Beruflich Dokumente
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York State Prison system and the Federal Bureau of Prisons begin
working with the new science.
1904 - The St. Louis Police Department and the Leavenworth State
Penitentiary in Kansas start utilizing fingerprinting, assisted
by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been guarding the
British Display at the St. Louis Exposition.
1905 - The U.S. Army gets on the fingerprinting bandwagon, and
within three years was joined by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps.
In the ensuing 25 years, as more law enforcement agencies
joined in using fingerprints as personal identification methods,
these agencies began sending copies of the fingerprint cards
to the recently established National Bureau of Criminal
Investigation.
1911 - The first central storage location for fingerprints in
North America is established in Ottawa by Edward Foster of the
Dominion Police Force. The repository is maintained by the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police, and while it originally held only 2000
sets of fingerprints, today the number is over 2 million.
1924 - The U.S. Congress acts to establish the Identification
Division of the F.B.I. The National Bureau and Leavenworth are
consolidated to form the basis of the F.B.I. fingerprint repository.
By 1946, the F.B.I. had processed 100 million fingerprint cards;
that number doubles by 1971.
1990s - AFIS, or Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems,
begin widespread use around the country. This computerized system
of storing and cross-referencing criminal fingerprint records
would eventually become capable of searching millions of
fingerprint files in minutes, revolutionizing law enforcement
efforts.
1996 - As Americans become more concerned with the growing missing
and abducted children problem, and law enforcement groups urge
the fingerprinting of children for investigative purposes in
the event of a child becoming missing, Chris Migliaro founds
Fingerprint America in Albany, NY. The company provides a simple,
at-home fingerprinting and identification kit for parents,
maintaining the familys privacy while protecting and educating
children about the dangers of abduction. By 2001, the company
distributes over 5 million Child ID Fingerprinting Kits around
the world.
1999 - The FBI phases out the use of paper fingerprint cards with
their new Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) site at Clarksburg, West Virginia.
IAFIS will starts with individual computerized fingerprint records
for approximately 33 million criminals, while the outdated paper
cards for the civil files are kept at a facility in Fairmont,
West Virginia.
Typelines - 1. Two innermost ridges that start or go parallel
2. Diverge and surround or tend to surround the pattern
area
Types of Fingerprints
1. Visible Prints
2. Latent Prints
3. Impressed Prints
Visible Prints - also called patent prints and are left in
some medium, like blood, that reveals them to the naked eye
when blood, dirt, ink or grease on the finger come into
contact with a smooth surface and leave a friction ridge
impression that is visible without development.
Latent Prints - not apparent to the naked eye. They are
formed from the sweat from sebaceous glands on the body or
water, salt, amino acids and oils contained in sweat.
They can be made sufficiently visible by dusting, fuming or
chemical reagents.
Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are
indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as clay,
wax, paint or another surface that will take the impression.
They are visible and can be viewed or photographed without
development.
Types of Patterns
1. Arch a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch
2. Loop a. Radial Loop
b. Ulnar Loop
3. Whorl a. Plain Whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop
c. Double Loop
d. Accidental Whorl
Plain Arch - 1. Ridges enter upon one side
2. Make a rise or wave in the center
Police Photography
Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham) - a great authority on optics in the Middle
Ages who lived around 1000 AD, invented the first pinhole camera,
(also called the Camera Obscura } and was able to explain why the
images were upside down.
Angelo Sala - a self educated chemist, he discovered that when paper
contained powdered silver nitrate it would react with sunlight, causing
it to darken. These pioneering experiments with silver salts were a
crucial step towards the later invention of photography. He published
his findings in a pamphlet in 1614.
Anna Atkins - (1799- 1871) an English Botanist, she is considered
to be the first female photographer.
Aristotle - he observed and noted the first casual reference to the
optic laws that made pinhole cameras possible, around 330 BC, he
questioned why the sun could make a circular image when it shined
through a square hole.
Arthur Fellig - (Weegee) became famous because of his frequent,
seemingly prescient arrivals at scenes only minutes after crimes,
fires or other emergencies were reported to authorities.
Carl William Scheele - (1742-1786) Swedish scientist, self-educated.
He used to work as an assistant in pharmacies and showed a talent in
chemistry from a very young age. In spite an offer made to him to
study in London or Berlin, he operated a pharmacy in Kping where he
spend the rest of his life and made all his important inventions.
He was especially interest on chemical analysis and worked particularly
with the chemical reactions between silver nitrate and sunlight,
therefore making a break through in the chemistry of photography.
The records from his experiments were of a great importance for the
next generations of scientists.
Digital photography - uses an array of electronic photo detectors to
capture the image focused by the lens, as opposed to an exposure on
photographic film.
Emulsion - is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally
immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are part of a more
the image and therefore the prints produced had to be viewed for very
short periods of time in a darkened environment.
Twin-Lens Reflex Camera (TLR) - is a type of camera with two objective
lenses of the same focal length.
Viewfinder - is what the photographer looks through to compose,
and in many cases to focus, the picture.
Questioned Document
3rd Century A.D. - The earliest handwriting examination cases reported.
6th Century - the Roman Emperor Justinian dictated guidelines for the
use of handwriting comparisons in Roman courts.
1873 - the year in which the first commercially successful
typewriter was introduced.
Addition - inserting or modifying clause or sentence in a document
to alter its meaning.
Substitution - replacing original entries or writing with
another.
Albert Sherman Osborn - became the pre-eminent American pioneer in
the field when he authored "Questioned Documents," a seminal work in
scientific document analysis that remains in print and in use. He
founded the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners in 1942.
Alfred Dreyfus - A French army officer, accused of treason through
letters found attempting to sell French secrets to Germany.
Later found that Dreyfus did not write the letters.
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Ink Examinations
Indented Writing
Alterations
Paper Analysis
Photocopy Analysis
Typewriting
11.Pen pressure
Character of handwriting
1. No single handwriting characteristic can in itself be taken
as the basis for a positive comparison.
2. The final conclusion must be based on a sufficient number
of common characteristics between the known and questioned
writing samples.
3. There are no hard and fast rules for a sufficient number of
personal characteristics; it is a judgment call made by the
expert examiner in the context of each case.
Henry Mill - was an English inventor who patented the first typewriter
in 1714.
Hieroglyph - (Greek for "sacred writing") is a character of the ancient
Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in
form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes
called "hieroglyphs".
Hologram - a three-dimensional image formed by the interference of
light beams from a laser or other coherent light source.
Indented Writing - (second page writing), is the impression from the
writing instrument captured on sheets of paper below the one that
contains the original writing.
Electrostatic Detection - indented writing may be recovered
using this method.
Ink - a coloured fluid or paste used for writing, drawing, printing,
or duplicating.
Microspectrophotometer - A nondestructive approach to comparing
ink lines. It is accomplished with a visible-light
microspectrophotometer.
Thin-layer chromatography is also suitable for ink comparisons.
Interlineation - insertion between lines or paragraphs.
Retracing - any writing stroke which goes back over another writing
stroke.
Rhythm - the balanced quality of movement, producing a natural result
not constrained nor artificial.
Rubric and Embellishment - the additional and unnecessary stroke
incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
Samuel Willard Soul - (January 25,1830-July 12,1875) along with
Christopher Sholes and Carlos Glidden invented the first practical
typewriter at a machine shop located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
in 1869.
Security fibers - are embedded in the paper during manufacture and
are non-reproducible.
Security Thread - is a security feature of many banknotes to protect
against counterfeiting, consisting of a thin ribbon that is threaded
through the note's paper.
Shading and Pen Position - the increase in width of stroke brought by
variations in writing pressure.
Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer - the first commercially successful
typewriter.
Signature - a person's name written in a distinctive way as a form of
identification in authorizing a cheque or document or concluding
a letter. From the latin word "signare" which means "to sign".
Kinds of Signature
1. Formal Signature - signature used on official documents such
as will or deed of sale.
2. Informal Signature - signature used in routine correspondence
such as personal letters and other documents where you want
the reader to recognize the signature but the exact spelling
of the name isnt important.
3. Stylistic Signature - signature used in signing checks, credit
of 1914.
5. Teletype Typewriters - (Teleprinters) came on the scene in
the mid-1950s and peaked in popularity in the 1960s. They
were used mostly for communicating information from point
to point, much as modern fax machines are used. Most non-IBM
computers had teletype terminals. Teletypes were completely
mechanical and thus required regular lubrication; they didn't
have type bars in the strictest sense and instead used
plastic gears to print messages.
6. Electric Typewriters - The most modern typewriter, still
used today, is the electric typewriter, most notably IBM
models such as the Selectric. The electric typewriter
minimized the force necessary to print out a message by
using a motor and type ball to print letters on paper.
Vignette - a small illustration or portrait photograph which fades
into its background without a definite border.
Watermark - a faint design made in some paper during manufacture that
is visible when held against the light and typically identifies
the maker.
Writing - is a medium of communication that represents language
through the inscription of signs and symbols.
Cursive Writing - also known as script, joined-up writing,
joint writing, running writing, or handwriting is any style of
penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in
a conjoined and/or flowing manner, generally for the purpose of
making writing faster.
Writing Speed - Classified Into 4 Divisions
1. Slow and Drawn
2. Deliberate
3. Average
4. Rapid
Forensic Ballistics
ACP - Automatic Colt Pistol
Action - the working mechanism of a firearm. An action is the physical
mechanism that manipulates cartridges and/or seals the breech.
Air Gun - a gun that uses compressed air or gas to propel a projectile
also called air rifle, pellet rifle, pellet gun and gun.
Air Resistance - (Drag) decelerates the projectile with a force
proportional to the square of the velocity.
Ammunition - shall mean loaded shell rifle, muskets, carbine, shotguns,
revolver and pistol from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other
missiles may be fore by means of a gun powder or other explosives.
Anvil - An internal metal component in a boxer primer assembly
against which the priming mixture is crushed by the firing pin blow.
Anvil Marks - A term generally used by the military for a cartridge
with a full metal jacketed bullet or solid metal projectile.
Armalite occasionally, the home of manufacturing company becomes
almost a generic term. It happens with the colt produced M16, which
has been designed and develop at Armalite. The Armalite business was
form by Charles Dorchester and George Sullivan in 1950. Armalite
employed Eugene Stoner, Chief Engineer and one of the top designer
of the country.
Automatic - when the mechanism is so arrange that it will fire
continuously when the trigger is depressed.
Automatic Action Type a firearm design that feeds cartridges fires
and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully depressed
and there is cartridge available in the feed system.
Barrel - metal tube through which the projectiles travel.
a. Chambering
b. Expanding during firing
c. Extraction
4. Extractor Marks toolmarks produced upon a cartridge case
form contact with the extractor. These are usually found on
or just ahead of the rim.
5. Ejector Marks toolmarks produced upon a cartridge or
cartridge case on the head, generally at or near the rim,
form contact with the ejector.
Cape Gun a doubled-barreled shoulder arm with barrel side by side :
one being smooth bore and the other being rifled.
Case Head - The base of the cartridge case which contains the primer.
Cast-Off - the off-set of the butt of a firearm to the right handed
shooter and to the right for a left-handed shooter.
Cast-On - the offset of the butt of a firearm to the left for a
right-handed shooter and to the right for a left handed shooter.
Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed to
accept a specific cartridge. Revolver cylinders are multi-chambered.
Cock - place a firing mechanism under a spring tension. Raise the cock
of (a gun) in order to make it ready for firing.
Full Cock - the position of the hammer or strike when the
firearm is ready to fire.
Compensator - (MuzzleBrake) a device attached to or integral with the
muzzle end of the barrel to utilize propelling gases for counter-recoil.
CETME - Centro dos Studios Technicos de Materiales Especiales. This
is Spanish government weapon development agency, based in Madrid.
Class Characteristics - Are those characteristics which are determinable
only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics
whose existence is beyond the control of man and which have random
distribution. There existence in the firearms is brought about by
the tools in their normal operations resulting through wear and tear,
abuse, mutilation, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes.
Classification of Cartridge According to Rim
1. Rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim is greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber
.38 and caliber .22.
2. Semi-Rimmed Type- the diameter of the rim is slightly
greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
e.g. caliber .25. 32 auto. Super .38.
3. Rimless Type - the diameter of the rim is equal to the body
of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber .5.56mm, .30, .9mm, .45.
4. Rebated Type- the diameter of the rim is smaller than the
body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber 8mm x 59.
5. Belted Type - there is a protruding metal around the body
of the cartridge case near the rim. e.g. caliber 338 magnum
13.9 x 39
Colt - Samuel Colt was born on July 1814 in was to be instrumental
in making the revolver a practical type of pistol.
Cylinder - storage for ammunition in a revolver, the cylinder rotates
as the action is cocked.
DAMSCUS - an obsolete barrel making process the barrel is formed by
twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars. Sometimes
called LAMINATED BARREL.
Derringer, Henry - born in the beginning of 19th century. Worked at
Philadelphia where he manufactured Pocket Pistol.
Drilling - refers to a combination gun that has three barrels.
Ejector Rod - metal rod used to help with the removal of the cartridges.
Energy Bullet - the capacity of a projectile to do work.
Firearms Identification - a discipline mainly concerned with determining
whether a bullet or cartridge was fired by a particular weapon.
form the magazine without any effort on the part of the shooter.
SIG - (SCHWEIZERISCHE INDUSTRIE CESSELSHALF) adopted by the Swiss
government as their standard service weapon. The company started to
produced railway engines and carriage in 1853.
Sidelock A design in which the firing mechanism is attached to a
sideplate rather than being integral with the frame.
Sight - device used for aiming.
Silencer - a device attach to the barrel of the firearm to reduce
the noise of discharge. Also called SOUND SUPPRESSOR.
Single Shot Firearms those type of firearms that is designated to
shoot only one shot.
Slide Action Type a firearm which features a movable forearm which
is manually actuated in motion parallel to the barrel by the shooter.
Forearm motion is transmitted to a breech blot assembly which performs
all the function of the firing cycle assigned to it by the design.
Also known as PUMP ACTION.
Sling - a strap fasten to a firearm to assist in carrying or to
steady it during firing. A sling may also refer to a projectile
weapon typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone,
clay or lead "sling-bullet".
Slug - a projectile generally fired from a shotgun either one large
piece of lead or several smaller caliber pieces.
Rifled Slug - a simple projectile in spiral grooves and hollow
base, intended to use in shotgun. The slug will rotate, and
thus, reach its target much more accurate.
Smith and Wesson - Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson formed a
partnership in 1852. They manage by producing what is probably the
best double-action revolver in the world. (Daniel Wesson left the
company to set up his own firearm business).
Smoke Ring - the circular gray deposits around the face of the chamber
of a revolver produce by gun powder residues upon discharge.
Stock - also known as a shoulder stock, a buttstock, or simply a
butt is a part of a rifle or other firearm, to which the barrel and
firing mechanism are attached, that is held against one's shoulder
when firing the gun.
Striations - (Striae) When a bullet is fired through a rifled barrel,
the raised and lowered spirals of the rifling etch fine grooves called
"striations" into the bullet.
Characteristics of Striations Depend Upon The ff: Factors
1. The size and shape of the microscopic irregularities on
the acting tool.
2. The original surface smoothness of the object acted upon.
3. Relative hardness of the two materials.
4. Speed of application or rate of relative motion.
5. Pressure areas involved
6. Texture and uniformity of material acted upon.
Submachine Type is alight, portable machine gun which uses pistol
size ammunition. It differs from a pistol in it that has a shoulder
stock which may or may not fold but is designed to be fired by the
use of both hands.
Swage an internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms
rifling in the barrel by means of the external hammering. Also known
as HAMMER FORGING.
Tattoing - small hemorrhagic marks on the skin produce by the impact
of gun powder particles also called STRIPPLING.
Thompson, John - born in 1860 in Newport, Kentucky. Designed the
Thompson submachine gun in 1920.
Thumb Rest - a ledge in the grip area of a rifle or hand gun in which
to rest the thumb of the trigger hand.
Trailing Edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a fire
from lying.
Deception - the act of making someone believe something that is
not true.
Dendrites - An extension or process of a neuron which serves to conduct
impulses toward the cell body.
Dick Arther - refined the Reid Control Question Technique with his
known Lie and Probable Lie Question Technique and the Guilt Complex
Question. This Became known as Arther's Technique.
Dicrotic Notch - graphic representation within the cardio tracing on
a polygraph chart caused by a backward surge of blood against the
semi-lunar valve in the left ventricle of the heart.
Distortion - change in polygraph tracings caused by artifact stimulus.
A disturbance of normal polygraph tracings not attributable to an
intended stimulus within a test structure.
Dr. Joseph F. Kubis - of Fordham University in New York City, was the
first researcher to use potential computer applications for the
purpose of polygraph chart analysis in the late 1970's.
Dr. Marie Gabriel Romain Vigouroux (1831-1911) a French electrotherapy
specialist was first to discover in 1879 the phenomenon we now know
as Electrodermal Response.
Electrodermal Response - human body phenomenon in which the
body,
mainly the skin, involuntarily changes resistance electrically
upon the application of certain external stimuli.
Scientists Who Contributed to the electrodermal response
research
1. Ivan R. Tarchanoff (1846-1908) Georgian
2. Charles Samson Fere (1852-1907) French
3. Georg Sticker (1860-1960) German
4. Otto Veraguth (1870-1944) Swiss
investigations.
John E. Reid - a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed the Control
Question Technique (CQT) in 1947. Also called the "father of Controls".
Reid Control Question Technique - inserted a surprise control
question in the relevant/irrelevant technique.
Keeler Polygraph - It became the most widely used polygraph in the
world for the next three decades.
Known Peak of Tension Test - This is a series of similar type questions
containing only one relevant question. known to the polygraphist.
Searching Peak of Tension Test - A series of questions wherein
the relevant questions are not known to the polygraphist.
Kymograph - An instrument for recording variations in pressure, as
of the blood, or in tension, as of a muscle, by means of a pen or
stylus that marks a rotating drum at a constant speed.
Lafayette Instrument Company - founded in 1947 by Max Wastl
(1915-1990), located in Lafayette, Indiana, USA, dominates the
international polygraph market. It is the unconditional global leader
in the manufacture and sale of lie detectors.
Leonarde Keeler - in 1926, modified the polygraph instrument designed
by John Larson by adding a device that measured electrical skin
conductivity or electrodermal response. He also founded the world's
first polygraph school, the Keeler Polygraph Institute in Chicago,
Illinois in 1948. Considered the father of modern polygraph.
Lie - is an intentionally false statement to a person or group made
by another person or group who knows it is not wholly the truth.
Kinds of Lie
1. White or Benign Lie - lie to preserve harmony of relationship.
2. Pathological Lie - can not tell right from wrong.
3. Red Lie - communist propaganda
4. Black Lie - lie to dishonor or to discredit
to the skin via electrodes than did neutral stimuli. He used the
galvanomenter in conjunction with word-association tests.
Psychogalvanic Reflex - also called galvanic skin response, a
change in the electrical properties of the body following noxious
stimulation, stimulation that produces emotional reaction and to
some extent, stimulation that attracts the subject's attention
and leads to an aroused alertness.
Outside Issue - A circumstance unrelated to the primary issue which
poses a greater threat to the immediate well-being of the examinee
than does the primary relevant issue.
Padding Questions - Those questions placed before and after the known
relevant question in a known peak of tension test. Padding questions
are similar in nature to the known relevant question and fall within
the realm of possibility of the information being sought.
Parasysmpathetic Nervous System - That part of the autonomic nervous
system which tends to induce secretion, to increase the tone and
contractibility of smooth muscle and to channel the dilation of
blood vessels. That division of the autonomic nervous system
responsible for the normal house keeping functions of the body;
i.e. digestion and body temperature.
Peripheral Nervous System - That portion of the nervous system lying
outside the central nervous system.
Plethsysmograph - The tracing on a polygraph chart made by a pen moved
by a photo-optical system controlled by an examinees
psychophysiological responses to controlled stimuli.
Pneumograph breathing/recording, from the Greek word "Pneuma" - air
or breath and "Grapho" - write or record, a device that recorded a
subject's breathing patterns.
Polygram - One or more polygraph charts. The cumulative recorded
representations of an examinees psychophysiological responses to a
set of controlled stimuli presented to him in the form of a properly
constructed question technique upon which an expert opinion is formed.
Question Spacing - The elapsed time (not less than 15 seconds) between
an answer given by an examinee and the following question asked by
the polygraphist during a polygraph test.
Receptors - Those specialized cells sensitive to incoming stimuli.
Reflex Action - The cumulative product of stimulus, receptor, afferent
nerve, connecting neuron, efferent nerve and effector action. A simple
reflex arc.
Refractory Period - That period of time in which a neuron is unable
to conduct an impulse.
Reid Polygraph - was the first instrument to use a movement sensor to
detect subject movement during the examination. Besides recording
blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR, this new polygraph
recorded muscular activity in the forearms, thighs, and feet thanks
to metal bellows placed under the arms and seat of the polygraph
chair.
Relevant Question - That question within a structured polygraph test
which pertains directly to the matter under investigation.
Irrelevant Question - is intended to be an innocuous, harmless
question, having no particular relationship to the issue being
resolved. and which can unequivocally be answered truthfully.
Primary Relevant Question - The key question regarding the direct
act of committing an offense.
Secondary Relevant Question - A question pertaining to pertinent
aspects of the issue. to which a guilty or knowledgeable person
would be expected to respond significantly.
Control Question - A question to which the examinees answer will
be a known lie or a probable lie. This question is similar in
nature but not related to the issue being resolved, and should
be of slightly less weight than the relevant questions.
Synapsis - The chemical junctions where nerve impulses pass from one
neuron to another.
System - A group of body organs which combine to form a whole and to
cooperate for the purpose of carrying on some vital function.
Test Technique - A valid and reliable question structure employed
by a qualified polygraphist for the purpose of verifying an
examinees statements or answers during a polygraph examination.
The sequential order in which questions are asked during a polygraph
examination. The foundation of expert opinion.
Thalamus - The middle part of the brain through which sensory
impulses pass to reach the cerebral cortex.
Tidal Volume - The volume of air moved in or out of the lungs with
each respiratory cycle.
Veraguth - was one of the first to make word-association tests with
the galvanometer.
Vittorio Benussi - an Italian Psychologist who in 1914 discovered a
method for calculating the quotient of the inhalation to exhalation
time as a means of verifying the truth and detecting deception in
a subject. Benussi measured and recorded breathing by means of an
instrument known as the Pneumograph. He concluded that lying caused
an emotional change within a subject that resulted in detectable
respiratory changes that were indicative of deception.
West Africa - persons suspected of a crime were made to hold and pass
a bird's egg to one another. The person breaking the egg was considered
guilty, based on the notion that his or her tremor-eliciting
nervousness was to blame.
Wheatstone Bridge - A specially devised electronic circuit for the
measurement of electrical resistance in a conductor. The conductor
of unknown resistance is included in the circuit with three known
resistances. when the unknown resistance (RX) is balanced with three
known resistances (R1, R2, R3) it can be calculated mathematically
Legal Medicine
Abortion - is the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion
from the uterus of a fetus or embryo before viability.
Algor mortis (Latin: algor - coldness; mortis - death) is the reduction
in body temperature following death.
Rigor mortis (Latin: rigor - stiffness, mortis - death") is one
of the recognizable signs of death, caused by chemical changes
in the muscles after death, causing the limbs of the corpse to
become stiff and difficult to move or manipulate.
Importance Of Rigor Mortis
- Rigor mortis is utilized to approximate the time of death.
Generalized muscular contractionsoccur from 3 to 6 hours
until 36 hours.
Autopsy - a post-mortem examination to discover the cause of death or
the extent of disease. Autopsy is derived from the Greek word
"autos" - oneself and "opsis" - sight/view.
Who are authorized to perform autopsy
1. Health officers
2. Medical officer of law enforcement agencies
3. Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals
When Autopsy performed
1. Written request of nearest kin to ascertain cause of death
2. Order of competent court, mayor, prosecutor
3. Written request of a law enforcement officer
4. When required by special law
5. Solgen, prosecutor to determine cause of death
Principal Aim Of An Autopsy
1. To determine the cause of death
2. To determine the state of health of the person before he or
she died,
3. To determine whether any medical diagnosis and treatment
before death was appropriate.
Types of Autopsies
1. Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's - autopsies
seek to find the cause and manner of death and to identify
the decedent.
2. Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to diagnose
a particular disease or for research purposes.
3. Anatomical or Academic Autopsies - are performed by students
of anatomy for study purpose only.
4. Virtual or Medical Imaging Autopsies - are performed utilizing
imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).
Forensic Autopsy - is used to determine the cause and manner
of death.
Anatomy - the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure
of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed
by dissection and the separation of parts.
Biochemistry - the branch of science concerned with the chemical and
physico-chemical processes and substances which occur within living
organisms.
Kinds of Death
1. Somatic or Clinical Death - permanent cessation of all vital
bodily functions.
2. Molecular or Cellular Death - refers to the death of cells.
3 to 6 hours after cessation of life.
3. Apparent death or State of Suspended Animation - a state in
which the processes of the body (such as blood circulation)
stop or become very slow for a period of time while a person
or animal is unconscious.
Leading Causes of Death In The World
1. Ischaemic heart disease
2. Stroke (cerebrovascular diseases)
3. Lower respiratory infections
4. Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
Signs Of Death
1. Cessation of heart action and circulation
2. Cessation of respiration
3. Cooling of the body (Algor Mortis) - The temperature of
1520 degrees Fahrenheit is considered as ascertain sign of
death.
4. Loss of motor power
5. Loss of sensory power
6. Changes in the skin
7. Changes in and about the eye - There is loss of corneal reflex
Declaration of Tokyo - is a set of international guidelines for
physicians concerning torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment in relation to detention and imprisonment,
which was adopted in October 1975 during the 29th General assembly
of the World Medical Association.
Defloration - is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result
of sexual intercourse.
Dermis - the thick layer of living tissue below the epidermis which
forms the true skin, containing blood capillaries, nerve endings,
sweat glands, hair follicles, and other structures.
4. Dulor - pain
Fracture - comes from the Latin word fractura which means a break in
the continuity of the bone. It is also a combination of a break in
the bone and soft tissue injury.
Frostbite - injury to body tissues caused by exposure to extreme cold,
typically affecting the nose, fingers, or toes and often resulting
in gangrene.
Frostnip - the initial stages of frostbite.
Gynecology - the branch of physiology and medicine which deals with
the functions and diseases specific to women and girls, especially
those affecting the reproductive system.
Hematoma - is a collection of blood outside of a blood vessel.
Incision - a surgical cut made in skin or flesh.
Injury - is the damage to a biological organism caused by physical
harm.
Coup Injury - injury at the site of application of force.
Contre-Coup Injury - injury opposite the site of application
of force.
Coup-Conre-Coup Injury - injury at the site and opposite the
site of application of force.
Locus Minoris Resistentiae - injury not at the site and not
opposite the site of application of force but at the site
offering least resistance.
Extensive Injury - injury on greater area more than the site
of application of force.
Integumentary system - is the organ system that protects the body
from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion from
outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendages, including
hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
Laceration - a deep cut or tear in skin or flesh. A wound that is
produced by the tearing of soft body tissue. This type of wound is
often irregular and jagged.
Lazarus Syndrome - is also called Lazarus Phenomenon, is the
spontaneous return of circulation after failed attempts at
resuscitation.
Lazarus Sign - or Lazarus reflex is a reflex movement in brain dead
patients, which causes them to briefly raise their arms and drop
them crossed on their chests.
Legal Medicine - Branch of medicine which deals with the application
of medical knowledge to the purpose of law and in the administration
of justice. Application of medicine to legal cases.
Livor Mortis - is a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent)
portion of the body, causing a purplish red discoloration of the skin.
From the latin word "livor" - bluish color and "mortis" - of death.
Also known as post-mortem lividity.
Mayhem - intentional maiming of another person.
Mechanical Trauma - is an injury to any portion of the body from a
blow, crush, cut, or penetrating wound.
Medical Evidence - is the means sanctioned by the rules of court of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter
of fact.
Types of Evidence
1. Real Evidence/Autoptic - made known to the senses
2. Testimonial Evidence - oral testimony under oath
3. Experimental Evidence
4. Documentary Evidence
Medical Jurisprudence - knowledge of law in relation to the practice
of medicine.
Medico-Legal officer - (medical examiner) a physician who determines
the cause of injury/death/disease by examining the patient/cadaver
and testify in court to aid in the administration of justice.
Mental Deficiency or mental retardation, is sub average intellectual
ability present from birth or early infancy. Intelligence is both
determined by heredity and environment. In most cases of mental
deficiency, the cause is unknown.
Classification of Mental Deficiency
1. Idiot The idiots intelligence never exceeds that of a
normal child over 2years old. The IQ is between 0 20.
This is usually congenital.
2. Imbecile the imbeciles intelligence is compared to a normal
child from 2 7 years old and the IQ is 20 40.
3. Feeble Minded his mentality is similar to that of a normal
child between 7 12 years old and an IQ of 40 70.
The Legal Importance of determining the persons state of mind
are the following:
1. In Criminal law, insanity exempts a person from criminal
liability.
2. In Civil law, Insanity is a restriction of the capacity of a
natural person to act as provided in Article 38 of the
Civil Code.
3. Insanity modifies or limits the capacity of a natural person
to act as provided in Article 39 of the Civil Code.
4. Insanity at the time of marriage of any or both parties is a
ground for the annulment of marriage.
Mental Health Disorders include disturbances in thinking, emotion,
and behavior. There is a complex interaction between the physical,
psychological, social, cultural and hereditary influences.
Factors that Contribute to the Development of Mental Disorders
1. Heredity the most frequent factor that contributes to
insanity and a good history will reveal the ascendants
afflicted with the same.
d. Narcissistic
e. Antisocial
f. Borderline
g. Avoidant
h. Dependent
i. Obsessive Compulsive
j. Passive Aggressive
k. Dissociative
13.Schizophrenia a serious mental disorder characterized by
loss of contact with reality(psychosis), hallucinations,
delusions (false beliefs), abnormal thinking, disrupted
work and social functioning.
Types of Schizophrenia
a. Paranoid - is a mental disorder characterized by
paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others.
b. Hebephrenic - it is characterized by disorganized
behavior and speech, as well as disturbances in
emotional expression.
c. Catatonic - does not respond to external stimuli.
characterized by a marked lack of movement,
activity, or expression.
14.Delusional Disorder
15.Psychological Incapacity a waste basket diagnosis because
it is so broad a term, that it covers all possible Mental
Disorders.
Some Manifestations of Mental Disorders
1. Disorders of Cognition (Knowing)
a. Illusion
b. Hallucination
2. Disorders of Memory
a. Dementia
3. Disorders in the Content of Thought
A. Delusion
a. Delusion of grandeur
b. Delusion of persecution
c. Delusion of reference
system.
Respiratory System - (or ventilatory system) is a biological system
consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process
of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved
in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and the environment.
Scald - is a type of burn injury caused by hot liquids or gases.
Sex Crimes - generally involve illegal or coerced sexual conduct by
one person towards another.
Chaste An unmarried woman who has had no carnal knowledge
with men or that she never voluntarily had unlawful sexual
intercourse. These also denotes purity of mind and innocence
of heart.
Virgin A woman who has had no carnal knowledge of man.
Her genital organs have not been altered by carnal connection.
Kinds of Virginity
1. Moral virginity the state of not knowing the nature
of sexual life and not having experience sexual
relation.
2. Physical Virginity A condition whereby a woman is
conscious of the nature of sexual life but has not
experienced sexual intercourse.
3. Demivirginity This term refers to a condition of
a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as
long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by
sexual act. The woman allows sexual intercourse, but
only inter femora or even inter labia, but not to the
extent of rupturing the hymen.
4. Virgo intacta A truly virgin woman. There is no
structural change in her organ,not withstanding the
fact of a previous sexual intercourse.
Carnal Knowledge - is the act of a man in having sexual bodily
connection with a woman. There is carnal knowledge if there