3-1. STRUCTURE AND INTENT OF THE FLIGHT REVIEW. With the increasing
complexity of the aviation operating environment, CFIs may want more specific guidance on
how to structure and plan a flight review and develop contents that are specific to the needs of
the pilot under review. The intention of the flight review is to be an industry-managed,
FAA-monitored currency program. The CFI must be aware that the flight review is not a test or
check ride, but an instructional service designed to assess and enhance a pilots knowledge and
skills.
a. Accomplishing a Flight Review. Under 61.56(c) no person may act as PIC of an
aircraft unless within the preceding 24 calendar-months that person has accomplished a
satisfactory flight review in an aircraft for which that pilot is appropriately rated. An
appropriately-rated instructor or other designated person must conduct the flight review. The
purpose of the flight review is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills and aeronautical
knowledge.
b. Completing WINGS (one or more phases). The FAA reminds pilots and CFIs that,
under 61.56(e), a person who has satisfactorily completed one or more phases of the
FAA-sponsored WINGS within the preceding 24 calendar-months does not need to accomplish
the flight review requirements of this section. AC 61-91, WINGS Pilot Proficiency Program,
current edition, describes how CFIs should encourage pilots to participate in WINGS.
c. Completing Proficiency Checks and Ratings. Pilots and CFIs should be aware that,
under 61.56(d), there is no requirement for pilots who have completed certain proficiency
checks and ratings within the preceding 24 calendar-months to accomplish a separate flight
review. These accomplishments include satisfactory completion of pilot proficiency checks
conducted by the FAA, an approved pilot check airman, a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE), or a
U.S. Armed Force for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege. However, the FAA
recommends that pilots consider also accomplishing a review under some of the following
circumstances. For example, a pilot with an Airplane Single-Engine Land (ASEL) rating may
have recently obtained a glider rating, but may still wish to consider obtaining a flight review in
a single-engine airplane if the appropriate 24-month period has nearly expired. When approached
by pilots seeking advice on such matters, CFIs should consider the factors described in the
following paragraphs.
3-2. PRE-REVIEW CONSIDERATIONS. Before undertaking the review, the CFI should
interview the pilot to determine the nature of his or her flying and operating requirements.
Elements to consider should include, but not be limited to, the following areas:
a. Type of Equipment Flown.
(1) Section 61.56(c)(1) states that to act as a PIC, a pilot must accomplish a flight
review in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated. A pilot might hold multiple ratings. In such
case, the pilot may take a flight review in any one of the aircraft for which he or she holds a
rating or operating privilege and they will have met the regulatory requirement for all aircraft for
which they hold a certificate and or rating. For example, a pilot who holds a private pilot
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AC 61-98B
4/30/12
certificate with an ASEL rating and a commercial balloon certificate may take a flight review in
either aircraft and will have met the requirements of the rule for both. However, a pilot may not
take a flight review in an aircraft for which he or she does not hold a rating or operating
privilege. For example, that same ASEL rated pilot may not take a flight review in a Multiengine
Land (MEL) airplane if he or she does not hold an MEL airplane rating. A pilot who holds only a
sport pilot certificate may only take a flight review in a light sport aircraft for which he or she
holds an operational privilege. For example, a sport pilot who holds airplane privileges could not
take the flight review in a Cessna 172 since that airplane is not a light sport airplane and he or
she does not hold operating privileges for that airplane.
(2) The reviewed maneuvers and procedures will vary depending on the category, class,
and make and model of the aircraft used. For example, a review in a light multiengine aircraft
will be different from one conducted in a small, two-seat tailwheel aircraft that utilizes limited
instrumentation. The CFI may wish to recommend that the pilot complete the review in the
aircraft most commonly flown, or in a more complex make and model used if he or she regularly
flies several aircraft. The CFI may also wish to recommend that the pilot take a review in more
than one category/class of aircraft under certain circumstances. For example, a pilot with ASEL
and glider ratings may have flown only gliders in the last 2 years but is also contemplating flying
single-engine airplanes in the near future. If a CFI is approached by a pilot who requests a review
only in the glider, the CFI may wish to recommend an additional review by a qualified person in
a single-engine airplane before the pilot acts as PIC of a single-engine airplane.
b. Nature of Flight Operations. The CFI should consider the type of flying usually done
by the pilot before establishing the review plan for conducting his or her review. For example, a
pilot conducting long-distance flights between busy terminal areas may need a different review
than a pilot who usually flies in the local area from the same airport. The CFI should consider the
need for an in-depth review of certain subjects or procedures if the type of flight operations is
likely to change, or if other extenuating circumstances exist. For example, a pilot who normally
conducts only local flight operations may plan to begin flying to a location with Class B
airspace. Another pilot may only operate a two-seat aircraft without radio but will operate in
close proximity to Class B airspace. In both cases, the CFI should include Class B airspace
operating requirements and procedures in the flight review. This review should also include
pertinent revisions to operational regulations to ensure that the pilot has full knowledge of these
changes.
c. Amount and Recency of Flight Experience. The CFI should review the pilots
logbook to determine total flight time, time-in-type, and recency of experience in order to
evaluate the need for particular maneuvers and procedures in the review. For example, a pilot
who has not flown in several years may require an extensive review of basic maneuvers from the
PTS appropriate to that pilots certificate level. Pilots should pay particular attention to the
special-emphasis areas found in the PTS. The same pilot may also require a more extensive
review of 14 CFR part 91, including changes in airspace and other requirements. Another pilot
who is upgrading to a newer or faster airplane should receive more emphasis on knowledge of
aircraft systems and performance, or in cross-country procedures appropriate to a faster airplane.
Regardless of flight experience, the CFI should ensure that the review plan includes all areas in
which he or she determines that the pilot should receive training in order to operate safely.
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AC 61-98B
In some cases, the CFI may wish to recommend that the pilot accomplishes a complete refresher
program.
d. Agreement on the Conduct of the Review. After completing the above analysis, the
CFI should review these considerations with the pilot and reach an understanding regarding how
he or she will conduct the review. The CFI may wish to provide the pilot with reading materials
or recommend publications for study before actually undertaking the flight review. The CFI
should also review the criteria for satisfactory completion of the review with the pilot.
e. Instructor Qualifications. Instructors should also consider their own experience and
qualifications in a given make and model aircraft prior to giving a review in that model. The CFI
conducting a flight review must hold a category, class, and (if appropriate) type rating on his or
her pilot certificate. Also, the instructor must have a category and class rating on his or her flight
instructor certificate or a sport instructor privilege in his or her logbook appropriate to the
aircraft in which he or she conducts the review. To conduct a flight review in a multiengine
airplane, the instructor must hold an airplane multiengine rating on their pilot and flight
instructor certificates. For aircraft in which the CFI is not current or with which he or she is not
familiar, he or she must obtain recent flight experience or sufficient knowledge of aircraft
limitations, characteristics, and performance before conducting the review. In any case, the CFI
must observe the rating limitations of 61.195(b).
3-3. PLANNING AND RECORDING THE REVIEW. The CFI may wish to use FAAs
online guidance available at www.faa.gov (see Conducting an Effective Flight Review) to
prepare, conduct, and document the flight review. Some of the material from this optional guide
appears in the appendices. After reaching an agreement on how the CFI will conduct the review,
he or she should prepare a plan for completing the review. The plan should include a list of
regulatory subjects that the CFI will cover, the maneuvers and procedures that the pilot will need
to accomplish, the anticipated sequence in which the segments will occur, and the location where
the CFI will perform the review. You can find a suggested plan format in Appendix 1. Although
not required by 61.189, the CFI may wish to retain this plan for an appropriate time period as a
record of the scope and content of the review.
a. Review of Part 91 Operating and Flight Rules. The CFI should tailor the review of
general operating and flight rules to the needs of the pilot under review. The objective is to
ensure that the pilot can comply with all regulatory requirements and operate safely in various
types of airspace under an appropriate range of weather conditions. As a result, the CFI should
conduct a review that is broad enough to meet this objective, yet provide a more comprehensive
review in those areas in which the pilots knowledge is weaker. In the latter instance, the CFI
may wish to employ a variety of references/sources, such as the Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM), to ensure that the pilots knowledge meets current standards.
b. Pilot Deviations (PD). The occurrence of incidents and PDs has emphasized the need
to ensure that all pilots receive adequate briefing on PD avoidance awareness. PDs are broadly
categorized as airborne or ground. Airborne PDs include altitude and heading deviations, and
airspace violations. Ground PDs include runway incursions and any other unauthorized operation
in the movement areas of an airport. Pilots should be familiar with all types of airspace, and
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AC 61-98B
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ground operating procedures, and best practices to avoid potential PDs. The flight review may be
the only regular proficiency and recurrency training experienced by some pilots. Therefore, CFIs
should place appropriate emphasis on this part of the review.
c. Review of Maneuvers and Procedures.
(1) The maneuvers and procedures covered during the review are those which, in the
opinion of the CFI conducting the review, are necessary for the pilot to perform in order to
demonstrate that he or she can safely exercise the privileges of his or her pilot certificate.
Accordingly, the CFI should evaluate the pilots skills and knowledge to the extent necessary to
ensure that he or she can safely operate within regulatory requirements throughout a wide range
of conditions. The CFI should always include abnormal and emergency procedures applicable to
the aircraft flown in the flight review.
(2) The CFI may wish to prepare a preliminary plan for the flight review based on an
interview or other assessment of the pilots qualifications and skills. See Appendix 1 for
suggested interview questions. Appendix 5 provides a sample CFI flight review checklist. The
CFI should outline a sequence of maneuvers to the pilot taking the review. For example, this may
include a cross-country flight to another airport with maneuvers accomplished while en route. It
could also include a period of simulated instrument flight time. The CFI should request that the
pilot conduct whatever preflight preparation is necessary to complete the planned flight. This
preparation should include all items required in part 91, 91.103, such as checking weather,
calculating required runway lengths, calculating Weight and Balance (W&B), completing a
flight log, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight inspection.
(3) Before beginning the flight portion of the review, the CFI should discuss various
operational areas with the pilot. This oral review should include, but not be limited to, areas such
as aircraft systems, speeds, performance, meteorological and other hazards (e.g., windshear and
wake turbulence), operations in controlled airspace, and abnormal and emergency procedures.
The emphasis during this discussion should be on practical knowledge of recommended
procedures and regulatory requirements.
(4) Regardless of the pilots experience, the CFI may wish to review at least those
maneuvers considered critical to safe flight, such as stalls, slow flight, and takeoffs and landings.
Based on his or her in-flight assessment of the pilots skills, the CFI may wish to add other
maneuvers from the PTS appropriate to the pilots grade of certificate. All reviews should
include those areas within the PTS identified as Special Emphasis. Appendix 5 includes a list
of suggested maneuvers. The FAA does not intend this list to be all-inclusive, nor does it limit a
CFIs discretion in selecting other appropriate maneuvers and procedures. To the greatest
possible extent, the CFI should organize and sequence the selected maneuvers in a realistic
scenario appropriate to the kind of flying normally done by the pilot.
(5) The role of the CFI during the review is to provide an evaluation. However, the
instructor is not limited to this role and may provide specific instruction to an airman on any
areas the instructor notes as being weak. This additional instruction does not preclude the pilots
successful completion of the review as long as the deficiencies are corrected. If the additional
instruction does not correct the deficiencies, and/or it becomes apparent to the instructor that
Page 10
Par 3-3
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
additional flights will be necessary, the CFI should discuss the situation with the pilot and
proceed accordingly.
3-4. POST-REVIEW CONSIDERATIONS. Upon completion of the review, the CFI should
complete the summary and evaluation portion of the flight review checklist (if used) and debrief
the pilot. Whether or not the review was satisfactory, the CFI should provide the pilot with a
comprehensive analysis of his or her performance, including suggestions for improving any
weak areas. The current edition of FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook, chapter 5,
provides specific suggestions for conducting the postflight evaluation discussion as a
collaborative critique.
a. Unsatisfactory Completion of the Review. The FAA does not intend the flight review
to be a check ride. If the review is not satisfactory, the CFI should log the flight as dual
instruction given and not as a failure. The CFI should then recommend additional training in
the areas of the review that were unsatisfactory. A pilot who does not receive an endorsement for
a satisfactory flight review may continue to exercise the privileges of his or her certificate,
provided that a period of 24 calendar-months has not elapsed since the pilots last successful
flight review or pilot proficiency check.
b. Satisfactory Completion of the Review. When the applicant has successfully
completed the review, the CFI should endorse the pilots logbook to certify that the pilot has
satisfactorily accomplished the flight review. The CFI should make the endorsement for a
satisfactory review in accordance with AC 61-65. The flight and ground time must also be
logged in the pilots logbook in accordance with 61.51(a)(1).
Par 3-3
Page 11 (and 12)
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AC 61-98B
CHAPTER 4. INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK
4-1. STRUCTURING AN INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK (IPC).

Section 61.57(d) outlines the conditions which require an IPC. This chapter provides guidance
on the conduct of the IPC. In addition, the CFI may wish to use the FAAs optional online
guidance document available at www.faa.gov (see Instrument Proficiency Check Guidance), to
structure, conduct, and document the IPC. The appendices contain some of the material from the
optional IPC guidance document.
a. Instructor Requirements to Conduct an IPC. The CFI should possess an instrument
rating on their flight instructor certificate. The CFI should also possess an instrument rating and
meet currency requirements on their pilot certificate. The basis for these are found in
61.193(g) and 61.195(d) (6). For example, a comprehensive IPC in a multiengine airplane
includes demonstration of engine-out procedures, which requires a CFI who holds both
multiengine and instrument ratings on his or her pilot certificate.
NOTE: In addition to having the appropriate instructor ratings, the CFI
should consider other factors relating to his or her ability to conduct an IPC.
These include the factors discussed for the flight review as well as the
instructors own instrument currency.
b. Conducting an IPC. A CFI may conduct part or all of the IPC in an approved ground
trainer or level-3-or-below FTD that meets the requirements of 61.4. If given in an aircraft
training device, that trainer must receive specific approval for such use, in writing, by the FAA
Administrator. Pilots or CFIs contemplating use of such a device for an IPC should contact their
local FSDO. Guidance on the applicability of specific devices to particular tasks is located in the
current edition of FAA-S-8081-4, Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards, appendix 2, and
the specific device approval document.
NOTE: In order to receive flight training credit in FTDs qualified by the
NSPM at levels 4 or above, or full flight simulators, such devices must be
used pursuant to a curriculum approved under part 121, 135, or 142.
c. Precheck Considerations. The CFI should structure an IPC in a manner similar to that
of the flight review, tailoring the check to the needs of the pilot with mutual agreement on the
scope of the check and a plan of action for accomplishing it.
(1) The CFI and pilot should discuss the operating conditions under which the CFI will
conduct the check. If the CFI conducts the check in an airplane, the check may be under visual
flight rules (VFR) or IFR in simulated instrument conditions, or it may be under IFR in actual
instrument conditions. If the CFI conducts the check under IFR, whether conditions are
simulated or actual, the CFI should ensure that the aircraft meets all part 91 requirements for
operating under IFR. Additionally, if the pilot receiving the check is no longer current under IFR,
the CFI should be aware that he or she must act as PIC during the flight and must meet IFR
currency requirements. In general, the FAA prefers an instrument proficiency check given under
VFR conditions. Conducting the review under VFR will effectively allow the instructor to add
variety to the check and to simulate possible emergency conditions. However, if the CFI
Par 4-1
Page 13
AC 61-98B
4/30/12
conducts the check under VFR conditions, it is the CFIs responsibility to constantly remain
vigilant to other aircraft throughout all phases of the flight.
(2) The Pilots Instrument Experience Summary in Appendix 6 is available to help the
CFI structure an appropriate ground review for the IPC. A table in FAA-S-8081-4 lists the
maneuvers required for successful completion of the IPC.
(3) As with the flight review, the CFI should develop a plan of action that uses realistic
scenarios to organize and sequence the required tasks and maneuvers. Appendix 8 contains a
sample plan for conducting the proficiency check. The CFI should also discuss crewmember
roles and responsibilities with the pilot.
4-2. IPC-KNOWLEDGE PORTION.
a. Determining the Pilots Knowledge. The CFI should determine that the pilot has
adequate knowledge and understanding of part 91, especially subpart B, Flight Rules; subpart C,
Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements; and subpart E, Maintenance, Preventive
Maintenance, and Alterations. Additionally, the CFI should determine that the pilot has adequate
knowledge and understanding of the following areas:
(1) Instrument en route and approach chart interpretation, including Standard
Instrument Departures (SID), Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP), Standard Terminal Arrival
Routes (STAR), and Area Navigation (RNAV)/Global Positioning System (GPS)/wide area
augmentation system (WAAS) procedures.
(2) Obtaining and analyzing weather information, including knowledge of hazardous
weather phenomena such as icing and convective activity.
(3) Preflight planning, including aircraft performance, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
information (including temporary flight restrictions (TFR)), fuel requirements, alternate
requirements, and use of appropriate FAA publications such as the Airport/Facility Directory.
(4) Aircraft systems related to IFR operations, including appropriate operating methods,
limitations, and emergency procedures due to equipment failure.
(5) Aircraft flight instruments and navigation equipment, including characteristics,
limitations, operating techniques and emergency procedures due to malfunction or failure, such
as lost communications procedures.
(6) Determining the airworthiness of the aircraft for instrument flight, including
required inspections and documents.
(7) Air traffic control (ATC) procedures pertinent to flight under IFR with emphasis on
elements of ATC clearances and pilot/controller responsibilities.
b. Evaluation of the Pilots Skills. Following the discussion of the above subjects, the
CFI should ask the pilot to prepare for the skill portion of the IPC by completing the necessary
flight planning, obtaining current weather data, filing a flight plan, and conducting the preflight
Page 14
Par 4-1
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 1
inspection. In order to fully evaluate the pilots skills under normal operating conditions, the CFI
may wish to have the pilot conduct a short IFR cross-country flight with at least part of the flight
conducted in the system under IFR.
4-3. IPC-SKILL PORTION. The maneuvers and procedures selected for the IPC must include
those listed in Rating Task Table in FAA-S-8081-4. The CFI conducting the IPC has the
discretion to require any other maneuver(s) necessary to determine that the pilot can safely
operate under IFR in a broad range of conditions appropriate to the aircraft flown and the ATC
environment selected. However, in any case, the CFI should pay particular attention to those
areas within the PTS identified as Special Emphasis. The CFI should emphasize proper
adherence to ATC clearances. Regardless of the maneuvers and procedures selected, the CFI
should ensure that the pilot demonstrates satisfactory basic attitude instrument flying skills. For
checks conducted in an airplane but not under actual instrument weather conditions, the CFI
should employ an appropriate view-limiting device to simulate instrument conditions. As an aid
to the CFI, Appendix 8 contains a sample CFI IPC checklist for conducting the IPC.
4-4. POST-IPC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECORDKEEPING. Upon completion of the
proficiency check, the CFI may wish to complete the summary and evaluation portion of the
checklist (if used) and debrief the pilot on the results of the check (satisfactory or unsatisfactory).
Regardless of the determination, the CFI should provide the pilot with a comprehensive analysis
of his or her performance, including suggestions for improving any weak areas. Chapter 5 of
FAA-H-8083-9 provides specific suggestions for conducting the postflight evaluation discussion
as a collaborative critique.
a. Unsatisfactory Performance. As with the flight review, the CFI should not endorse the
pilots logbook to reflect an unsatisfactory IPC. Rather, the CFI should log the session as dual
instruction given.
b. Satisfactory Performance. The endorsement for a satisfactory proficiency check
should be in accordance with AC 61-65. If the CFI uses the sample plan and checklist in
Appendix 8, then he or she may wish to retain the plan as a record of the scope and content of the
competency check, even though not required by 61.189.
Par 4-2
Page 15 (and 16)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 1
APPENDIX 1. SAMPLE CERTIFICATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS FLIGHT
REVIEW CHECKLIST
Step 1: Preflight Review Actions
Scheduling
Pilots aeronautical history
14 CFR part 91 review assignment
Cross-country flight plan assignment
Ratings (not necessarily inclusive):

Instrument___Airplane Single-Engine Land
(ASEL)____Multiengine Land (MEL)_____
Lighter-than-air (LTA)_____
Rotorcraft____(etc.)
Step 2: Ground Discussion
Regulatory review
Cross-country flight plan review
Risk management (RM) and personal

minimums
Experience (pilot):
Total time_______Last 6 months_________
Average hours/month__________________
Time Since last flight review____________
Since last instrument proficiency check
(IPC)_______________________________
Step 3: Conducting the Flight
Physical aircraft (basic skills)
Mental aircraft (systems knowledge)
Aeronautical decisionmaking
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Replay, reflect, reconstruct, redirect
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance
and Improvement Plan
Personal minimums checklist
Personal proficiency practice plan
Training plan (if desired)
Resources list
Sample Pilots Aeronautical History for
Flight Review
Pilot:_______________________________
Certificated flight instructor (CFI):________
Address:____________________________
Phone(s):____________________________
e-mail:______________________________
Pilot Certificate(s):
Private_________Commercial___________
Air transport pilot (ATP)_______________
Flight Instructor______________________
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly_________________
Aircraft used most often________________
Total time______Last 6 months__________
Experience (flight environment):
Since your last flight review,
approximately how many hours have you
logged in:
Day visual flight rules (VFR)____________
____________________________________
Day instrument flight rules (IFR)_________
____________________________________
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
____________________________________
Night VFR_________Night IFR_________
Mountainous/Overwater________________
Towered________Non-Towered_________
Type of Flying (external factors):
What percentage of your flying is for:
Pleasure_____Business______Local______
Cross country______
Personal Skills Assessment:
Strengths as a pilot?___________________
____________________________________
Areas for improvement?________________
____________________________________
Aviation goals?_______________________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 2
APPENDIX 2. REGULATORY REVIEW GUIDE

Experience. Recent flight experience (14 CFR part 61, 61.57).
Pilot
Responsibility:
Authority (14 CFR part 91 91.3).

Flightcrew members at station ( 91.105).
Preflight action ( 91.103).
Safety belts ( 91.107).
Air traffic control (ATC) instructions ( 91.123).
Cautions:
Careless or reckless operation ( 91.13).

Dropping objects ( 91.15).
Alcohol or drugs ( 91.17).
Supplemental oxygen ( 91.211).
Fitness for flight (Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) (chapter 8,
section 1)).
Airworthiness:
Aircraft
Basic ( 91.7).
Flight manual, markings, and placards ( 91.9).
Certifications required ( 91.203).
Instrument and equipment requirements ( 91.205).
Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) ( 91.207).
Position lights ( 91.209).
Inoperative instruments and equipment ( 91.213).
Transponder requirements ( 91.215).
Maintenance:
Responsibility ( 91.403).
Maintenance required ( 91.405).
Operation after maintenance ( 91.407).
Maintenance records ( 91.417).
Inspections:
Annual, Airworthiness Directives (AD), 100 hours ( 91.409).

Altimeter and pitot static system ( 91.411).
Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) check ( 91.171).
Transponder ( 91.413).
ELT ( 91.207).
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 2
4/30/12
Airports:
Markings (AIM (chapter 2, section 3)).
Operations (AIM (chapter 4, section 3); 91.125 and 91.126).
Traffic Patterns ( 91.126).
Environment
Airspace:
Altimeter Settings (AIM (chapter 7, section 2); 91.121).
Minimum Safe Altitudes ( 91.119 and 91.177).
Cruising Altitudes (AIM (chapter 3, section 1, paragraph 3-1-5);
91.159 and 91.179).
Speed Limits ( 91.117).
Right of Way ( 91.113).
Formation ( 91.111).
Types of Airspace (AIM (chapter 3)).
Controlled Airspace (AIM (chapter 3, section 2); 91.129, 91.130,
91.131, and 91.135).
Class G Airspace (AIM (chapter 3, section 3).
Special Use (AIM (chapter 3, section 4); 91.133, 91.137, 91.141.
91.143, and 91.145).
Emergency Air Traffic Rules (AIM (chapter 5, section 6); 91.139).
Air Traffic Control & Procedures:
Services (AIM (chapter 4, section 1)).
Radio Communications (AIM (chapter 4, section 2); Pilot/Controller
Glossary).
Clearances (AIM (chapter 4, section 4)).
Procedures (AIM (chapter 5)).
Weather:
External
Pressures
Meteorology (AIM (chapter 7, section 1)).

Wake Turbulence (AIM (chapter 7, section 3)).
Page 2
Personal Minimums Checklist.
Risk management (RM) (3-P model).
Practical test standards (PTS) Special Emphasis Items.
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 3
APPENDIX 3. SAMPLE PILOTS PERSONAL AERONAUTICAL GOALS

Pilots Name:__________________________CFI:____________________________
Date:_____________________________Review Date:_________________________
Training Goals
_________Certificate Level (Private, Commercial, air transport pilot (ATP))
_________Ratings (Instrument, Multiengine Land (MEL), Airplane Single Engine Sea
(ASES), Airplane Multiengine Sea (AMES), Rotorcraft, Glider, etc.)
_________Endorsements (high performance, complex, tailwheel, high altitude, etc.)
_________Phase in Pilot Proficiency Program (WINGS)
_________Instructor Qualifications (certificated flight instructor (CFI), CFI instrument (CFII),
Multiengine Instructor, advanced ground instructor (AGI), instrument ground
instructor (IGI))
Other:________________________________________________________________________
Proficiency Goals
_________Lower personal minimums to:
__________
Ceiling
__________
Visibility
__________
Winds
__________
Precision approach minimums
__________
Non-precision approach minimums
_________Fly at least:
__________
Times per month
__________
Hours per month
__________
Hours per year
__________
Cross-country flights per year
__________
Night hours per month
_________Make a cross-country trip to:
_____________________________
Other:________________________________________________________________________
Aeronautical Training Plan
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 4
APPENDIX 4. SAMPLE AIRPLANE PILOTS PROFICIENCY PRACTICE PLAN

Pilots Name:__________________________CFI:_______________________________
Date:___________________________Review Date:_____________________________
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight Profile Every 4-6 Weeks:
1. Preflight (include 3-P risk management process (RMP)) (refer to Appendix 9, Resources,
paragraph 5). Normal taxi, takeoff, departure to practice area.
CHAPS (before each maneuver):
Clear the area.

Heading established and noted.
Altitude established (at least 3,000 above ground level (AGL)).
Position near a suitable emergency landing area.
Set power and aircraft configuration.
1. Steep turns (both directions), altitude within 100 feet and airspeed within 10 knots.
2. Power-off stalls (approach to landing) and recovery.
3. Power-on stalls (takeoff/departure) and recovery.
4. Ground reference maneuvers (600 to 1000 AGL).
5. Pattern practice:
Normal landing (full flaps).

Short-field takeoff and landing over a 50 feet obstacle.
Soft-field takeoff and landing.
1. Secure the aircraft.

2. Review your performance.
3. Schedule next proficiency flight.
Page 1 (and 2)
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AC 61-98B
Appendix 5
APPENDIX 5. SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKLIST (SIDE 1)
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 5
APPENDIX 5. SAMPLE FLIGHT REVIEW CHECKLIST (Side 2)
Page 2
4/30/12
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 6
APPENDIX 6. SAMPLE PILOTS INSTRUMENT EXPERIENCE SUMMARY

Pilot:_______________________________
Certificated flight instructor (CFI):________
____________________________________
Address:____________________________
Phone(s):____________________________
e-mail:______________________________
Type of Pilot Certificate(s):
Private______________________________
Commercial__________________________
Air transport pilot (ATP)_______________
Flight instructor_______________________
Rating(s):
Instrument___________________________
Multiengine__________________________
Rotorcraft___________________________
Glider______________________________
Lighter-than-air (LTA)_________________
Experience (pilot):
Total time___________________________
Last 6 months________________________
Time logged since last instrument
proficiency check (IPC)________________
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)

____________________________________
Night VFR___________________________
Night IFR___________________________
Approaches__________________________
Approaches to minimums_______________
Approaches in last 6 months_____________
Type of Flying (external factors):
What percentage of your flying is for:
Pleasure_____________________________
Business____________________________
Local___________Cross country_________
Personal Skills Assessment:
Strengths as a pilot?___________________
____________________________________
Areas for improvement?________________
____________________________________
Aviation goals?_______________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Experience (aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly_________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Aircraft used most often________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
For this aircraft:
Total time___________________________
Last 6 months________________________
Experience (flight environment):

Approximately how many hours logged in:
Day visual flight rules (VFR)____________
Day instrument flight rules (IFR)_________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 7
APPENDIX 7. SAMPLE INSTRUMENT TRAINING AND PROFICIENCY PLAN

Pilots Name:______________________________CFI:_________________________________
Date:_______________________________Review Date:_______________________________
Instrument Training Goals
_______ Certificate Level (Private, Commercial, air transport pilot (ATP))
_______ Ratings (Instrument, Multiengine Land (MEL), Airplane Single Engine Sea
(ASES), Airplane Multiengine Sea (AMES)
_______ Phase in Pilot Proficiency (Wings) Program
_______ Instructor Qualifications (certificated flight instructor (CFI), CFI instrument (CFII),
multiengine instructor, advanced ground instructor (AGI), instrument ground
instructor (IGI))
Other:________________________________________________________________________
Instrument Proficiency Goals
_________Lower personal minimums to:
__________
Ceiling
__________
Visibility
__________
Winds
__________
Precision approach minimums
__________
Non-precision approach minimums
_________Fly instrument flight rules (IFR)/instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) at least:
__________
Times per month
__________
Hours per month
__________
Hours per year
__________
Cross-country flights per year
__________
Night hours per month
_________Make an IFR/IMC cross-country trip to:
_____________________________
Other:________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Aeronautical Training Plan
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Page 1 (and 2)
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 8

PROFICIENCY CHECK CHECKLIST (SIDE 1)
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 8
4/30/12

PROFICIENCY CHECK CHECKLIST (Side 2)
Page 2
4/30/12
AC 61-98B
Appendix 9
APPENDIX 9. RESOURCES
1. Advisory Circulars (AC) (current editions):
AC 61-65, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors.

AC 61-89, Pilot Certificates: Aircraft Type Ratings.
AC 61-91, WINGS Pilot Proficiency Program.
AC 61-107, Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet MSL and/or Mach
Numbers (Mmo) Greater than .75.
2. Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS): http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov.

3. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA): http://www.aopa.org.
4. Beyond the Buttons: Mastering Our Marvelous Flying Machines:
http://www.faa.gov/news/aviation_news/2007/media/MarchApril2007.pdf.
5. Conducting an Effective Flight Review:
http://www.faa.gov/pilots/training/media/flight_review.pdf.
6. Flight Service (Lockheed Martin):
http://www.afss.com.
General Aviation Pilots Guide to Preflight Weather Planning, Weather Self-Briefings,
and Weather Decision Making
www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/media/ga_weather_decision_making.pdf.
7. General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA): http://www.gama.aero/.

8. Instrument Proficiency Check Guidance:
www.faa.gov/pilots/training/media/IPC_Guidance.pdf.
9. Night Flying: www.aopa.org/asf/safety_topics.html#night.
10. Online Resources for CFIs: www.faasafety.gov.
11. Personal Minimums Checklist:
https://www.faasafety.gov/files/gslac/library/documents/2007/Jan/14078/6.2%20Personal%20Mi
nimums%20Worksheet.pdf.
12. Personal and Weather Risk Assessment Guide:
http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/guidance.
13. Practical Test Standards (current editions):
FAA-S-8081-4, Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards.

FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook.
FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation Instructors Handbook.
Page 1
AC 61-98B
Appendix 9
14. Risk Management and System Safety Modules:
http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/training/flight_instructor.
15. Risk Management Teaching Tips: www.faa.gov/library/manuals/pilot_risk.
16. Teaching Practical Risk Management (May/June 2005 Issue of FAA Aviation News):
http://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2005.
17. Tools for CFIs (AOPA): http://flighttraining.aopa.org/cfis.
Page 2
4/30/12
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Advisorv
Circular
Subject: RECOMMENDED
STANDARD TRAFFIC
PAiTERNS AND PRACTICES FOR
AERONAUTICAL
OPERATIONS AT
AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING
CONTROL TOWERS
1. PURPOSE.
This advisory circular (AC) calls attention to regulatory requirements and rec6mmended procedures
for aeronauticaloperationsat airports without operating control towers. It recommends traffic patterns
and operational proceduresfor aircraft, lighter than
air, glider, parachute,rotorcraft, and ultralight vehicle
operations where such use is not in conflict with
existing proceduresin effect at thoseairports.
2, CANCELLATION.
AC 90-66, RecommendedStandardTraffic Patterns
for Airplane Operations at Uncontrolled Airports,
datedFebruary27,1975, is cancelled,
3. PRINCIPAL CHANGES.
This AC has been updated to reflect current procedures at airports without operating control towers.
Principal changesinclude: adding on Other Traffic
Pattern section, amendingappendixcharts to remain
consistent with the Airmans Information Manual
(AIM), expanding the Related Reading Material
section from airplane to aeronautical operations, adding definition and referencesto, Common
Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), acknowledging
straight-in approachesare not prohibited but may
be operationally advantageous,and adding a paragraphon wake turbulence.
4. DEFINITIONS.
a. Airports Without Operating Control Towers.
Airports without control towers or an airport with
a control tower which is not operating. These
airports are commonly referred to as non-towered,
uncontrolled,or part-time toweredairports.
b. CommonTraffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF).
A frequency designed for the purpose of carrying
out airport advisory practices while operating to
or from an airport without an operating control
tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM,
Date: 8126193
Initiated by: ATP-230
ACNo.90-66A
flight service station, or tower frequency and is

identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.
5. REMTED READING MATERIAL.
a. Airport/Facility Directory (AFD).
b. Airmans Information Manual (AIM).
c. Fly Neighborly Guide, Helicopter Association
International.
d. Aviation USA, Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association (AOPA).
.
e. Stateaviation publications.
f. Various pilot guides.
Q. Pilot Operationsat Nontowered Airports, AOPA
Air Safety Foundationpamphlet.
h. Guidelines for the Operation of Ultralight
Vehicles at Existing Airports, United StatesUltralight
Association.
i. Factsfor Pilots, United StatesParachuteAssociation.
j. The latest addition of the following ACs
also contain information applicable to operations
at airportswithout operatingcontrol towers:
(1) AC 90-23, Aircraft Wake Turbulence.
(2) AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at
Airports Without OperatingControl Towers.
(3) AC 90-48, Pilots Role in Collision Avoidance.
(4) AC 91-32, Safety In and Around Helicopters.
103-6,
Ultralight
Vehicle
(5) AC
Operations-Airports, Air Traffic Control, and
Weather.
(6) AC 105-2, Sport ParachuteJumping.
6.BACKGROUNDANDSCOPE.
a. Regulatory provisions relating to traffic patterns

are found in Parts 91, 93, and 97 of the Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR). The airport traffic
8/26/93
AC !W66A
patterns contained in Part 93 relate primarily to

those airports where there is a need for unique
traffic pattern procedures not provided for in Part
91. Part 97 addressesinstrument approachprocedures.
At airports without operating control towers, Part
91 requires only that pilots of airplanesapproaching
to land make all turns to the left unless light
signals or visual markings indicate that turns should
be madeto the right.
b. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
believes that observanceof a standardtraffic pattern
and the use of CTAF procedures as detailed in
AC 90-42 will improve the safety and efficiency
of aeronauticaloperationsat airportswithout operating
control towers.
7. GENERAL OPERATING
PRACTICES.
a. Use of standardtraffic patterns for all aircraft
and CTAF procedures by radio-equipped aircraft
are recommended at all airports without operating
control towers. However, it is recognized that other
traffic patterns may already be in common use
at some airports or that special circumstances or
conditions exist that may prevent use of the standard
traffic pattern.
b. The use of any traffic pattern procedure does
not alter the responsibility of each pilot to see
and avoid other aircraft. Pilots are encouraged
to participate in Operation Lights On, which
is a voluntary pilot safety program described in
the AIM designedto enhancethe see-and-avoid
requirement.
C. As part of the preflight familiarization with
all available information concerning a flight, each
pilot shouldreview all appropriatepublications(AFD,
AIM, Notices to Airmen (NOTAM), etc.), for pertinent information on current traffic patterns at the
departureandarrival airports.
d. It is recommended that pilots utilize visual
indicators, such as the segmentedcircle, wind direction indicator, landing direction indicator, and traffic
pattern indicators which provide traffic pattern
information.
e. The FAA encouragespilots to use the standard
traffic pattern. However, for those pilots who choose
to execute a straight-in approach, maneuvering for
and execution of the approachshould be completed
so as not to disrupt the flow of arriving and
departing traffic. Therefore,pilots operating in the
traffic pattern should be alert at all times to
aircraft executingstraight-in approaches.
f. Pilots who wish to conduct instrument
approaches should be particularly alert for other
Page 2
aircraft in the pattern SO as to avoid interrupting

the flow of traffic. Position reports on the CTAF
should include distance and direction from the
airport, as well as the pilots intentions upon completion of the approach.
g. Pilots of inbound nonradio-equipped aircraft
should determinethe runway in use prior to entering
the traffic pattern by observing the landing direction
indicator or by other means. Pilots should be
aware that procedures at airports without operating
control towers generally do not require the use
of two-way radios; therefore, pilots should be
especially vigilant for other aircraft while operating
in the traffic pattern.
h. Wake turbulence is generated by all aircraft.
Therefore, pilots should expect to encounter turbulence while operating in a traffic pattern and in
proximity to other aircraft. Aircraft components
and equipment can be damagedby wake turbulence.
In flight, avoid the area below and behind the
aircraft generating turbulence especially at low altitude where even a momentary wake encounter
can be hazardous. All operators should be aware
of the potential adverse effects that their wake,
rotor or propeller turbulence has on light aircraft
andultralight vehicles.
8. RECOMMENDED
STANDARD
TRAFFIC
PATTERN.
Airport owners and operators,in coordination with
the FAA, are responsible for establishing traffic
patterns. However, the FAA encourages airport
owners and operators to establish traffic patterns
as recommended in this AC. Further, left traffic
patternsshouldbe establishedexceptwhere obstacles,
terrain, -and noise-sensitive areas dictate otherwise.
Appendix 1 contains diagrams for recommended
standardtraffic patterns.
a. Prior to entering the traffic pattern at an
airport without an operating control tower, aircraft
should avoid the flow of traffic until established
on the entry leg. For example, wind and landing
direction indicators can be checked while at an
altitude above the traffic pattern. When the proper
traffic pattern direction has been determined, the
pilot should then proceed to a point well clear
of the pattern before descending to the pattern
altitude.
b, Arriving aircraft shouldbe at the appropriate
traffic pattern altitude before entering the traffic
pattern. Entry to the downwind leg should be
at a 45-clegree angle abeam the midpoint of the
runway.
PAR
8/26/93
AC 90-66A
c. It is recommended that airplanes observe a

lOOO-footabove ground level (AGL) traffic pattern
altitude. Large and turbine-powered airplanesshould
enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of 1,500
feet AGL or 500 feet above the establishedpattern
altitude. A pilot may vary the size of the traffic
pattern depending on the aircrafts performance
characteristics.
d. The traffic pattern altitude shouldbe maintained
until the aircraft is at least abeam the approach
end of the landing runway on the downwind leg.
e. The base leg *turn should commence when
the aircraft. is at a point approximately 45 degrees
relativebearingfrom the runway threshold.
f. Landing and takeoff should be accomplished
on the operating runway most nearly aligned into
the wind. However, -if a cfsecondary runway is
used, pilots using the secondary runway should
avoid the flow of traffic to the runway most
nearly aligned into the wind.
g. Airplanes on takeoff should continue straight
aheaduntil beyond the departureend of the runway.
&craft executing a go-around maneuver should
continue straight ahead, beyond the departure end
of the runway, with the pilot maintaining awareness
of other traffic so as not to conflict with those
establishedin the pattern.In caseswhere a go-around
was causedby an aircraft on the runway, maneuvering
parallel to the runway may be required to maintain
visualcontactwith the conflicting aircraft.
h. Airplanes remaining in the traffic patternshould
not commence a turn to the crosswind leg until
beyond the departure end.of. the runway and within
300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will
be made at the traffic patternaltitude.
i. When departing the traffic pattern, airplanes
should continue straight out or exit with a 45-degree
left turn (right turn for right traffic pattern) beyond
the departure end of the runway after reaching
pattern altitude. Pilots need to be aware of any
traffic enteringthe traffic patternprior to commencing
a turn.
j. Airplanes should not be operated in the traffic
pattern at an indicated airspeed of more than 200
knots (230 mph).
k, Throughout the traffic pattern, right-of-way
rules apply as stated in FAR Part 91.113;Any
aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all
other aircraft. In addition, when converging aircraft
are of different categories, a balloon has the
right-of-way over any other category of aircraft;
PAR
a glider has the right-of-way over an airship,

airplane, or rotorcraft; and an airship has the
right-of-way over an airplaneor rotorcraft.
9. OTHER TRAFFIC PATTERNS.
Airport operatorsroutinely establish local procedures
for the operation of gliders, parachutists, lighter
than air aircraft, helicopters, and ultralight vehicles.
Appendices 2 and 3 illustrate these operations
as they relate to recommended standard traffic
patterns.
a. Rotorcraft.
(1) In the case of. a- helicopter approaching
to land, the pilot must avoid the flow of fixed-wing
aircraft and land on a marked helipad or suitable
clear area. Pilots should be aware that at some
airports, the only suitable landing areais the runway.
(2). All pilots should be aware that rotorcraft
,may fly slower and approach at steeper angles
than airplanes. Air taxi is the preferred method
for helicopter ground movements which enables
the pilot to proceedat an optimum airspeed,minimize
downwash effect, and conservefuel. However, flight
over aircraft, vehicles, and personnel should be
avoided.
(3) In the case of a gyrocopter approaching
to land, the pilot should avoid the flow of fixed-wing
aircraft until turning final for the active runway.
(4) A helicopter operating in the traffic pattern
may .fly a pattern similar to the airplane pattern
at a lower altitude (500 AGL) and closer to
the airport. This pattern may be on .the opposite
-side of the runway with turns in the opposite
direction if local policy permits.
(5) Both classes of rotorcraft can be expected
to practice. power-off landing (autorotation) which
will involve -a very steep angle of approach and
high rate of descent(1,500-2,000feet/minute).
b. Gliders.
. (1) A glider, including the tow aircraft during
towing operations,hasthe right-f-way over powered
aircraft.
(2) If the same runway is usedby both airplanes
and gliders, the glider traffic pattern will be inside
the pattern of engine driven aircraft. If a Glider
Operating Area is established to one side of
a powered-aircraft runway, the glider pattern will
normally be on the side of the airport closest
to the Glider Operating Area. This will allow
gliders to fly the same direction traffic pattern
as powered aircraft in one wind condition and
necessitate a separate opposing direction traffic
Page 3
8/26/93
AC 90-66A
patternin the oppositewind condition. (See examples

in Appendix 2, Glider Operations).
(3) Typically, glider traffic patterns have entry
points (initial points) from 600 to 1,000 feet AGL.
C. Ultralight Vehicles.
(1) In accordancewith FAR Part 103, ultralight
vehicles are required to yield the right-of-way
to all aircraft.
(2) Ultralight vehicles should fly the rectangular
pattern as described in Appendix 2. Pattern altitude
should be 500 feet below and inside the standard
pattern altitude established for the airport. An
ultralight pattern with its own dedicated landing
area will typically have a lower traffic pattern
parallel to the standard pattern with turns in the
oppositedirection.
(3) All pilots should be aware that ultralights
will fly significantly slower thanairplabes.In addition,
ultralights may also exhibit very steep takeoff and
approach angles. Turns may be executed near the
end of the runway in order to clear the area
expediently.
d. Lighter Than Air Aircraft.
(1) A balloon has the right-of-way over any
other category of aircraft and does not follow
a standardtraffic pattern.
(2) Due to limited maneuverability, airships
do not normally fly a standard traffic pattern.
However, if a standard traffic pattern is flown,
it will be at an airspeedbelow most other aircraft.
e. ParachuteOperations.
(1) All activities are normally conducted under
a NOTAM noting the location, altitudes, and time
or duration of jump operations.The Airport/Facility
Directory lists airports where permanentdrop zones
arelocated.
Page 4
(2) Jumpers normally exit the aircraft either

above, or well upwind of, the airport and at
altitudeswell abovetraffic patternaltitude. Parachutes
are normally deployed between 2,000 feet and
5,000 feet AGL and can be expected to be below
3,000 feet AGL within 2 miles of the airport.
(3) Pilots of jump aircraft are required by
Part 105 to establishtwo-way- radio communications
with the air traffic control facility or Flight Service
Station which has jurisdiction over the affected
airspace prior to jump operations for the purpose
of receiving information in the aircraft about known
air traffic in the vicinity. In addition, when jump
aircraft are operating at or in the vicinity of
an airport, pilots are also encouraged to provide
advisory information on the CTAF, i.e., Chambersburg traffic, jumpers away over Chambersburg.
(4) When a drop zone has been established
on an airport, parachutists are expected to land
within the drop zone. At airports that have not
established drop zones, parachutists should avoid
landing0on runways, taxiways, aprons, and their
associatedsafety areas.Pilots and parachutistsshould
both be aware of the limited flight performance
of parachutesand take steps to avoid any potential
conflicts between aircraft and parachute operations.
(5) Appendix 3 diagrams operations conducted
by parachutists.
Harold W. Becker
Acting Director, Air Traffic
Rules and Procedures Service
8/2@/SZS
AC
SO-MA
APPENDIX
AIRPORT OPERATIONS
SINGLE RUNWAY
48 .8::
APPLICATION
OF TRAFFIC3
PATTERN
INDICATORS
I4
BASE
STRAIGHT-IN
APPROACH
, ,),
Id
#
.a r
ma .a
LANDING
DIRECTION
INDICATOR
- :)
LANDING
RUNWAY
(OR LANDING
STRIP)
INDICATORS
-
+
d
TRAFFIC
PATTERP
A IA .WAAA
IN
- WINDCONE
PARALLEL RUNWAYS
LEGEND:
STANDARD
--- LEFT-HAND
---~
TRAFFIC PAlTERN
(DEPICTED)
STRAIGHT-IN
-ah&4
RUNWAY
k-1
APPROACH
IT
IECEND:
STANDARD
RIGHTMAND
TRAFFIC PATfERN
(DEPICTED)
KEY
01
Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of

the runway, at pattern altitude. (1000 AGL is
recommended pattern altitude unless established
otherwise).
Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach

end of ihe landing runway, or downwind leg.
03
complete turn to final at least l/4 mile from the

runway.
04
Continue straight ahead until beyond departure

end of runway.
05
If *remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn

to ctosswind leg beyond the departure end of the
runway, within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
06
If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight

out, or exit with a 45* left turn beyond the departure end of the runway, after reaching pattern
altitude.
07
Do .not overshoot final or continue on a track

which will penetrate the final approach of the
parallel runway.
08
Do not continue on a track which will penetrate

the departure path of the parallel runway.
8/M/93
9046A
AC
APPENDIX
ULTRALIGHT
OPERATIONS
DOWNWIND
ULTRALIGHT
OPERATING
AREA
FlNAt
ULTRALIGHT
SEPARATE
OPERATING AREA
GLIDER OPERATIONS
GLIDER PATTERN AND POWER
SAME SIDE OF RUNWAY
PATTERN
GLIDER PATTERN INSIDE TRAFFIC

PAlTERN FOR ENGINE-DRIVEN
AIRCRAFT
CUDER
PATTERN
ENTRY
(600- 1,owACl)
+
I-- 600-1,OO~~G~
-5,
.
\,
GLIDER
PATTERN
ENTRY
POWERED
GLIDER PATTERN AND POWER

OPPOSKE SIDE OF RUNWAY
GLIDER PATTERN IS SEPARATE
FROM POWERED RUNWAY
TOWS
EXIT
TO 2,ow - 3,ooo~
AGL UPWIND
RUNWAY
PA7TERN
TOWS TO
ENTRY
600 - 1,000 AGL
I
2,000 - 3,000 FT. AGL

UPWIND
PAGE
(AND
2)
AC
8/26/93
SO-66A
APPmDix
~~-~
SIDE VIEW
PARACHUTE
I<
OPERATIONS
2 MILES
1 MILE
WINDOW
750
RUNWAY
TOP VIEW
NOTE:
THIS DEPICTS
AN A JRPORT
WHERE NO DROP ZONE HAS BEEN

ESTABLISHED.
b U.S.
GOVERNMENT
PRINTING
OFFICE
: 1997
- 516 - 623 / 83535
PAOE
II
(AND
2)
800 Independence
Ave., S.W.
Washington,
D.C. 20591
FORWARDING
AU0 RETURN
POSTME
QUARAMTEED
official Businees
Penatty for Prim?0 Use $300
Appendix 2
Inoperative Equipment Flow Chart (FAR 91.213)

CFI Q&A: Privileges and Limitations
Inoperative Equipment
Flow Chart
91.213
Yes
MEL?
No
Use MEL
91.205
VFR Day
Type
Certificate
Kinds of
Operation
List (POH
Sect. 2)
Airworthiness
Directives
(AD)
PIC
Decision
Remove
Equipment list
and W&B must
be updated by
MX.
OR
Placard &
Deactivate
Must be repaired
@ next
inspection (See
91.405(c))
11/19/11
AOPA Online: AOPA Online Members Only - Aviation Subject Report - CFI Q
AOPA
CFI Q&A: Pri ileges and Limitations
Thi. i. a .
a
f he
c
Pi I f
a i Ce e , 800/872-2672.
F
CFI e e a
e i
a da
Question: Ca a CFI e e ci e he
a he a i g?
Ans. er: Ye , acc di g
e ,
he ha
ed ce ifica ed f igh i
f a f igh i
14 CFR 61.429, if
(CFI)
ce ifica e
h d a a id a d c
a i g,
a d
f ai c af bei g f
he CFI h
ea e i i he AOPA Ai Safe F
i i ege
i
c ce ifica e i h a
i
ce ifica e, i he ca eg
a dca
Q: Ca a CFI,
ided ai i g
ih
e
a
e i
da i
iha
he
i
c
ei f
ai
c a ifica i
, ca
he AOPA
' CFI e e a Web age.
f igh i
f
.F
a i g if he CFI h d a f igh i
ce ifica e, a d ee
i g f
ficie c
e e ci e he
ided
ce ifica e
i i ege
a e a ed,
ih
f a f igh
f igh i
.
a a ic a
A: Ye . Acc di g 14 CFR 61.195(d), he f igh i

c
e i
e ,a d
ed
ced e a e ade a e f he
de '
gb
ha he i
c c
ide
ece a f
de , e d
e he
de '
gb
-c
f igh ?
idi g he e d
e e
de e i e he
de ' f igh e a a i , a
ed f igh
de he e i i g c di i
a d i hi a
i iai
i ed i
he afe
f he f igh .
Q: H
d e a CFI ai a
de f f igh i a i g e- ea ai c af ?
A: Acc di g 14 CFR 61.195(g), ef igh ai i g
ha e bee
ca eg , c a , a d
e, if a
ia e.
ided i a ai c af ha ha
ai
a di
i g,
he
f he a e
Q: Ca a CFI h i
a CFII
ide i
e i
ci
ada i
e a i g?
A: N . Acc di g 14 CFR 61.195(c), a f igh i
c
h
ide i
e f igh ai i g f he i
a ce f a i
e ai g
h d
a i
e ai g
hi /he f igh i
c ce ifica e a d i ce ifica e a
ia e
he ca eg
a dca
f ai c af bei g
ided f he
i
f igh
ai i g.
Q: Ca a CFI ig a ca dida e' 8710 f

if ha CFI did '
ide f igh ai i g
ha ca dida e?
A: Ye , b
if he CFI ig i g he 8710 f
ca a e
e
a i
c i g he ca dida e a d ha c
ide ed hi /he ead
a e he e .
Thi
ea , a a i i
, ha he ec
e di g i
c
f
i h he ca dida e a d e a a e ha e
' abi i
a
he e . The
FAA c
ide he ec
e di g i
c
e
ib e f
a ida i g he ca dida e' eadi e f he e .
Q: Ca a CFI
ide i
A: Ye , he FAA ha de e
c
e a i f he i
e i ed. A h gh a ec
he CFI ce ifica e), i i
ci f c
e ai
hi e hi e e
i ed ha he c
e a i a CFI ecei
c i . The ef e, f igh i
ci i
dca
edica ce ifica e i e i ed
e i ed e e ci e he i i ege f
Q: Ca a CFI
ide i
ci f c
e
A: Ye , acc di g 14 CFR 61.23(b)(5), a
ai
ga
hi e i h
he CFI i
i ga i i c
a d (PIC) i h
a hi d c a
edica ce ifica e?
e f f igh i
ci i
c
e ai f
i i g he ai c af b i a he
c
ide ed a "c
e cia
e a i " a d a ec d c a
edica i
e e ci e i i ege f a c
e cia i ce ifica e ( hich i
i e i ed f
CFI ce ifica e.
edica ce ifica e?
e i g a PIC d i g he f igh ,
a a e
i ed f igh c e
e be .
Q: Ca a CFII
ide i
e i
ci i a
ie gi e ai a e if he
he i
a
ie gi e i
c (MEI)?
A: Ye , if he i
c a
ha
ie gi e i i ege
hi /he i ce ifica e. The i
c
i i ege "I
e -Ai a e" i
ca eg
ca
ecific a d a be ed f a
e f ai a e, a
g a he i
c ha he e i i ege
hi /he i ce ifica e. N e ha i
ca e, he i
i i ed
Q: Ca a CFII i h i g e-e gi eai a e?

A: Ye , if he i
c a
ha
ca
ecific a d
a be
ed f
i i ege
ie gi e
a
www.aopa.org/members/files/topics/cfi_qna.html
ci
i a
hi /he i
i i ege
e f ai
a e, a
ie gi e ai
c
hi /he
ga
a e, a d
ie gi e
ce ifica e gi e a i
i
ce ifica e. The i
he i
ha
he e
e
c
a e
a be a gh .
ficie c chec (IPC) i a

i i ege "I
i i ege
hi /he
e -Ai
i
a d
hi
a e" i
ie gi e
ca eg
a d
ce ifica e.
1/2
11/19/11
AOPA Online: AOPA Online Members Only - Aviation Subject Report - CFI Q
. : Can a CFI with single-engine-only privileges on his/her instructor certificate give a flight review in a multiengine airplane?
A: No. According to 14 CFR 61.56(c)(1), only an authorized instructor may conduct a flight review. Since a flight review requires one hour of flight
instruction, it requires a multiengine instructor to conduct the flight review. To provide flight instruction, a flight instructor must have appropriate
category, class, and type (if appropriate) privileges on his/her flight instructor certificate.
. : When providing instruction for a high-performance endorsement, does the aircraft have to have an engine that is over 200 horsepower?
A: Yes, according to 14 CFR 61.31(f), the airplane must have an engine with more than 200 horsepower in order to qualify as high performance.
Note: A complex airplane endorsement [14 CFR 61.31(e)] is needed to operate an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, flaps, and a
controllable-pitch propeller or, in case of a seaplane, flaps and a controllable-pitch propeller. The training and endorsement required by 14 CFR
61.31 (f)(1) is not required if the person has logged flight time as a pilot in command of a high-performance airplane, or in a flight simulator or flight
training device that is representative of a high-performance airplane prior to August 4, 1997.
. : When providing instruction for a high-altitude endorsement, must the CFI be high-altitude qualified?
A: Yes, if the required instruction will be in an airplane and the CFI will be serving as PIC, the CFI must have a high-altitude endorsement (unless
grandfathered in under 14 CFR 61.31[g][3]). If the training is conducted in an approved simulator, then the CFI need not be high-altitude qualified.
: When providing training for a high-altitude multiengine airplane, must the CFI be a multiengine instructor?
A: No, the high-altitude endorsement is not airplane type specific, and the CFI need not be a multiengine instructor.
: When providing instruction for a tailwheel endorsement, must the CFI be tailwheel qualified (have a tailwheel endorsement or be grandfathered
under the provisions under 14 CFR 61.31)?
A: Yes, if the instructor is acting as PIC during the flight training, he/she will need to be tailwheel qualified.
: Can a CFI who is not tailwheel qualified administer a flight review in a tailwheel airplane?
A: Yes, as long as the CFI is not serving as PIC.
: In order to recommend an applicant for an initial CFI certificate, the instructor must meet the experience requirements of FAR 61.195(h)(2)(iv)
(200 hours of instruction time and 24 months as a CFI). Is this required to recommend an applicant for additional CFI ratings?
A: No, only for an initial CFI certificate.
: Can someone apply for a CFII certificate before getting his or her CFI?
A: Yes, if you only wish to do instrument instruction and instrument proficiency checks. Note: The holder of a flight instructor certificate with only
Instrument-Airplane will not be permitted to do flight reviews or provide primary instruction toward a certificate.
: I have a flight instructor certificate with only "Airplane-Multiengine" privileges. Does this mean I can also instruct in a single-engine aircraft?
A: No, you may not. To provide instruction in single-engine airplanes, you must have the appropriate category and class privileges on your instructor
certificate.
: My flight instructor certificate only specifies Airplane-Single Engine; does this mean I can instruct in a single-engine seaplane?
A: Yes, if you have at least commercial privileges, Single Engine Sea on your pilot certificate.
: I have a CFI certificate and want to get a ground instructor certificate. How can I do this?
A: According to 14 CFR 61.213, you will have to take the appropriate knowledge test for the ground instructor rating sought. (The knowledge test on
the fundamentals of instructing is not required if you already hold a ground or flight instructor certificate.) For example, if you want an instrument
ground instructor certificate, you would take the instrument knowledge test. Present your test results and CFI certificate to a FSDO inspector, and
you will be issued a temporary ground instructor certificate. Your permanent certificate will arrive in the mail from the FAA Airman Certification
Branch.
: How do I become a "Gold Seal" flight instructor?
A: The procedures are outlined on page 8 of AC 61.65E. Basically, you must have recommended at least 10 people for practical tests within the
previous 24 months. You must have at least an 80-percent pass rate on the practical tests. In addition, you will need to have a ground instructor
certificate with an advanced or instrument rating. Present all supporting documentation to a FSDO inspector. (You will need to call ahead and make
an appointment.) The inspector will issue you a temporary CFI certificate. Your permanent Gold Seal flight instructor certificate will be mailed from
the FAA Airman Certification Branch. Note: If you don't have a ground instructor certificate, you may perform the steps listed above for a ground
instructor certificate at the same time you are applying for your Gold Seal CFI certificate.
Updated Thursday, March 6, 2008 8:55 AM
. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
www.aopa.org/members/files/topics/cfi_qna.html
421 Aviation Way
Frederick, MD 21701
Phone 800/872-2672
Fax 301/695-2375
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cfi

Technical Subject Areas

Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight

Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds

Ground Reference Maneuvers

Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

Basic Instrument Maneuvers

Areas Of Operation: Multi-Engine Land

Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

real world solutions.

Collaborative problem solving- two or more people working together to solve a

5. Instruction aids and training technologies

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

b. Keeping the Student Informed

c. Gold Seal Flight Certificate

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

AOO I. Fundamentals of Instructing

Task A: Aeromedical Factors

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

iv. Turning tendencies

ii. Neutral oscillations continue and stays the same

d.Asymmetric Loading downward blas has a higher angle of attack

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOE II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

Other sources to use when planning your flight

10. Importance of preparing and properly using a flight log

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

1. Ground-based navigational System

AOO II. Technical Subject Areas

Knowledge test endorsements FAR 61.35 (a)(1) and 61.96 (b)(3)

Have an endorsement if required by an authorized instructor in logbook

i. Name of and date of each endorsement for solo flight

Records must be kept for 3 years

Commercial Pilot Endorsements

Instrument Rating Endorsements

Flight Instructor Endorsements

Area of Operations III

Task A: Certificates and Documents

AOO III. Preflight Preparation

i. Carry no more than one pax

AOO III. Preflight Preparation

AOO III. Preflight Preparation

iii. Magnetos are small AC generators driven by crankshaft rotation to

vii. Prop speeds up, shaft speeds up

i. Rudder pedals are connected to the nose wheel

ii. Counterweights help balance controls

AOO III. Preflight Preparation

AOO V. Preflight Procedures

Importance of a thorough preflight inspection:

AOO V. Preflight Procedures

What is Cockpit Management?

AOO V. Preflight Procedures