BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE:
MICROBIOLOGY
Contributor Modul :
Prof. Dr. dr. Sanarto Santoso, DTM&H., Sp.MK (K)
dr. Roekistiningsih, MS, Sp.MK(K)
dr. Dewi Santosaningsih, M.Kes
Dr. dr. Dwi Yuni Nur Hidayati, M.Kes

Tutor :
Prof. Dr. dr. Sanarto Santoso, DTM&H., Sp.MK(K)
Prof. Dr. dr. Noorhamdani AS, DMM., Sp.MK(K)
Prof. Dr. dr. Sumarno, DMM., Sp.MK(K)
dr.Roekistiningsih, MS, Sp.MK(K)
Dr. dra. Sri Winarsih, Apt., M.Si
Dr. dr. Dwi Yuni Nur Hidayati, M.Kes

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 1
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
Basic Bacteriology

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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Sub-module: Introduction, classification, morphology and ultrastructure

Part A: The microbial world

Part B: Classification of microorganisms
Part C: Microbial morphology and ultrastructure

Direction:
The module-task should be written, done by the student individually prior before the
small group discussion. To work with the module, the student may refer to the
references as mentioned in the last part of this book.

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Part A
The Microbial World
Overview
For many people, the words germ, microbe, and microorganism bring to mind a
group of tiny creatures that do no quite fit any of the categories in that old question,
Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral? Microorganisms are minute living things that
individually are too small to be seen with the naked eye. The group includes bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, and microscopic algae. It also includes viruses, those noncellular
entities sometimes regarded as being at the border of life and nonlife.
We tend to associate these small organisms only with uncomfortable infections.
However the majority of microorganisms make crucial contributions to the welfare of
the worlds inhabitants by helping to maintain the balance of living organisms and
chemicals in our environment.
Today we understand that microorganisms are found almost everywhere. Yet
not long ago, before the invention of the microscope, microbes were unknown to
scientists. Thousands of people died in devastating epidemics, the causes of which
were not understood. Food spoilage often could not be controlled, and entire families
died because vaccinations and antibiotics were not available to fight infections.
We can get an idea of how our current concepts of microbiology developed by
looking at a few of the historic milestones in microbiology that have changed our
lives. Now that we have generally examined how microbes relate to our everyday
lives, we will take a look at how the field of microbiology developed from its beginning
hundreds of years ago to its current high-technology state.

Learning objectives
1. List several ways in which microbes affect our lives.
2. Explain the importance of observations made by Hooke and van
Leeuwenhoek.
3. Compare the theories of spontaneous generation and biogenesis.
4. Identify the contributions to microbiology made by Pasteur.
5. Identify the importance of Kochs Postulates.

Module task
1.Briefly state the role played by microorganisms in each of the following :
a. Normal microbiota
b. Human insulin production
c. Vaccine production
Jelaskan peran mikroorganisme dalam hal di bawah ini :
a. Flora normal
b. Produksi insulin manusia
c. Produksi vaksin

2.Explain the importance of observations made by Robert Hooke.

Jelaskan arti penting penemuan Robert Hooke.

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3.Explain the importance of observations made by van Leeuwenhoek.

Jelaskan arti penting penemuan van Leeuwenhoek.
4.How did the idea of spontaneous generation come about?
Bagaimana asal mula munculnya ide teori spontaneous generation?
5.How did the theory of biogenesis lead the way for the germ theory of disease?
Bagaimana teori biogenesis memulai munculnya the germ theory of disease?
6.Explain the contributions to microbiology made by Louis Pasteur.
Jelaskan kontribusi Louis Pasteur untuk mikrobiologi.
7.Briefly state about Kochs postulates. What is the importance of Kochs postulates?
Jelaskan mengenai postulat Koch. Apa arti penting dari postulat Koch?

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Part B
Classification of Microorganisms
Overview
The science of classification, especially the classification of living forms, is
called taxonomy, from the Greek words for law and order. The objective of taxonomy
is to classify living organisms-that is, to establish the relationship between one group
of organisms and another and to differentiate between them. A taxonomic system
enables us to classify organisms that have not yet been studied in detail; that is, a
previously unknown organism can be identified and then grouped or classified with
other organisms that have similar characteristics.
Taxonomy also provides a common reference for identifying organisms already
classified. For example, when a bacterium suspected of causing a specific disease is
isolated from a patient, characteristics of that isolate are matched to lists of
characteristics of previously classified bacteria to identify the isolate. After the
bacterium has been identified, drugs can be selected that affect that bacterium.
Finally, taxonomy is a basic and necessary tool for scientists, as it provides a
universal language of communication. Modern taxonomy is an exciting and dynamic
field; new techniques in molecular biology and genetics are providing new insights
into classification and evolution.

Learning objectives
1. Define taxonomy
2. List the characteristics of the Kingdom Procaryotes that differentiate it from
other kingdoms.
3. List the major characteristics used to differentiate among kingdoms in the
five-kingdom system

Module task :
1.List and define the five kingdoms used in the five-kingdom system of classification.
Sebut dan jelaskan lima kingdom yang digunakan dalam klasifikasi dengan sistem
lima kingdom.
2.List the ten bases for the classification of microorganisms. Separate your list into
those test used primarily for taxonomic classification and those used primarily for
identification of microorganisms already classified.
Sebutkan 10 dasar klasifikasi mikroorganisma sesuai table di bawah ini.
Taxonomic classification
Identification of microorganisms

3.List three differences between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells.

Sebutkan 3 perbedaan sel prokaryota dengan eukaryota.

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Part C
Microbial Morphology and Ultrastructure
Overview
Despite their complexity and variety, all living cells can be divided into two
groups, procaryotes and eucaryotes, based on their ultrastructure as seen with the
electron microscope. Plants and animals are entirely composed of eucaryotic cells. In
the microbial world, bacteria and cyanobacteria are procaryotes. Other cellular
microbes fungi (yeast and molds), protozoa, and algae-eucaryotes.

Learning objectives
1. Identify the three basic shapes of bacteria.
2. Describe the structure and function of the glycocalyx, flagella, axial filaments,
fimbriae, and pili.
3. Compare and contrast the cell walls of gram-positive bacteria and gramnegative bacteria.
4. Describe the functions of endospores, sporulation, and endospore
germination.

Module task
1. Draw the structure of bacterial cell.
Gambar struktur sel bakteri.
2. Match the structures to their functions.
Cocokkan struktur di bawah ini dengan fungsinya.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

________
________
________
________
________
________
________
________

Cell wall
Endospore
Fimbriae
Flagella
Glycocalix
Pili
Plasma membrane
Ribosomes

(a) Attachment to surfaces

(b) Cell wall formation
(c) Motility
(d) Protection from osmotyc lysis
(e) Protection from phagocytes
(f) Resting
(g) Proten synthesis
(h) Selective permeability
(i) Transfer of genetic material

3. Diagram each of the following flagellar arrangements :

Gambar bentuk flagella di bawah ini :
a. Lopotrichous
b. Monotrichous
c. Peritrichous
d. Amphitrichous
e. Internal flagella (axial filament)
4. Draw the following bacterial shapes :
Gambar bentuk bakteri di bawah ini :
a. Spiral
b. Bacillus

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c. Coccus
5.Endospore formation is called ____(a)_________. It is initiated by
_______(b)__________. Formation of a new cell from an endospore is called
__________(c)______________.
This
process
is
initiated
by
______(d)___________.
Pembentukan endopora disebut ___(a)___________. Diawali oleh proses
_______(b)____________. Pembentukan sel baru dari suatu endospora disebut
___________(c)________________.
Proses
ini
diawali
oleh
___________(d)________.

6. Diagram cross sections of gram positive and gram negative bacterium cell walls.
Gambar potongan melintang dinding sel bakteri gram positif dan gram negatif.

Gram Positive
Bacteria

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Gram Negative
Bacteria

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 2
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
Bacterial Growth & Metabolism

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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Sub-module: Bacterial Growth and Metabolism

Introduction
Microbial growth is really referring to the number of cells, not the size of the
cells. Microbes that are growing are increasing in number, accumulating into
colonies. The requirements for microbial growth can be divided into two main
categories physical and chemical. Physical aspects include temperature, pH, and
osmotic pressure. Chemical requirements include sources of Carbon, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, trace elements, oxygen, and organic growth factor.
Bacteria normally reproduce by binary fission. When a few bacteria are
inoculated and population is counted at intervals,it is possible to plot a bacterial
growth curve that shows the growth of cells over time.
Metabolism is to refer to the sum of all chemical reactions within living
organism. Metabolism can be divided into two classes of chemical reaction those are
release energy and require energy. The enzyme regulated chemical reaction in living
cells.

Learning objectives
1. List the requirements for microbial growth into physical aspect and chemical
requirements, the growth of bacterial culture, measurement of microbial
growth.
2. List all chemical reactions within living organism, enzyme by living cells,
energy production ,carbohydrat metabolism, lipid and protein metabolism

Module tasks
1. Fill in the table below with the carbon source and energy source of each type
of organism
Organism
Photoautotroph
Photoheterotroph
Chemoautotroph
Chemoheterotroph

Carbon source

Energy source

2.
3.
4.
5.

Draw typical bacterial growth curve. Label and define each of the phases.
Explain five bacterial categories based on organisms oxygen requirement
Most bacteria grow best at pH ..
Methods of measuring microbial bacterial growth and categorize each as
either a direct or an indirect methode
6. Mention factors influencing activity enzymatic
7. Explain microorganisms use two general processes cellular respiration and
fermentation to produce energy from glucose

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References
Tortora, GJ., Funke BR., Case CL, 1998, Microbiology an introduction 6th ed,
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing, USA
Brooks, GF., Butel, JS., Morse, SA., 2001, Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelbers Medical
Microbiology 21st ed, Appleton & Lange, USA

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 4
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
Bacterial Genetics & Genetic Engineering

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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Microbial Genetics
Overview
Virtually all the microbial traits are controlled or influenced by heredity. The
inherited traits of microbes include thair shape and structural features, their
metabolism, their ability to interact with other organisms perhaps causing disease.
Individual organisms transmit these chaeacteristics to their offspring through genes,
the units of hereditary material that contain the information that determines these
characteristics.
Genetics is the study of what genes are, how they carry information, how their
information is expressed, and how they replicated and passed to subsequent
generations or other organisms.
An understanding of genetics is key to grasping a number of concepts in
microbiology. For example, many antibiotics act by inhibiting steps in protein
synthesis. Knowing how biological information flows from genes to proteins can help
us understand how some antibiotics work, thereby enabling to develop new weapons
against disease.
Researchers are trying to solve the difficult medical problem of microbes
developing antibiotic resistance. A microorganism can become resistant to antibiotics
in any of several ways, all of which depend on genetic information. Resistant
microbes have somehow obtained gene or set of genes that will prevent the action of
antibiotic.
Emerging diseases provide another example of the importance of
understanding genetics. New diseases are the result of genetic changes in some
existing organism. Currently, biologists are using genetics to discover relatedness
among organisms and how life evolved on Earth.

Learning Objectives
1. Describe how DNA serves as genetic information
2. Describe the process of DNA replication and protein synthesis
3. Explain the regulation of gene expression in bacteria by induction, and
repression.
4. Clasify and describe mutations by type
5. Differentiate between horizontal and vertical gene transfer
6. Describe the function of plasmids and transposons

Modul Tasks
1.

Briefly describe the components of DNA, and explain its functional

relationship to RNA and protein

2.

Describe the process of DNA replication

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3.

Describe the process of transcription

4.

Describe the process of translation, be sure to include the following terms :

ribosome, rRNA, tRNA, anticodon, and codon

5.

Describe the operon model of gene expression

6.

Clasify and describe types of mutation

7.

Outline how you would find a morphologic mutant and a biochemical mutant

8.

Outline drug dependence caused by mutation

9.

Describe types of genetic transfer

10. Define plasmids and transposons, and their role in antibiotic resistamce

References
Brooks G.F., Butel J.S., Morse S.A., 2004. Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelbergs Medical
Microbiology, 23rd ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. p 96 - 118
Tortora G.J., Funke B.R., Case C.L., 2004. Microbiology an Introduction, 8 th ed,
Pearson Benjamin Cummings. p 210 247.

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 5
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
The Control of Microbial Growth

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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The Control of Microbial Growth

Introduction
The scientific control of microbial growth began only about 100 years ago. Recall
from Pasteurs work on microorganisms led people to believe that microbes were a
possible cause of disease. In the mid-1800, Semmelweis and Lister used this
thinking to develop some of the first microbial control practices for medical
procedures. These practices included hand washing with microbe-killing chloride of
lime and use of the techniques of aseptic surgery to prevent microbial contamination
of surgical wounds.
Over the last century, scientists have continued to develop a variety of physical
methods and chemical agents to control microbial growth.
Learning objective
Define the terms related to microbial control: sterilization, disinfection,
antisepsis, degerming, sanitization, and asepsis
Describe the effect of microbial control agents on cellular structure
Compare the effectiveness of moist heat and dry heat
Describe filtration, how low temperature, filtration, dessication, osmotic
pressure suppress microbial growth
Explain how radiation kills microbial cells
Identify the methods of action and preferred uses of chemical disinfectants
Identify the appropriate uses of surface-active agents
Identify the method of sterilizing labware and linens and surgery sets
Module task
1. Name the cause of cell death resulting from damage to each other of the
following:
a. Cell wall
c. proteins
b. Plasma membrane
d. nucleic acids
2. If pasteurization does not achieve sterilization, why is milk and food treated by
pasteurization?
3. The antimicrobial effect of -radiation is due to
The antimicrobial effect of ultraviolet radiation is due to
4. How do salt and sugar preserved food?
5. List 5 (five) factors to consider before selecting a disinfectants/antiseptics!
6. Why is it necessary to use strong disinfectants in areas exposed to
tuberculous patients?
7. Why are alcohols more effective in 70% solution than absolute alcohol?

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 6
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
Antimicrobial Agents

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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Antimicrobial agents
Introduction
When the bodys normal defense cannot prevent or overcome a disease, it is often
treated with chemical drugs (chemotherapy). Like disinfectants, antimicrobial
drugs/agents act by interfering with the growth of microbes. But unlike disinfectants,
they must often act within the host. Therefore, their effects on the cells and tissues of
the host are important. The ideal antimicrobial drugs kill the harmful microbes without
damaging the host; this is the principle of selective toxicity.
Antibiotics were one of the most important discoveries in the modern medicine.
Abdominal wounds or ruptured appendix represented nearly certain death from
infection. The use of antimicrobial agents such penicillin and sulfonamide in the
treatment of some infections resulted in rapid cures.
Today, we are seeing these advances are threatened by the development of
resistance of microbes to these drugs.
Learning objectives
Identify the contribution of Ehrlich and Fleming to chemotherapy
Define these terms: spectrum of activity, broad spectrum versus narrow
spectrum
Identify five modes of action of antimicrobial drugs
Compare synergism and antagonism in the drugs combination
List the commonly used antibacterial drugs
Explain the modes of action of antifungal agents
Explain the modes of action of antiviral drugs
Describe tests for microbial susceptibility to antimicrobial agents
Describe the mechanisms of drug resistance
Module task
1. What characteristics would an ideal chemotherapeutic agent have?
2. Both human cells and pathogens synthesize proteins in the ribosomal sites.
How can antimicrobial agents that target this process be safe to use in
humans?
3. Why are antiviral drugs difficult to develop?
4. Compare and contrast the actions of polyenes, azoles, allylamines, and
polymyxin!
5. What is the difference in drug action of synergists compared with that of
antagonists? Give examples of each!
6. What is the definition of cross resistance?
7. Mention the mechanism of action of the followings:
a. Penicillin
c. Sulfonamide
b. Fluoroquinolone
d. Macrolide

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 7
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
General Properties of Viruses

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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General Properties of Viruses

Introduction
Viruses differ from all other infectious agents in their structure and biology,
particularly in theis reproduction. Although they carry conventional genetic
information in their DNA or RNA, they lack the synthetic machinery necessary for
yhis information to be processed into new viruses. A virus by itself is metabolicallly
inert it can replicate only after infect a host cell.
Viruses can infect every form of life; they cause some of the commonest and many
serious diseases of humans, such as smallpox, AIDS, SARS, influenza,
chickenpox, dengue fever, morbilli, etc. Some insert their genetic material into the
human genome and can cause cancer.
However, not all viruses are harmful to humans. Some such as bacteriophages,
attack bacteria and have clinical use. This modul is an introduction to viruses and
prions: how they infect cells, how they multiply, and how they differ from cellular
pathogens.

Learning Objective

Differentiate a virus from a bacterium

Describe the chemical and physical structure of enveloped and nonenveloped virus
Define viral species, genus, family and give an example
Describe how viruses are cultured
List techniques used to identify viruses
Desribe the life cycle of bacteriophages
Compare the multiplication of DNA viruses and RNA viruses
Define oncogene and transformed cell
Define latent and persistent viral infection
Differentiate viruses, viroid, and prion
Describe principles and pathogenesis of viral diseases

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Outline

General characterististics of viruses

Host range
Viral size

Viral structure
Nucleic acid
Capsid and envelope
General morphology

Taxonomy of viruses
The isolation, cultivation, and identification of viruses
Growing bacteriophage and animal viruses in the laboratory
Viral identification

Viral multiplication
Multiplication of bacteriophage and animal viruses

Viruses and cancer

The transformaion of normal cells into tumor cells
DNA oncogenic viruses
RNA oncogenic viruses

Latent and persistent viral infection

Prion, viroid, and pathogenic viruses
Principals and pathogenesis of viral diseases

Task
1.
2.
3.
4.

List four properties that define a virus! What is virion?

Why do we classify vruses as obligatory intracellular parasites?
How are bacteriophages detected and enumerated by plaque method?
Describe the principal events of attachment, penetration, uncoating, biosynthesis,
and release of an enveloped DNA-containing virus.
5. Why are continuous cell lines of more practical use than primary cell cell lines for
culturing viruses? What is unique about continuous cell lines?
6. In some viruses, capsomeres function as enzyme as well as structural supports.
Of what advantage is this to the virus?
References
1. Brooks GF, JS Butel, SA Morse: Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelbergs Medical
Microbiology, 23rd edition; chapter 29 & 30, 2004
2. Tortora GJ, BR Funke, CL Case: Microbiology An Introduction, 7th edition,
chapter 13. 2001
3. Mims C, HM Dockrell, RV Goering, I Roitt, D Wakelin, M Zuckerman: Medical
Microbiology, 3rd edition, chapter 3, 2004

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 8
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
General Properties of Fungi

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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General properties of fungi

Introduction
Fungi are Eukaryotes, but are quite different from plants an animals; they
began life as a microscopic spore.
Characteristically, they are multicellular
organisms with a thick chitin-containing cell wall. They may grow as thread-like
filaments (hyphae), but many other growth forms occur.
Fungi are ubiquitous as free-living organisms and are of enormous
importance commercially in baking, fermenting and in pharmaceuticals. Some form
normal flora of our bodies, and others are common causes of local infection in skin,
nail and hair. Pathogenic species invade tissues and digest material externally by
releasing enzymes, and also take up nutrients directly from host tissues.

Learning objectives

Mention at least three characteristics that distinguish fungi from other groups of
Eukaryotes
List five ways in which fungi are beneficial
Distinguish among septate hyphae, nonseptate hyphae, and mycelia
Describe asexual and sexual reproduction in fungi
List three basic types af asexual spores found in molds
Compare the division of fungi with respect to the formation of sexual spores

Outline/Overview

Fungi are chemoheterotrophic eukaryotes with cell walls usually composed of

chitin.
Most fungi are beneficial, but some cause mycoses (fungal infections)
The nonreproductive body of a folamentous fungus (mold) or yeast (unicellular
fungus) is a thallus. The thallus of mold are omposed of tubular filaments called
hyphae. Hyphae are described as either septate or aseptate/nonseptate
depending on on the presence of croswalls. A mycelium is a tangle mass of
hyphae.
A dimorphic fungus has either type of thallus, depending on environmental
conditions.
Most fungi are saprophytic they acquire nutrients by absorption from dead
organisms; other get nutrients from living organisms
Fungi reproduce asexually either by budding or asexual spores, which are
categorized according to their mode of development. Most fungi also reproduce
sexually via sexual spores.
Most fungi are in the division Zygomycetes produce rough walled zygosporangia.
Mycosporidia are intracellular parasites formerly classified as Protozoa, but now
classed with zygomycetes based on genetic analysis.
Fungi in the division Ascomycetes, a group of economically important fungi,
produce ascospores within sacs called asci.
Fungi in the division Basmidiomycetes, including mushorooms, produce
basidiospores at the end of basidia.

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Deuteromycetes is an informal grouping of fungi having no known sexual stage.

Task
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is the basic of classification of fungi?

Explain dimorphism! Give 2 (two) examples of fungi which have this property!
What factors contribute to the pathogenicity of fungal infection?
What dye that we use for staining fungi?
Explain briefly how to make simple etiologic diagnosis for superficial mycosis!

References:
1. Brooks GF, JS Butel, SA Morse: Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelbergs Medical
Microbiology, 23rd edition; chapter 45, 2004
2. Tortora GJ, BR Funke, CL Case: Microbiology An Introduction, 6th edition,
chapter 12, 2001
3. Mims C, HM Dockrell, RV Goering, I Roitt, D Wakelin, M Zuckerman: Medical
Microbiology, 3rd edition, chapter 4, 2004

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BIOLOGY OF MICROBES

MODULE 9
MICROBIOLOGY

Sub-module :
The Host - Parasite Relationship

FOR STUDENT

LABORATORY OF MICROBIOLOGY
MEDICAL FACULTY
BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY
2014

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The Host - Parasite Relationship

Overview
After understanding the structure and functions of microbes and some idea of
the variety of microorganisms that exists, we can consider how the human body and
microorganisms interact in term of health and science. A balance exists between host
defense mechanisms and the pathogenic mechanisms of microbes. When our
defenses resist these pathogenic capabilities, we maintain our health; whereas the
pathogens capabilities overcome our defenses, disease result.
Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree or
extent of pathogenicity. To cause disease, most pathogens must gain access to the
host, adhere to host tissues, penetrate or evade host defense, and damage the host
tissues. Some microbes do not cause disease by directly damaging host tissues, but
the disease is due to the accumulation of microbial waste products.
If only a few microbes enter the host body, they will probably be overcome by
the hosts defense. However, if large numbers of microbes enter our body, the stage
may set for diseases, the virulence of microbes is often expressed as the Infectious
Dose 50 (ID50).
Humans are generally free of microbes in utero. At birth, normal and
characteristic microbial populations begin to establish themselves. After birth, E. coli
and other bacteria acquired from foods begin to inhabit the colon. Many other usually
harmless microbes establish themselves inside other parts of normal adult body, and
its surface. These are called as normal microbiota or normal flora.
Normal cells, tissues, organ, and system of the host body have got some
defense mechanism against the microbial invasions. Broadly we classify them into
two groups:
Nonspecific defense mechanisms
Specific defense mechanisms

Learning objectives

Compare commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism

Define normal microbiota
Define the pattern of disease
Explain the methods of transmission
Explain several reasons for emerging and reemerging infectious diseases
Define herd immunity
Identify several predisposing factors for disease
Identify the principal portals of entry and portal of exit
Explain how fimbriae, capsules and cell wall components contribute to
pathogenicity
Explain how bacterial pathogens damage host cells
Contrast the nature and effect of exotoxins and endotoxins

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Module Tasks
1. Compare pathogenicity and virulence!
2. Describe how hemolysins, leukocidins, coagulases, kinases, hyaluronidases,
siderophores might contribute to pathogenicity.
3. Which of the following genera is the most infectious? Explain your answer.
Genus
Salmonella
Legionella
Treponema
Shigella

ID50
105 cells
1 cell
50 cells
200 cells

4. Describe factors contributing to the pathogenicity of virus and fungi.

5. How could social and behavioral change contribute to the alteration of hostparasite relationship, and what are the effects to humans?
6. What is the aim of host body defense?
7. Name the method of transmission of these followings:
Hepatitis B
Tuberculosis
Tetanus
Measles
Hepatitis A

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