Thermal Processing of Metals

Chapter 11

Annealing
A heat treatment process in which a material is heated to an elevated temperature, allowed
to dwell there for a set amount of time and then cooled with a controlled rate.
Stages of annealing:
Heating to required temperature
Holding (soaking) at constant temperature
Cooling

The time at the high temperature (soaking time) is long enough to allow the desired
transformation (diffusion, kinetics) to occur.
Cooling is done slowly to avoid warping/cracking of due to the thermal gradients and
thermo-elastic stresses within or even cracking the metal piece.
Purposes of annealing:
Relieve internal stresses
Increase ductility, toughness, softness
Produce specific microstructure

Process Annealing used to revert effects of work

hardening (by recovery and recrystallization) and to
increase ductility. Heating is usually limited to avoid
excessive grain growth and oxidation. Oxidation may be
avoided by performing at relatively low temperature (but
above the recrystallization temperature) or in nonoxidizing
temperature.
Stress Relief Annealing used to eliminate/minimize stresses
arising from
o Plastic deformation during machining
o Non-uniform cooling
Annealing temperatures are relatively low so that useful effects of
cold working are not eliminated.

Annealing of Ferrous Alloy

Hypoeutectoid
reaction

Hypereutectoid
reaction

Eutectoid Point

Lower critical temperature A1 below which austenite () does not exist.

Upper critical temperature lines, A3 and Acm above which all material is
austenite ().
The presence of other alloying elements will shift the eutectoid and the
positions of these phase boundary lines.

Normalizing

An annealing heat treatment just above the upper critical temperature to reduce
the AVERAGE grain sizes (of pearlite and proeutectoid phase) and make more
uniform size distributions.
Heat to at least 55C above A1 for euctectoid and above A3 for composition less
than 0.76 wt. % C and above Acm for compositions more than 0.76 wt. %.
After complete transformation to austenite (austenitizing - ). the treatment is
completed by cooling to the required microstructure.

Full anneal

Austenizing () and slow cooling (several hours). Produces coarse pearlite -large
grains (and possible proeutectoid phase) that is relatively soft and ductile. Full
annealing is used to soften pieces which have been hardened by plastic
deformation, and which need to undergo subsequent machining/forming.
The alloys is treated above 50C above A3 or A1. Then, cooled slowly in furnace.
Microstructure is coarse pearlite ( in addition to proeutectoid phase).

Spheroidizing

Prolonged heating just below the eutectoid temperature, which

results in the soft spheroidite structure. This achieves maximum softness needed in
subsequent forming operations. Can take place by several methods such as:
(a) Heating just below A1 (transformation time from pearlite~ 15 25h)
(b) Heating to a temperature just above eutectoid temperature; cooling slowly in the
furnace or holding at a temp just below the eutectoid temp
(c) Heating and cooling alternately within about +50C of A1.

Heat Treatment of Steels

Martensite has the strongest microstructure and can be made more
ductile by tempering. Therefore, the optimum properties of quenched
and tempered steel are realized if a high content of martensite is
produced.
Problem: It is difficult to maintain the same conditions throughout the
entire volume of steel during cooling: the surface cools more quickly
than interior, producing a range of microstructures throughout. The
martensitic content, and the hardness, will drop from a high value at
the surface to a lower value in the interior of the specimen.
Production of uniform martensitic structure depends on
composition
quenching conditions
size + shape of specimen

Tempering - Hardness
Martensite is the hardest /
strongest and most brittle
of the steel
microstructures
Hardness is a function of
carbon content
Enhance ductility by
tempering.
Anneal to equilibrium
ferrite plus cementite
phases. Formation by this
route called tempered
martensite.

Hardenability
Hardenability is the ability of the Fe-C alloy to be hardened
by forming martensite.
Hardenability is not hardness. It is a qualitative measure
of the rate at which hardness decreases with distance
from the surface because of decreased martensite
content.
High hardenability means the ability of the alloy to produce
a high martensite content throughout the volume of
specimen.
Hardenability is measured by the Jominy end-quench test,
performed for standard cylindrical specimen, standard
austenitization conditions, and standard quenching
conditions (jet of water at specific flow rate and
temperature).

Hardenability: Jominy end-quench test of

Hardenability

The Hardenability Curve is

the dependence of
hardness on distance from
the quenched end.

After removal from furnace, specimen is quickly

mounted as shown. The lower end is quenched by a jet
of water cooling rate is maximum at the quenched
end.
After cooled at RT, shallow flats of 0.4 mm deep are
ground along the specimen length and Rockwell
hardness measurement are made.

Hardenability: Hardenability Curve

Less martensite

Quenched end cools most rapidly and contains most martensite

Cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end

High hardenability means that the hardness curve is relatively flat.

Hardenability
Hardenability curves for five different steel alloys, each containing 0.4 wt. % C.
Approximate alloy compositions (wt %) are as follows:
(a) 4340 1.85 Ni, 0.80 Cr, 0.25 Mo. (b) 4140 1.0 Cr, 0.2 Mo. (c) 8640 0.55 Ni,
0.5 Cr, 0.2 Mo. (d) 5140 0.85 Cr. (e) 1040 Unalloyed steel

Alloying elements delay

formation of pearlite,
bainite : more martensite
Can also define
hardenability in terms of
cooling rate (C/s)

Hardenability

Hardenability also
generally
increases with C
content

Hardenability: Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen

Size, and Geometry on Hardenability
Quenching medium: Cooling is faster
in water then oil, slow in air. Fast
cooling brings the danger of warping
and formation of cracks, since it is
usually accompanied by large
thermal gradients.
The shape and size of the piece:
Cooling rate depends upon
extraction of heat to specimen
surface. Thus the greater the ration
of surface area to volume, the
deeper the hardening effect. Spheres
cool slowest, irregularly shaped
objects fastest.

Radial hardness profiles of

cylindrical steel bars

Distance from surface

Oil vs. water
Diameter

Hardenability: Specimen size and rate of cooling

Cooling rate as a function of diameter at surface, three quarter radius (3/4 R), midradius (R/2),
and center positions for cylindrical bars quenched in mildly agitated (a) water and (b) oil.

Example Problem 11.1

Determine the radial hardness profile for a 50
mm (2 in) diameter cylindrical specimen of
1040 steel that has been quenched in
moderately agitated water.

(a)The cooling rate at the center of a

water-quenched 50 mm (2 in)
diameter is determined (Figure
11.7a)
(b)The cooling rate is converted into
an HRC hardness for 1040 steel.
(Figure 11.14)
(c)The Rockwell hardness is plotted on
the radial hardness profile (Figure
11.18).

Exercise 1
Construct radial hardness profiles for the
following:
(a) A 45-mm diameter cylindrical specimen of
an 8640 steel alloy that has been quenched in
moderately agitated oil

 In the manner of Example Problem 11.1, the

equivalent distances and hardnesses tabulated
below were determined from Figures 11.14 and
11.17b
Radial
Equivalent
HRC
Position
Distance, mm
Hardness
Surface
7
52
3/4 R
11
50
Mid radius
14
45
Center
16
44

 The resulting hardness profile is plotted

below.

Exercise 1
A cylindrical piece of steel 20 mm in diameter
is to be quenched in moderately agitated oil.
Surface and center hardnesses must be at
least 55 and 50 HRC, respectively. Which of
the following alloys will satisfy these
requirements: 1040, 5140, 4340, 4140, and
8640? Justify your choice(s).

solution
In moderately agitated oil, the equivalent distances from the
quenched end for a 20-mm diameter bar for surface and center
positions are 3 mm and 8 mm respectively [Figure 11.17b]. The
hardnesses at these two positions for the alloys cited (as
determined using Figure 11.14) are given below
Alloy

1040
5140
4340
4140
8640

Surface
Hardness (HRC)
50
56
57
57
57

Center
Hardness (HRC)
30
49
57
55
53

Thus, alloys 4340, 4140, and 8640 will satisfy the criteria for
both surface and center hardnesses.

Exercise 2
A cylindrical piece of steel 70 mm in diameter
is to be austenitized and quenched such that a
minimum hardness of 40 HRC is to be produced
throughout the entire piece. Of the alloys 8660,
8640, 8630, and 8620, which will qualify if the
quenching medium is (a) moderately agitated
water, and (b) moderately agitated oil? Justify
your choice(s).

Solution
This problem calls for us to decide which of 8660, 8640,
8630, and 8620 alloys may be fabricated into a cylindrical
piece 70 mm in diameter which, when quenched in mildly
agitated water, will produce a minimum hardness of 40 HRC
throughout the entire piece.
The center of the steel cylinder will cool the slowest and
therefore will be the softest. In moderately agitated water
the equivalent distance from the quenched end for a 70mm diameter bar for the center position is about 15 mm
[Figure 11.17a]. The hardnesses at this position for the
alloys cited (Figure 11.15) are given below.

Alloy
8660
8640
8630
8620

Center
Hardness (HRC)
58
42
30
22

Therefore, only 8660 and 8640 alloys will have a

minimum of 40 HRC at the center, and therefore,
throughout the entire cylinder

 (b) This part of the problem asks us to do the

same thing for moderately agitated oil. In
moderately agitated oil the equivalent
distance from the quenched end for a 70-mm
diameter bar at the center position is about
22.5 mm [Figure 11.17b]. The hardnesses at
this position for the alloys cited (Figure 11.15)
are given below.

Alloy
8660
8640
8630
8620

Center
Hardness (HRC)
53
37
26
< 20

Therefore, only the 8660 alloy will have a

minimum of 40 HRC at the center, and
therefore, throughout the entire cylinder

Exercise 3
A cylindrical piece of steel 40 mm in diameter
is to be austenitized and quenched such that a
microstructure consisting of at least 80%
martensite will be produced throughout the
entire piece. Of the alloys 4340, 4140, 8640,
5140, and 1040, which will qualify if the
quenching medium is (a) moderately agitated
oil and (b) moderately agitated water? Justify
your choice(s).

Solution
Since the cooling rate is lowest at the center, we want a
minimum of 80% martensite at the center position. From Figure
11.17b, the cooling rate is equal to an equivalent distance from
the quenched end of 12 mm. According to Figure 11.14, the
hardness corresponding to 80% martensite for these alloys is 50
HRC.

Thus, all we need do is to determine which of the alloys have a

50 HRC hardness at an equivalent distance from the quenched
end of 12 mm. At an equivalent distance of 8 mm, the following
hardnesses are determined from Figure 11.14 for the various
alloys.

Alloy
4340
4140
8640
5140
1040

Hardness (HRC)
56
53
49
43
25

Thus, only alloys 4340 and 4140 will qualify.

(b) For moderately agitated water, the cooling rate at

the center of a 40-mm diameter specimen is 8 mm
equivalent distance from the quenched end [Figure
11.17a]. At this position, the following hardnesses are
determined from Figure 11.14 for the several alloys.
Alloy
4340
4140
8640
5140
1040

Hardness (HRC)
57
55
54
51
33

It is still necessary to have a hardness of 50 HRC or greater

at the center; thus, alloys 4340, 4140, 8640, and 5140
qualify

fig_11_14

Alternative quiz:
A cylindrical piece of steel 85 mm in diameter is to be
quenched in moderately agitated water.
Surface and center hardnesses must be at least 55
and 40 HRC, respectively. Which of the following
alloys will satisfy these requirements: 1040, 5140,
4340, 8640 fand 4140? Justify your choices

fig_11_15

fig_11_16

fig_11_17

fig_11_18

fig_11_19

fig_11_20

Precipitation Hardening
Small inclusions of secondary phases strengthen material
Lattice distortions around these secondary phases
impede dislocation motion
The precipitates form when the solubility limit is
exceeded
Precipitation hardening is also called age hardening
because it involves the hardening of the material over a
prolonged time.

Heat Treatment for Precipitation Hardening

1) Solution heat
treatment: at To, all the
solute atoms A are
dissolved to form a singlephase () solution.

3) Precipitation heat treatment: the

supersaturated solution is heated to
T2 where diffusion is appreciable
phase starts to form as finely
dispersed particles: aging.

2) Rapid cooling across the

solvus line to exceed the
solubility limit. This leads
to a metastable
supersaturated solid
solution at T1. Equilibrium
structure is +, but
limited diffusion does not
allow to form.

Heat Treatment for Precipitation Hardening

Schematic temperature vs
time plot showing both
solution and precipitation
heat treatments for
precipitation hardening.

With increasing time, the

strength or hardness
increases, reaches a
maximum, and finally
diminishes. This reduction on
strength and hardness that
occurs after a long time
period is known as overaging.

The precipitation hardening

characteristics of a 2014 aluminum alloy
(0.9 wt. % Si, 4.4 wt. % Cu, 0.8 wt. % Mn,
0.5 wt. % Mg) at four different aging
temperatures (a) yield strength, and (b)
ductilility (% EL).

The strengthening process is accelerated

as the temperature is increased.
Associated with an increase in strength is
a reduction in ductility.

Is it possible to produce
a precipitation hardened
2014 aluminum alloy
having a minimum yield
strength of 350 MPa
(50,000 psi) and a
ductility of at least 18%
EL? If so, specify the
precipitation heat
treatment. If it is not
possible, then explain
why.