First Edition, 2009

ISBN 978 93 80075 70 9

All rights reserved.

Published by:
Global Media
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Table of Contents
1. Hospitality Maintenance
2. Management of Indoor Environment in Hotels

Hospitality Maintenance

The maintenance-and-engineering department has been treated as a catch-all department, which

literally means that if a problem is not related to food, marketing or sales, housekeeping, or accounting, it
must be a maintenance and-engineering responsibility. Many operations define maintenance and
engineering by its areas of responsibility. Other operations rely on normal dictionary definitions.
Regardless of the definition or responsibilities of an organization, the basic purpose of the department can
be stated as: keeping the structure, its machines, its systems, and its products in an existing or specified
state of readiness. This definition assumes that everything is kept in repair, that it is operating at a high
efficiency level, and that there are minimal breakdowns.

For a hotel, it means keeping guest rooms and public space salable, at a low cost. Future hospitality
managers will have to learn basic maintenanceand-engineering management concepts, how to analyse
engineering data, and most important, the language necessary to communicate with maintenanceand
engineering personnel. Hospitality building engineering and maintenance systems include: life safety;
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; electrical; water; transportation; exterior; environment; and
special facilities equipment. In this book the future hospitality manager will become familiar with each
system and strategies for effectively managing each system. There is no glamour in managing the
maintenance and engineering systems in a hotel, restaurant, club, hospital, or other hospitality building, but
properly managed systems from design to operation can result in considerable long-term savings; or, on the
contrary, the failure to manage such systems can result in significant long-term costs. Lodging and
foodservice managers know that their management role has changed because of the increasing importance
of engineering, maintenance, and energy requirements in their industry. The health-care administrator has
the same building-management problems as a hotel manager, but he must also cope with complex medical
equipment.
Changing technology in health care has been extremely rapid. The cost of providing space for a bed
in a hospital is equivalent to the cost of a deluxe hotel room. Lodging and foodservice managers have
complained about the high energy requirements per customer and how energy costs have reduced profitmaking potential. They are frequently amazed to learn that their counterparts in health care consume 50 to
100 percent more energy per person to provide modem health-care facility services. Many of these nonprofit institutions now offer servicesexpensive in the eyes of patients and clientsthat have resulted in
shorter patient stays, quicker recoveries, higher turnover, and a rash of statistics that make health-care units
look like high-occupancy transient hotels. Health-care units are frequently compared with resort hotels in
terms of their services and costs.
Lodging units, foodservice operations, and health-care facilities have felt the maintenance/
engineering/energy crunch. Costs in these three areas have increased three to five times faster than revenue,
giving rise to price increases that offset at least part of these increased costs. This solution, however, is not
available for institutional buildings, which are often heavily dependent on government funding, or for
clubs, which may be unable to make the necessary adjustments in membership dues. In these last two cases,
it is all too easy to cut back on maintenance and repairs, to delay repairs until they are absolutely necessary
or until a piece of equipment has broken down. The money saved by postponing maintenance can be
partially used to pay energy bills. To compound the problem, a large and significant number of these
institutional buildings and clubs are located in areas of very high labour and energy costs.
Maintenance policy and energy consumption are usually dependent on each other; for example, if a
piece of equipment is not maintained, its energy consumption increases and its life expectancy declines.
Delaying normal maintenance results in very short-term savings. Many clubs and institutional operations
that have delayed maintenance now face abnormally heavy maintenance, repair, and equipment
replacement costs.
Whatever the job title, facility manager, chief engineer, or maintenance supervisor, management is a
critical element of the job. Whereas in past years the person holding the job of facility manager, chief
engineer, or maintenance supervisor could be a good technician and be successful, the investment in
facilities and the costs associated with the operations of such facilities require the person holding the
position today to also be a strong manager. When evaluating the effectiveness of the management of the
engineering- and- maintenance unit, particular attention should be directed toward the established goals and
objectives of the unit, organizational structure of the unit, budget decisions, safety and security, workload
identification and scheduling, controls and reports in use, and how computers are being utilized to manage
the unit.
Goals and objectives
Managing the maintenance and engineering systems for hospitality building(s) might be defined as:
design, construction, occupancy and use, repair, renovation, and disposal.

The manager of the engineering-and-maintenance unit will have a difficult time keeping the unit on
track if there is no end goal or set of guiding objectives. It is difficult to apply a common standard to all
facilities. Goals for an engineering-and-maintenance unit may vary considerably depending on the intended

use of the facility and the business of the user. However, the goals for an engineering-and-maintenance unit
must conform to the overall strategy for the hospitality business and must meet two industry-wide goals.
The first goal, which is both strategic and operational, is to ensure that customers, guests, employees,
and other constituencies are able to visit or work in a certain type of location and, along with that, a specific
type of environment. At a minimum, it is likely to include that the environment be safe and clean and that
any facility-related problems are attended to promptly. If this goal is ignored, the business may have
difficulty attracting and retaining employees, customers, and guests, thereby decreasing revenues and
increasing costs. The second important goal should target financial performance in terms of costs per
square foot, costs per employee, costs as a percentage of revenues, costs as a percentage of total expenses,
and costs in relation to prior period and budgeted costs. Objectives for an engineering-and-maintenance
unit typically are directed toward preventive maintenance, repair, replacement improvement, and
modification.
Preventive maintenance is any work performed on an operational device or facility to continue
operating at its proper efficiency without interruption. The interval between preventive maintenance actions
on a particular device is typically established by manufacturers recommendations or measurements that
show the declining performance of a piece of equipment or facility components. When analysing the
engineering-and-maintenance unit, there should be an objective that provides for a program of routine
inspection and service of equipment to prevent premature failures.
Repairs must be made immediately, at the expense of other scheduled engineering- and maintenancerelated activities. Thus, often objectives that relate to repairs are directed toward the urgency of completing
the repair. Thus, in establishing objectives for completing repairs it is often necessary to set priorities.
Replacement is performed when a piece of equipment or a facility component has reached the end of
its useful life, that is, when the equipment or facility component can no longer perform effectively and
repair is no longer cost effective. Typically, the replacement objective for the engineering-and maintenance
unit might focus on executing a program of planned replacement of major facility components, which
replaces failing equipment before failure with new or rebuilt components that have a lower life-cycle cost.
Improvement projects enhance the proper operation or reduce the operating cost of a facility. Such
projects might include the installation of energy-and utility-conserving devices or the replacement of
properly operating but maintenance-intensive equipment with similar but more reliable products. Thus, the
engineering-and-maintenance unit should have an objective to identify and execute any improvement
project that will provide a payback of the initial investment in 3 years or less.
Modification projects alter the basic facility or facility component to accommodate a new function.
Modification projects differ from improvement projects by their point of origin. Modification projects are
initiated from outside of the engineering-and-maintenance unit, whereas improvement projects are initiated
from within the unit. However, because modification projects are in large part driven by estimated costs,
the engineering-and maintenance unit should have an objective to estimate accurately the costs of
modification projects at or under budget.
Three alternative organizational structures might be considered for the engineering-and-maintenance
unit. Each alternative is a function in large part of the size and complexity of the building(s). Alternative I
is most appropriate for multiple, large buildings with considerable surrounding acreage; Alternative II for
systems involving one to four medium-sized buildings and limited surrounding acreage; and Alternative III
is for single buildings with limited square footage and surrounding acreage.
The first alternative is structured around an emerging concept defined as facilities engineering.
Facilities engineering may typically include up to four subunits: engineering design, maintenance control,
maintenance execution, and utilities management. Major facilities with multiple, large buildings and
extensive property will generally require a facilities engineering organization. Examples include a major
medical centre, large school district, university campus, metropolitan airport, commercial office/shopping
centre, and large resort hotel complex, all of which include hundreds of acres and millions of square feet of
buildings. While facilities engineering structures are most typically found in large, complex buildings, they
include the basic components of any effective and efficient organization. These components include:
design, managing utilities, controlling maintenance, and performing maintenance. A facilities engineering
office is usually headed by a professional engineer, called a facilities engineer.
Since, as previously mentioned, design can often determine maintenance costs, a key role for the
facilities engineer is to ensure that designers and maintenance employees work closely together. The

engineering design staff is typically headed by a professional architect or engineer. The unit may vary in
size depending on the magnitude of the facility and the frequency of the need for engineering systems
modifications. Often such services are contracted from outside architectural and engineering firms because
they are infrequently required. A utilities unit is typically only included when the facility is engaged in the
self-generation of major utility services. This unit is responsible for the management of potable water
treatment plants, electrical power plants, central steam or cooling plants, and water treatment systems. This
unit is typically directed by an electrical, mechanical, or environmental engineer.
Maintenance control monitors and coordinates the overall effort. The unit estimates the costs of
maintenance activities, which are used to evaluate the merit of modification and improvement projects and
also reviewed to determine the scope of the work and the type of work to be performed. The unit
determines the correct quantities and types of material, personnel, and equipment needed to complete the
maintenance task. This is a critical function in any maintenance organization and must be done before a
task is assigned to the maintenance work force for completion. The maintenance control unit may also
schedule projects that may involve more than one working unit in the maintenance work force. Also found
in the maintenance control unit is a work tracking and monitoring function (i.e., identifying new work
through a trouble desk, receiving input from the facility users, and tracking project assignments to
completion). Another key component of the maintenance control unit is a materials and supplies office,
which is responsible for ensuring that the required construction materials, spare parts, and consumable
products are available in the correct quantity and at the right time for use by the maintenance work force.
The maintenance work force unit may be further divided into several shops such as: electrical; plumbing;
carpentry; paint; landscape and grounds; and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. However, it is
important that a maintenance supervisor, maintenance foreman, or general foreman coordinate the
maintenance work force unit and the activities of the various shops.
Alternative II organizations usually consist of one to four, medium to large physical structures with
limited surrounding acreage. Facilities are usually fixed in size at initial construction, and thus have a
limited need for modification. Because such changes are infrequent and do not justify hiring an in-house
engineering staff, these transient needs are handled by outside consultants. The manager of the facility such
as the hotel manager, restaurant manager, or hospital administrator becomes the point of contact and
coordinator for outside engineering projects. The basic elements of control that apply to an Alternative I
organization also exist within Alternative II organizations. However, operations are less structured than
those of an Alternative I organization. More time is expended in emergency response, remedying minor
discrepancies; less time is expended in modification and improvement projects; and due to the contracting
of services for major systems, less time is expended on classical preventive maintenance. The maintenance
work force consists of a limited number (e.g., 12 or less) of craftsmen typically described as maintenance
mechanics or maintenance men. These individuals are typically multitalented and are able to work in a
variety of areas. Service contractors often perform work other than minor troubleshooting and repairs on
the various building systems.
In an Alternative III organization, only one or two persons are involved in maintenance and the
manager of the overall facility becomes involved to a greater extent in the decisions that involve the
maintenance and engineering systems. In such facilities, the maintenance man, a jack of all trades, works
directly for the facility manager. An Alternative III organization utilizes contracted services to a greater
extent than Alternative II organizations. In Alternative HI organizations, major system components are
repaired almost exclusively by service contractors.
Organizational structures
Lodging. On an organization chart, the chief engineer has always held a high-level position in a
lodging establishment. The chief engineer appears to be part of the total management team. In the past,
however, the general manager typically spent very little time discussing operational problems with the chief
engineer, seldom visiting or inspecting the engineering department. Many general managers knew little
about engineering, maintenance, and energy. Chief engineers tended to know even less about management
and management systems. This situation persisted for years. Since 1950, the average number of guest
rooms per lodging establishment has increased. The average new lodging establishment generally has more
than 100 to 150 guest rooms, with some food and beverage facilities. These new properties, as well as older
units with equivalent services, require a working chief engineer. A chief engineer is normally required for a
property of 200 or more guest rooms with food and beverage and meeting room facilities. All units,
regardless of size and facilities, have property maintenance requirements.

Foodservice. Freestanding, or nonlodging, foodservice units seldom have a separate maintenanceand-engineering department. The foodservice manager is generally charged with this responsibility and
frequently establishes a series of maintenance service contracts for the unit. The maintenance responsibility
for kitchen-production equipment may be delegated to a kitchen steward. Some of the better foodservice
maintenance and energy-management organizations follow the Alternative III organization, discussed
above. The kitchen steward, or a utility person, has minor maintenance responsibilities. The utility
designation may also mean that this person does the general cleaning of the dining areas, outside areas, and
rest rooms. Most of these activities, however, are housekeeping tasks. The unit foodservice manager, like

the manager of a smaller lodging establishment, must possess a variety of skills and maintenance/energy
knowledge to be effective in reducing costs.
Health care. Many health-care operations have two or even three departments involved with
maintenance, engineering, and energy management. The major department is plant maintenance, which is
similar to the engineering department of a hotel. The other related departments, again similar to lodging,
are housekeeping and laundry. Foodservice may also be included, and its problems are similar to those of a
commercial foodservice operation. Health-care and lodging units have an advantage over foodservice units
in that some type of maintenance-and-engineering department is frequently available on the premises. The
plant maintenance department may also have the responsibility for maintaining kitchen equipment.The
engineering and maintenance functions are usually under the organizational control of an assistant
administrator. The assistant administrator becomes in reality a property manager whose functions are
similar to those of the general manager of a lodging unit. The intensive-care health facility is frequently
organized as Alternative I or, for an operation with a smaller number of beds, Alternative R. An extendedcare facility frequently follows either Alternative II or Alternative III.
Clubs. Clubs vary according to the services offered to the membership. They also vary with respect to
engineering, maintenance, and energy expenses. Some clubs are similar to foodservice units; others offer
services similar to those of larger hotels, especially resort hotels. Each service component-food, beverage,
banquet facilities, meeting space, and recreational services-has inherent maintenance-and-engineering
policies, procedures, and problems. Like the foodservice manager, the total maintenance and energy
responsibilities usually fall on the club manager. He must keep abreast of activities and advancements in
engineering, maintenance, and energy. Frequently, in larger clubs these activities are delegated to a
maintenance head. If the foodservice operation is large enough, there may be a kitchen steward who has the
maintenance responsibilities for foodservice equipment.
The club manager is unique among managers in being responsible to a house committee. This
committee sets policies, goals, and general operating procedures for the manager to follow. The committee
can set maintenance and energy standards, which may be recommended by the club manager. One or more
of the committee members may provide special skills and knowledge in these important areas and may be
of great assistance to the manager. In addition to the house committee, the club manager can join the Club
Managers Association of America and enlist in its manager certification program. One of the requirements
of the program is a standardized competence level in maintenance and energy management. Program
completion is based on seminar participation, written exams, and a service record. The results of the
program have been very encouraging. (Other special management areas in the hospitality industry have
developed somewhat similar programs, but, in the authors opinion, the CMAA program is one of the most
successful in developing a positive maintenance energy management attitude for a large and significant
number of its managers and potential managers.)
Institutional buildings. Schools, office buildings, penal institutions, colleges, and noncommercial
lodging units are defined as institutional buildings. The institutional area of the hospitality industry has
generally given the most consideration to engineering, maintenance, and energy. One reason for this is that
a large percentage of the operating cost of these units is for the physical plant. Tremendous thought is
devoted to the initial design of institutional buildings, hence their often Spartan look. These buildings are
very functional; the profit goal may be totally nonexistent. Many large institutional complexes still generate
their own electric power (total energy systems, or co-generation). These units are concerned primarily with
the generation of steam or hot water for building heat. Electric energy is a secondary benefit and, with
slightly higher energy consumption, both electric energy and steam (or hot water) can be produced.
Budgeting
To accomplish the objectives of the engineering-and-maintenance unit, personnel, materials, tools,
and equipment are required. Since a business does not have unlimited resources, the costs of personnel,
materials, tools, and equipment must be accurately understood and predicted as far in advance as possible
in order to maintain reasonable control and to apply limited resources for the greatest benefit. The total
amount of all estimated costs for a particular period comprises the budget. Expense trends developed for
lodging are generally applicable to many other hospitality areas. Related industries frequently review
lodging expense trends, because they are reported annually and other industries can make fairly accurate
future projections based on these data. Volumes of material have been written over the past several years
on trends, future developments, and operating statistics in the lodging industry, more than in any other
hospitality industry.

The average size of a lodging unit, in terms of guest rooms per unit, has increased. The average new
lodging unit has about 150 guest rooms. This is very large in comparison to most international hotels. This
large average size suggests that such properties usually have some type of maintenance department. While

the development costs have declined since 1990, still over 60 percent are basic building system costs,
including electromechanical, furnishings, and fixtures, which may be the responsibility of the chief
engineer.
Maintenance department expenses: In 1976, the American Hotel & Motel Association updated the
Uniform System of Accounts for lodging units. Engineering, maintenance, and energy expenses are
tabulated in two major classifications: property operation and maintenance, and energy.
Luxury
$93,900
$182,300
Standard
57,500
99,100
Economy
31,400
59,000
Fig. Dollar costs per available room for hotel properties
Energy Expenses. In 1990, energy costs represented approximately 4.4 percent of the operating costs
for hotels and motels in the United States. Energy as a percentage of operating costs remained the same in
1994. Property Operation and Maintenance (POM) Expenses. Property operation and maintenance (POM)
expenses represented approximately 5.4 percent of operating expenses for U.S. hotels and motels in 1990.
POM was 5.3 percent of operating expenses in 1994.
Expense Item
Percent of total
Property operation
43
Payroll
6
Building, general
19
Electrical and mechanical
3
Furniture
5
Grounds
4
Supplies
4
Painting and decorating
4
Waste removal
3
Other
13
Total
100
Energy Expense
Fuel (natural gas, oil, coal)
23
Electricity
63
Water and sewage
9
Steam
5
Total
100
Fig: Lodging property operation and maintenance expenses; energy expenses 2-3
Engineering and maintenance employees. The number of employees in the maintenance department
is influenced by the property size and the maintenance alternatives selected by the manager. Larger
properties, with Alternatives I and II, will average 4.2 employees per 100 occupied guest rooms, or 3.1
employees per 100 available guest rooms. The chief engineer spends large sums of money each year. The
actual amount depends on the age of the property, its facilities, and business activity level. Regardless of
the measurement base-the percentage of revenue or actual dollars per room-these variables represent
significant figures and have increased for several successive years.
Number of rooms
Type of hotel
Under 125
125-200
Over 200
Full service
$1250
$1281
$1602
Limited service
NA
688
782
Resort
NA
2218
2714
Suite
1138
1243
1382
Convention
NA
NA
1728
Fig Annual energy costs per available guest room

Foodservice
Maintenance and energy expenses for a foodservice operation depend on one or more of the
following factors:
1. Type of foodservice operation.
2. Basic construction and age of the building, especially whether the building is freestanding or
contained within another building.
3. Sources of energy for the property.
4. Geographic location.
5. Age and type of kitchen equipment.
The foodservice managers attitude, knowledge, and maintenance/energy skills are probably
important.
Number of rooms
Type of hotel
Under 125
125-200
Over 200
Full service Limited service $1157 597
$1229 711
$1879861
Resort
NA
NA
2714
Suite
1183
1365
1644
Convention
NA
NA
2963
Fig: Annual property and maintenance expenses
Unlike the lodging manager, who is dependent on a separate department to carry out maintenance
tasks and an energy-management policy, the foodservice manager is responsible for these items. If the
manager is fortunate, and if the operation is large enough, the manager may be justified in hiring a
maintenance person to perform minimal tasks.
Foodservice managers must generally develop and administer a series of maintenance service
contracts for the major electromechanical parts of the building. Without such contracts, a manager must be
prepared to contact local tradespeople directly whenever a repair is required.
As most foodservice operations are open during the early evening hours, dependable, qualified
tradespeople must be available when they are needed. It is very important for managers to develop good
working relationships with maintenance contractors and tradespeople who understand the special needs of
foodservice operations and can respond quickly in an emergency.
The National Restaurant Association (NRA) has researched the energy requirements of various types
of 1 foodservice operations. The NRA foodservice categories are: cafeteria, full-menu dinner house,
limited-menu dinner house, expanded-menu fast food, limited-menu fast food, coffee shop, and pizza unit.
Energy consumption data for these operation types will be reported in the next section.
Maintenance and energy expenses. Until the 1970s, maintenance and energy expenses in foodservice
were very low when expressed as a percentage of sales. They were so low that management was not
concerned if energy costs increased by one-third or one-half (33 to 50 percent). Energy expenses were
around I percent or less of sales.
During the early 1970s, the costs of energy doubled in one 3-year period, then doubled again in less
than 5 . years. As a result, energy costs are now anywhere from 2 to 8 percent of sales, depending on the
type of table service and menu theme. Maintenance expenses have risen but not as fast as energy costs.
One reason for the large increase in maintenance is that many smaller operations have hired a
maintenance person. The result is that maintenance expenses, on average, may now be 2 to 6 percent of
sales. In most cases, that part of the kitchen stewards time that is spent on maintenance of kitchen
equipment is still not charged to maintenance.
The foodservice industry continues to spend about 3 I percent of its sales for the purchase of new
equipment in an effort to reduce maintenance and energy consumption. Thus, as reported by Borsenik in
1983, foodservice management is spending an average of 9 percent of sales for maintenance, energy, and
new foodservice equipment (3 percent for maintenance, 3 percent for energy, and 3 percent of new
equipment-all average percentages) Isolated foodservice corporation data indicate that these percentages
have not changed significantly since 1983. When these percentage-of-sales figures are related to percentage
of initial investment, the meaning of energy and maintenance costs can be fully realized.

For example, if energy and maintenance expenses are each 3 percent of sales, this is equivalent to 30
percent of the total foodservice investment. This is a considerably higher percentage than in other
hospitality businesses. Figure shows the average breakdown of energy expenses for various types of
foodservice units by energy use areas: food preparation, sanitation, food refrigeration, lighting, and HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning).
Percentage energy consumption
Foodservice type
preperation
sanitation
refregeration
HVAC
total
Cafeteria
40.5
28.5
3.5
20.3
100.0
Coffee shop
35.0
18.6
3.8
26.9
100.0
Dinner house
33.6
21.7
7.1
26.4
100.0
Dinner house
24.9
19.5
10.7
26.3
100.0
Fast food
35.8
6.8
6.6
37.9
100.0
Fast food
45.0
8.1
4.4
23.3
100.0
Pizza
32.3
17.2
8.4
30.3
100.0
Average
35.8
20.4
5.9
12.5
100.0
Fig: Foodservice percentage energy consumption by function area
6-month energy consumption
Foodservice type
Btu(millions)
Watts (thousands)
% of average
Cafeteria
3,128
916,504
194
Coffee shop
1,100
322,700
68
Dinner house
2,500
732,500
155
Dinner house
1,600
468,800
100
Fast food
1,200
351,600
75
Fast food
1,150
336,950
70
Pizza
583
170,819
36
Average
1,600
468,800
100
Fig: Average energy consumption for different types of foodservice establishments for a 6-month
period
Of all the units listed, a limited-menu dinner house has the average total energy consumption,
whereas a cafeteria consumes twice the average energy, and a pizza unit uses only about one-third of the
average.
Health-care units
Construction costs in health-care centers follow lodging cost trends. The American Hospital
Association reports that the physical-plant investment per patient bed was equivalent to about 50 percent of
the cost of a new lodging room. This is a first cost, not a replacement cost, Assuming a typical health-care
patient room to have two beds, the patient-room value is equivalent to the investment in a new lodging
guest room. Approximately 80 percent of the investment is for the structure and its related equipment,
including medical equipment and special furnishings. A new health-care unit, or a units replacement cost,
may range from $75,000 to $250,000 or more per two-bed room for intensive-care units. The costs of
health-care services have risen more than 10 percent per year during the past 10 to 20 years. This means
that costs double every 6 to 8 years. Maintenance, engineering, and energy expenses have increased at even
higher rates.Normal plant maintenance cost is close to 10 percent of total expenses. If housekeeping and
laundry expenses are included, the cost could reach 16 percent of total income.
Nursing home
Expense item
Hospital
Depreciation of physical plant
3.0%
NA
Plant operation
4.0
5.0%
Maintenance payroll
2.5
3.0
Laundry
2.5
2.0
Subtotal
12.0%
10.0%
Housekeeping
4.0
3.5

Total
16.0%
13.5%
Fig. Comparison of typical hospital and nursing home plant-maintenance expenses
Several housekeeping functions are performed by the nursing staff and that many units of equipment
are leased or may have contract maintenance. The percentage figures just cited vary with the type of healthcare property. They are frequently slightly lower for new health-care facilities, high occupancy units, high
census counts, and extended-care facilities.
The activities and related costs of maintenance, engineering, and energy are generally considered as
fixed, or set-dollar, amounts. The percentage figure may increase to 20 or 25 percent of the total expenses
for older health-care buildings.
Clubs
Clubs may be classified as country or city clubs. The primary differences are facility services and the
setting, or site, of the facility. The presence of a golf course may distinguish a country club from a city
club.
Clubs can be further divided into tennis, athletic, or social clubs, to mention only some
classifications. It is not the intent of this text to discuss all the possible variations or associated problems of
such clubs. Emphasis is placed on the operation of the physical plant. Because the services and purposes of
clubs vary with their membership, there can be large differences in operating data among clubs.
It is almost impossible to develop construction cost data for clubs, as each is built for a slightly
different purpose. Most have food and beverage service; hence, they have typical foodservice expenses.
Some have guest rooms; hence, they are similar to hotels. Some provide special services such as a
swimming pool, a golf course, tennis courts, and other facilities and thus are similar to resort hotels.
Therefore, average construction costs are generally meaningless. Decor and furnishings can vary
significantly between two similar properties. The services demanded by two different memberships can
vary. They all use energy, however, and all properties must be repaired and maintained.
The amount and degree of renovation vary from one year to the next. Unlike hotels and foodservice
units, the income structure can be adjusted each year through membership dues. These variables make it
difficult to compare cost figures and percentages between clubs and other hospitality industry operations.
Country club expenses.The two primary expense categories in engineering, maintenance, and energy
are: (1) energy-heat, light, and power; and (2) repairs and maintenance. In addition, there are two other
maintenance-related categories for country clubs: (3) grounds and maintenance, excluding golf course
greens; and (4) golf course maintenance.
Golf course maintenance is normally expressed as a cost per hole. The latest data indicate that this
could average over $34,000 per hole per year. For example, golf course maintenance for an 18-hole golf
course would be 18 x $34,000 = $612,000 per year. The average cost per hole increased 4.1 percent from
1991 to 1992.
City club expenses. The average energy and maintenance expenses as a percentage of total sales and
income are illustrated for a city club. Energy expenses increased 19.6 percent at city clubs and maintenance
expenses increased approximately 0.6 percent. One reason for the percentage increase is the frequent
location of clubs in cities and suburbs, areas where energy and labour costs are typically high.
Institutions
Maintenance, engineering, and energy costs are more difficult to analyse in the institutional area of
the hospitality industry. Costs are frequently expressed as a percentage of the building budget or as dollars
per square foot (or square meter) of space. In the case of rental space, the basic charge per square foot (or
square meter) may include normal repair and maintenance, while extraordinary repair and maintenance
may be charged back to the renter as an assessment. In addition, many rental or lease contracts may specify
an energy surcharge that increases if energy costs increase. Often the utility company (electric, gas, or
steam) bills renters or leased-space users directly.
Energy and repairs and maintenance generally represent 10 to 20 percent of the budget for an
institutional building. This excludes replacements, rehabilitation, or major changes in the building. Another
method of allocation is to charge $6 to $20 per square foot ($65 to $215 per square meter) of space per year
for normal energy and maintenance charges.

Since some areas of the building have more volume than others, as measured in cubic feet
per square foot (or cubic meters per square meter) of floor area, some property managers

use a cubic foot (or cubic meter) space charge for energy, repairs, and maintenance. This
technique appears to be superior to other methods for fair energy and cost allocations. In
institutional buildings that have limited hours of operation, it is easy to reduce energy
consumption significantly during unoccupied hours by shutting off energy-consuming
systems. Public utilities have developed excellent guidelines for buildings with limited
hours of operation, and these rules should be followed. Guidelines vary with geographic
area.

Management of Indoor Environment in Hotels

NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE

In this chapter we will consider various aspects of hotels indoor environment which includes the
quality of the air within the building, lighting level and noise levels to comfort, well-being and health of the
occupants of the building, which includes employees, guests and other groups of peoplecontractors and
daily workers, who may be exposed to the environment,
There are two levels of responsibility both to those individuals working in the building and to those
who are guests of the establishment, the first covering the essential requirements of health and safety and
the second, the establishment of conditions which provide comfort. In terms of health and safety, the
essential legal requirements for the UK are covered by The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and the
Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992. These are augmented by the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988. Although those regulations control the use of all types of hazardous
chemicals used in the workplace, they have a particular significance in relation to occupational lung
diseases caused by exposure to dust, smoke and chemicals,
Comfort is a difficult term to define since conditions of comfort vary from one person to another and
are also related to the activity of the person. We can define comfort in objective terms such as air

temperature, relative humidity, rates of ventilation, absence of impurities from the air, lighting levels and
noise levels.
Optimum comfort levels vary from one individual to another and are related to factors such as gender
and age. In general, women prefer higher room temperatures than men and older people higher room
temperatures than do younger people. In practice, all that we can do is to set temperatures and ventilation at
average optimum levels for the type of guests we have and in relation to the activity taking place in that
area of the hotel. It is also important to provide individual control over temperature and ventilation in the
bedroom in order to allow the guests to set levels for themselves. Some people sleep best in a cool, wellventilated room whereas others prefer a higher temperature. By giving the guests flexibility over the
temperature and ventilation, this may avoid the need for them to open windows, which can defeat the most
sophisticated BEMS and lead to a waste of energy.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Control of Spotting Chemical Hazards

A hazardous chemical is any substance that can cause injury, impairment to health or death to living
organisms, or which may damage the environment. A number of hazardous materials may be used in a

hotels daily operation and their use may also mean the generation of hazardous waste. In view of the
dangers associated with hazardous materials and their waste, it is important that they are handled, stored
and disposed of carefully. Materials may be considered to be hazardous because they are:

Toxica substance that can cause damage to health, physical or mental impairment or even
death when inhaled, ingested or absorbed e.g. pesticides and herbicides.

Flammablea substance that can be easily ignited by sparks or flames to cause fires, (e.g.
solvents and fuels).

Explosivea substance which is capable, by chemical reaction within itself, of producing gas at
such a temperature and pressure as to cause damage to the surroundings.

Corrosivea substance which destroys other materials by chemical reaction, or causes burn to
human tissue

Infectionsa micro-organism which either causes an infection or produces toxins.

All materials, chemicals and substances that are used in the hotel and which may have a harmful
effect on the environment should be identified, using a form similar to that shown in the following figure.
DATA SHEET OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
PRODUCT NAME
COMPOSITION
Ingredient
(list ingredients)

PRODUCT CODE

DATE OF ISSUE

Weight %

HAZARD INDENTIFICATION
(list hazards including flammability, harmful if inhaled, ingested or comes into contact with skin).
FIRST AID
Contact with skin
(indicate treatment)
Contact with eyes
(indicate treatment)
Ingestion
(indicate treatment)
Inhalation
(indicate treatment)
FIREFIGHTING MEASURES
(indicate type of extinguisher and other measures)
ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
(indicate required action to control and treatment of spillage and release into atmosphere)
HANDLING
(instructions to handlers about avoiding contact, avoiding breathing fumes, not smoking, eating, etc.)
STORAGE
(indicate required storagetemperature, ventilation, away from food, etc.)
PERSONAL PROTECTION
(indicate need for protective clothing, respirator, etc.)
EXPOSURE LIMITS
(maximum concentrations for long-term and short-term exposure)
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(data obtained from manufacturer on physical properties (viscosity, boiling point, flash point,
viscosity, solubility in water) and stability and reactivity).

TOXICOLOGICAL DATA
(specific effects resulting from ingestion, contact with skin, eyes, inhalation short-term and longterm exposure)
ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION AND DISPOSAL
(effect of chemical on waste waterbiological oxygen demand, if biodegradable, methods of
disposaldrains, incineration, special or legal requirements).
In all cases the chemical content should be identified. Where materials are seen to be dangerous or
harmful to the environment, safer alternatives should be found wherever possible. Where this is not
possible, procedures should be established for the handling, storage, use and disposal of these materials.
Under the provision of the legislation, the employer must ensure that an assessment of all substances
is carried out in order to identify two pieces of information, the potential risks from that chemical and any
measures that need to be taken in the case of spillages or accidental exposure. Different risks may arise if
the chemical is inhaled, ingested or comes into contact with the skin.
Following the assessment, the employer is required to ensure that exposure is either prevented or, if
this is not possible, controlled. An important aspect of this control is that all employees who are likely to
use, or be exposed to, hazardous chemicals must be trained about the risks and the necessary precautions to
be taken when handling these chemicals, and the procedures to be followed in the case of spillage or
exposure. Also, the data sheets should be readily available to allow immediate action in case of accidental
contact or spillage of the material, which includes the following :

Fumes from photocopier.

Typewriting correction fluid may be 1,1,1 trichloroethane, which is an ozone-depleting gas and
can also cause breathing problems among staff.

Solvents, printing inks.

One group of chemicals of particular concern are the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). They are
found in a wide range of electrical equipment, such as transformers, capacitors, switches and voltage
regulators, where they are used as insulators. They had been used for many years before it was discovered
that they can cause a number of health-related problems. It has also been found that they are building up in
the food chain because they are not easily biodegradable and that they cause cancer in animals. People
exposed to the compound have complained of symptoms ranging from dizziness, nausea, eye irritation,
bronchitis and digestive problems to more serious ones such as liver damage and chlorance, a painful and
disfiguring skin infection.
Pesticides and herbicides are a group of chemicals used to kill unwanted life forms. They are widely
used in hotels in kitchens, waste storage areas, guest rooms and hotel grounds. While some are harmless,
most can cause a range of health problems in humans and animals including eye, lung, throat and skin
irritation, dermatitis and poisoning. There are also long-term effects such as cancer and birth defects. Many
of these chemicals are inert and build up in the food chain and in water supplies. To safeguard the welfare
of guests and employees and to protect the general environment, where possible these dangerous chemicals
should be phased out or replaced by less hazardous ones. Where this is not possible strict controls over the
storage, use and disposal should be instigated. This requires an undertaking to:

Identify which pesticides and herbicides are being used.

Determine whether their use complies with regulations.

Ensure that the mode of storage, use and disposal safeguards health and the environment.

Assess alternative methods.

Carry out specific checks and actions relating to storage, preparation, application and disposal.
Pesticides and insecticides are used to control:

Mosquitoes

Files

Cockroaches

Ants

Rodents


Garden pests.
Alternatives to pesticides and herbicides include:

Biological control through the introduction of predator species.

Cultural control by traditional good practice,

Physical control using measures such as traps and UV exterminators.

There is a conflict in this aspect of hotel management, because many environmental health officers
are reluctant to sanction alternatives to the use of chemicals for the control of microorganisms and pests in
areas such as kitchens and stores. Where alternatives to chemicals cannot be found, proper management of
the chemicals is essential. Manufacturers and suppliers should provide full details of the hazards associated
with their products. They should also supply precise information relating to storage temperatures and
conditions, first aid requirements, dilution factors for use and dosage rates.
Management should ensure that strict compliance with these rules is always undertaken. It is
essential, for example, that all equipment used for the storage, dilution and application of the chemicals is
unique to those purposes. Food and drink containers should never be used to store the chemicals. Treatment
should be carried out only by competent and trained staff or contractors. Garden spraying work should be
undertaken only when the climatic conditions are correct and when no hazard to life, other than the targeted
species, is possible.
AIR QUALITY
The Significance of Indoor Air Quality
The quality of air inside a building is of great importance because of its effect upon the occupants of
that building, be they employees or guests. The control of this aspect of the environment affects both our
comfort and our wellbeing. We can measure indoor air quality in terms of the proportion of normal air
gases and the concentration of pollutants.

DELHI (INDIA)

What causes poor indoor air quality

The quality of air inside a building cannot be taken for granted. A variety of illnesses have been
traced to indoor air contaminants, where poorly maintained facilities have too often been implicated.
Although health concerns in most facilities are not critical, poor indoor air quality can commonly lead to
comfort complaints, decreased productivity and even poor health. The importance of indoor health quality
can be gauged by the fact that, on average, we spend 90 per cent of our lives indoors while breathing.
The quality of air inside a building is a combination of pollution from the air outside the building,
brought into the building along with the make-up ventilation air, and the pollutants generated from sources
or activities within the building. While external pollution can play a significant part in the eventual indoor
air quality, this chapter deals specifically with internally generated components.
In recent years the increased concern regarding indoor air quality has come primarily from the
widespread use of mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning in modern buildings, with limited direct
ventilation through openable windows. Emphasis on energy conservation has also decreased ventilation.
Global concern over the past 20 years about environmental quality in general, and air quality in
particular, has led also to concern about indoor air quality.

By poor indoor air quality

Health effects associated with poor indoor air quality depend upon the specific pollutants and their
concentration levels. Typical minor symptoms include headaches, mucosal irritation (eyes, nose and
throat), or respiratory discomfort. Severe reactions can include nausea or asphyxiation and prolonged
exposure can lead to various systemic effects of toxic poisoning or to cancer of the lung or other organs. In
general, for hotel guests the main problem is not long-term exposure to poor indoor-air quality, but rather
acute exposure which causes annoyance, irrigation, allergic reactions and other immediate illnesses. For
hotel staff, long-term exposure can be a problem. Ventilation is required to:

Control the concentration of moisture/humidity

Dispose of surplus heat

Remove micro-organisms

Remove vapours, odours and smoke.

Sick building syndrome (SBS) was recognized as an issue of concern by the World Health
Organization in the 1980s, although a number of experts dispute its existence. Although it has been known
in old buildings, it is largely a phenomenon of post war buildings. The World Health Organization
estimates that as many as 30 per cent of new or remodelled buildings have unusually high rates of occupant
health complaints, with real physical symptoms but without clearly identifiable causes. Although often
temporary, SBS can also require long-term investigation and remedial action. It represents a range of
problems, but often related to the common theme of poor ventilation or inadequate control over the indoor
environment. Factors which have been blamed include dust in the air, fumes from photocopiers, chemical
emissions from furnishing fabrics and building materials and emissions from flickering lights and VDU
screens. SBS is usually identified when a number of occupants of the building all suffer from similar
complaints, which are relieved when they leave the building for some time. Symptoms includes rashes,
asthma, allergies, headaches and dizziness.

Potential Sources of Air Pollutants

Air pollution by source

Major sources of air pollution

Many gases and vapours may be found in the environment. They may be toxic, flammable or
explosive. Gases are those materials which exist in the gaseous state at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure. They may be found as fuels (natural gas), in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment (CFCs)
and in specialist equipment used by maintenance staff and contractors. These gases may leak into the
environment through the normal wear and tear of pipes and valves or through faulty maintenance or
operation. They include:
1. Combustion Products: These may include gases (such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulphur dioxide or hydrocarbons) and suspended particulates from boilers, cooking stoves,
vehicles engines in garages and other combustion sources.
2. Chemical Vapours: These may come from cleaning solvents (including those used in dry
cleaning), pesticides, paints and varnishes, photocopier emissions. Vapours often results from
the evaporation of a volatile liquid as found in paints, solvents and dry-cleaning fluids. Many
are toxic at high doses and others, while not highly toxic, may have a narcotic effect.
3. Building Materials: Such materials may include toxic substances, such as formaldehyde in
foam insulation, textile finishes, pressed wood, fibre glass or mineral fibres, plasticizers, etc.
4. Tobacco-smoking Products: People are adversely affected by passive smoking and there is
now a legal requirement on an employer to control this. Building decorations and fittings are
also degraded by smoke. For these reasons, smoking is now banned in most offices and many
hotels have designated areas of the hotel as non-smoking, allowing guests the choice. Most
restaurants have smoking and non-smoking areas, although the effectiveness of this depends
upon the separation distance and the effectiveness of the ventilation systems. Smoking areas
should always be sited nearest to the extract point of the system, and non-smoking areas nearest
to the ventilation inlet. Some restaurants are implementing total no-smoking policies.
5. Radon Gas and Radon Products: These are released by the soil on which the building is
situated or by stone (especially granite), cement or brick building materials
6. Methane Gas: This may come from decomposition of landfill materials if the building is sited
on or near a landfill used for municipal waste or from leaks in the gas distribution system.
7. Water Vapour: In humid climates, high humidity causes occupant discomfort and mildew, with
consequent discoloration and odours, and damage to materials. In climates requiring space
heating, low humidity reduces heating energy efficiency and leads to sore throats and other
irritation. The humidity should be controlled to between 40 per cent and 60 per cent.

8.

Odours: Even at concentrations below those of health concern, pollutants can cause annoying
odours. As well as the chemicals listed above, naturally arising odorus from human activities
(bathrooms, cooking, leisure centres) also contribute to poor indoor-air-quality.
There are also other contaminants in the air, such as:
1. Asbestos: a specific category of material found in older buildings, where it was used as
insulation and as reinforcement in plaster, paint, bitumen, mastic, resins, plastic and cement. It
was also used in ceiling and wall panels and in fire resistant coatings. The danger with asbestos
is that when the fibres are released into the air and inhaled they induce asbestos and cancers.
Where asbestos is found in a building, it requires special attention where it is deteriorating or
when disturbed by repair work-Where this is suspected, consultants should be brought in to
inspect and report on the condition of the asbestos Wherein a dangerous state, the asbestos may
be removed or encapsulated. The removal process requires total isolation of the affected part of
the building until it has been declared free of the fibres,
2. Dust or Particulate Matter: Introduced with outside air or from internal activities, these may
also contain micro organisms and can be irritants, particularly to people with allergies or
respiratory weaknesses. They can damage equipment and decor and will increase cleaning
requirements. Airborne dust is a common contaminant of air supplies. Dust enters the building
through open windows, ventilators and on the clothes of people, and it can be associated with
certain food supplies and as a result of building and maintenance work. While most dust is
harmless, it can cause irritation and discomfort. Some dusts are harmful, particularly to
sufferers of illnesses such as asthma and bronchitis.
3. Airborne micro-organisms: Such organisms as Legionnella pneumophilia are primarily
associated with moisture in air-conditioning and ventilation systems. Droplet infection is an
issue in inadequately ventilated and crowded places. It has been discussed in earlier chapter.
Improving Indoor Air Quality

Novabreeze
Improve your
indoor air quality
with a Novapure
Novabreeze induct air
purification system
the only in-duct
system combining
three advanced
technologies to
improve indoor air
quality.
The Novabreeze
System uses
advanced
ultraviolet light
and photocatalytic
technology to
reduce harmful
molds, bacteria,
viruses and VOCs
in your indoor air.
These two leading
edge technologies
work with
advanced
photocatalytic
filtration to effect a
noticeable
improvement in
your indoor air.
You are familiar
with indoor
intruders. You
know the ones -bacteria and
viruses from
sneezing, spores
brought into your
home by your
pets, or through
open windows.
Volatile organic
chemicals from
your carpets,
drapes, floors and

cleaners. All of these intruders are allergenic, wreaking havoc with your familys immune systems.
Novapure Novabreeze installs in the cold air return duct of your home furnace and irradiates the
return air with powerful ultraviolet (UVC) light. UVC has been used for decades in hospitals to
disinfect equipment because it kills and/or deactivates bacteria, viruses and mold. UVC does not
leave any residues or create any toxins to be released into the home environment. Because the
UV light shines on the interior of your cold air return duct, residents cannot be exposed.

How does it work?

Your furnace circulates air throughout your home. On cool days, the circulated air is heated. Cool
air (along with air-borne dust particles, mold spores, bacteria and viruses) is returned to the
furnace through the cold air return duct. As the air flows past the UVC light (on its way to the filter
and fan) it is irradiated. The UVC light kills some of the biological contaminants. The air then
travels through the filter, where dust and contaminants are trapped. With each pass through the
return duct, more contaminants are killed and the air in the home becomes cleaner. For those
residents that suffer from allergies or asthma, the lowered level of airborne contaminants allows
their immune system to recover and often results in reduced usage of inhalers or puffers.
Novabreeze continually maintains a low level of contaminants in the home air.

New Technology!
Unique for indoor air quality systems, Novabreeze includes the Novabreeze Air Optimizer
photocatalytic reactor and can be combined with the optional Dust Scrubber catalytic furnace
filters. Novabreeze Air Optimizer and Dust Scrubber filters both feature a highly reactive surface
that, in the presence of UV light, breaks down volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) effectively.
VOCs are continually released by your carpets, floors, drapes and various other materials and
fluids in your home. VOCs can trigger asthma in sensitive individuals.

Does Novabreeze remove all the airborne contaminants?

Novabreeze and Novabreeze Air Optimizer will lower the levels of bacteria, viruses, mold spores
and VOCs, allowing the immune systems of sensitive people to recover. This reduces allergy and
asthma symptoms. Since the home is not a closed system there will always be a certain level of
airborne biological contaminants (e.g., spores continually introduced from the outdoors through
open windows, doors and incoming guests and pets). Novabreeze works to continually remove
these unwelcome home intruders.

Does Novabreeze use a lot of power?

Novabreeze consumes only 18 watts of power amounting to an additional power cost of less than
$19 per year, based on current market power rates.

Does Novabreeze require maintenance?

The UVC bulb should be replaced yearly. It should also be wiped clean when your furnace filter is
changed. Your dealer can offer maintenance services.

Does Novabreeze release any harmful substances?

No. Unlike other types of air purifiers and devices, the unit does not release toxic ozone

("activated oxygen") or toxic chemicals.

The objective of an indoor air quality programme is to safeguard the health and welfare of both
guests and employees while on the hotel premises by adopting air quality objectives and standards,
establishing procedures for dealing with specific indoor air quality problems, and carrying out routine
maintenance procedures. Monitoring indoor air quality is a technical matter, and if the company does not
have the necessary exercise and equipment in-house, it may be that an outside company or consultant is
required.
The first stage in establishing an indoor air quality improvement programme is to carry out an initial
screening of air quality to identify any major air quality problems. This can be based on comments from
employees and guests and may also require sampling for routine air-quality indicators. Comments from
staff and employees should be analysed to look for any pattern connecting locations in the hotel, time of
day or time of year. Any repeated pattern may indicate a systematic problem concerning the operation of
the building.
Making single measurements of air-quality indices can be misleading since the air quality will vary
throughout the day and also be affected by seasonal factors. For this reason, snapshot measurement often
does not represent a valid picture of the indoor air quality level. For example, hotel areas affected by
vehicle exhaust gases from the garage will have higher pollutant levels when garage traffic is greatest. Any
measurements should take account of variations related to the time of day or year.
Initial screening should include the following:

Carbon monoxide: a measure of ineffective combustion of fossil fuels.

Carbon dioxide: results from human metabolism and will build up in overcrowded or
underventilated areas of the building.

Humidity; resulting from human activity, cooking, leisure centres together with over- and
underventilated buildings.

Particulate or dust: nearby traffic or industry, building and maintenance work.

Ozone: associated with fluorescent lights and photocopiers

Legionella: cooling towers and air-conditioning systems.

Where other problems are suspected, this can be extended to include chemicals such as nicotine,
organics, formaldehyde and radon.
Further diagnostic studies may be required to identify sources and specific corrective action and the
assistance of a technical consultant may be necessary. Where building work or renovation is taking place in
the hotel, the contractors should be involved in the indoor air quality programme to ensure that any
disruption to the air quality of guests and employees is mimized. Where building work may involve the
disturbance or removal of asbestos, there are specific health and safety requirements.

Once the problems have been identified, there are three basic approaches to improving indoor air
quality:
1. Eliminate or reduce the pollutant source, perhaps adjusting the time of use in which the
pollutant is generated.
2. Filter or purify the air.
3. Ventilate or dilute pollutants.
Costs
The cost of an indoor air quality programme will depend upon the nature of the problems. In some
cases there may be a small financial implication, such as increased maintenance costs because of the need
to replace air filters more frequently or to use a higher grade of filter. Other maintenance costs may include
the adjustment of air supplies to boilers and catering equipment to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. The
cost of building work may be increased by the need to bring in specialist contractors to strip out asbestos
before the building work can commence.
On the plus side, an efficient indoor air quality programme will reduce the costs of cleaning air
diffusers, improve lifetimes of materials within the hotel and reduce potential complaints and claims
against the hotel. Guest comfort and satisfaction, as well as employee productivity, will improve.
Evaluation
There should be a periodic evaluation built into the indoor air quality programme. This should
include monitoring of complaints from guests and employees and how they are handed. There should be
routine checks of indoor air quality indices through inspection and/or measurement to ensure continued
compliance with standards. Customer and staff surveys should also be used to measure their opinions on
the effectiveness of the indoor air quality programme.
Vehicles should be checked for emissions of CO, Nox and visible smoke. Use of pesticides in the
gardens and grounds should be controlled and used only where absolutely essential. Staff using these
chemicals should be trained in their use and safe disposal.
Heating and Ventilation
Thermal comfort is usually associated with air temperature, relative humidity and air movement.
Ventilation is required both to provide oxygen for breathing and combustion and to remove contaminants
such as smoke, smells and carbon dioxide. In situations where natural ventilation does not provide an
adequate exchanges of stale air from within a room with fresh air, mechanical ventilation will be required.
Mechanical ventilation may be provided to draw fresh air indoors (inlet), to remove stale air from indoors
(extraction), or a combination of both inlet and extraction ventilation. In a modern building it is likely that
inlet and extraction will take place through a ducting system (often referred to as a plenum) providing
heating ventilation and air-conditioning. For existing buildings, additional air-conditioning can be provided
using a packaged unit designed to fit on an external window or wall.
In addition to general room ventilation, localized ventilation, in the form of a canopy, will be required
for some catering and laundry equipment.
The rate of ventilation, often measured in terms of air changes per hour, depends upon factors such as
the number of people in the room, the nature of their activity and the potential contamination of the air
caused by activities taking place in the room. This can vary from one air change per hour in bedrooms and
public rooms up to twenty changes per hour in kitchens and laundries. Particularly where toxic materials
are released (combustion products in a kitchen, dry-cleaning and other fluids in a laundry department),
there is a requirement to ensure that the ventilation can remove these materials and that they are discharged
in such a way as not to cause an additional hazard. For details please read next chapter.
NOISE
Noise is a result of the development of society and related activities in industrialization, population,
traffic and other human activities, It is as much an environmental issue as pollution of water, air and soil.
Over time, naturally present sound levels have been raised to increasingly higher levels to the point where
it appears that we have reached an irreversible pollution level of noise.

It is normal for people, particularly in cities and other artificial environments, to be constantly
surrounded by noise. We can define noise as being any kind of sound that people consider undesirably
disturbing, bothering or annoying and which can have a number of detrimental effects, including damage to

health. This varies from noise within the workplace resulting from equipment and activities to noise in a
leisure context from background music, traffic and the activities and noise of people themselves
Noise can be spread from one part of a building to another through transmission of vibrations along
building structures. The effect of noise can vary from a minor distraction at low levels to a severe health
hazard for those exposed to very high levels or to lower levels but for a long period.
The health hazard resulting from noise is related to the intensity of the noise, is frequency and the
duration of the exposure. The intensity of the noise is measured in terms of the decibel (dB) or sometimes
pressure, in which case the unit is the Pascal (Pa). A level of 0 dB represents a sound threshold level, with a
working area such as an office having a sound level of 40 dB and a jet engine 160 dB. When looking at
measurements of sound intensity using the decibel it must be remembered that this is a logarithmic scale
and therefore a small increase in the measured decibels can mean a large increase in the magnitude of the
sound. For example, a sound intensity of 80 dB is ten times greater than one of 70 dB and a hundred times
greater than one of 60 dB. A normal home environment may have a background level of 40 dB and an
office 50-60 dB. In a city centre, the noise may rise to 70 dB and a passing heavy goods vehicle 90 dB at a
distance of 15m.
There are many sources of noise:

Traffic, e.g. road, rail, air

Construction

Industry and production

Other human activities including entertainment and sport.

In an industrialized or densely populated country we are constantly exposed to noise, which is present
day and night at different levels. It affects people at work, at home, while travelling and while at leisure or
on vacation. It must be realized that what is noise to some people may result from the leisure activity of
others, such as the noise of a disco, a car engine or a motorcycle. Also, noise is relative: someone
attempting to sleep in a hotel room may be much more aware of noise than if the same person were reading
or dressing.
The Effects of Noise
In addition to being an irritant, noise can have physical and psychological effects on people. Physical
effects depend upon the sound level and the duration of the exposure, but typical effects are:
Sound level: 65-120 dB
High blood pressure
Digestion problems, ulcers
Migraines
Depression
Sleeplessness
Neurasthenia
Circulatory disturbances
Irritability
Sound level: 85-120 dB
Hearing damage
Sound level: >130 dB
Direct, immediate damage to ear and deafness.
Particularly when considering employees, we must differentiate between constant exposure and
intermittent exposure, All-day exposure to 90 dB may cause hearing impairment in a proportion of
employees, whereas a level of over 100 dB may not cause damage if the exposure is for less than 15
minutes,
In addition to these physical effects on people, there can be psychological and physiological effects
such as disturbed communications, distraction from concentration, the impediment of creative thinking,
making people tired, creating or adding to stress, disturbing sleep, inducing bad moods and causing people
to be aggressive and less productive. There can also be a reduction in the quality of life if an inadequate

environment fails to facilitate recovery from stress at work. Also, when on vacation or in leisure time, noise
can result in a significantly reduced level of enjoyment.
There are also financial consequences resulting from excess noise levels, since they can reduce the
value of property, decrease employee productivity and efficiency and lead to a loss of business through
repeat business and word-of-mouth recommendations. Noise from the hotel can also have a negative impact
on the local community.
Sensitivity to sound depends upon a number of factors:

Age

Sex

Mood

Present condition and health

Present level of stress

Time of day

Present Activity

Acoustic factors

Understanding the necessity of the noise

Ability to control source

Expectation of quality of the environment

Attitude towards source

Education and training

A Programme for Tackling Noise
Quiet is the condition in which human beings generally feel well and in which they can relax,
recover, rest or concentrate. Since the main objective of any hotel is to provide the best environment
possible for its guests, a reasonably low sound level throughout the guest areas is extremely important.
Equally important is the desired degree of privacy provided by a low level of sound transmission between
adjoining rooms. Noise control will also improve employees general well-being and productivity.
Objectives of the action plan are to:

Eliminate or minimize noise to create and maintain a suitable environment for guests and
employees.

Prevent or minimise adverse psychological, physiological or physical effects to guests and

employees.

Prevent annoyance of third parties (neighbours, tenants).

Minimize possible revenue loss caused by annoyed guests who may decide not to return.
In a hotel which is being designed, care should be taken to physically separate, as far as is possible,
noise-producing activities from noise-sensitive ones. Where physical separation is not possible structures
must be incorporated into the design which prevent the transmission of sound. Noise-producing areas
include:

Kitchens

Laundries

Compressors, fans and mechanical plant

Delivery and refuse areas

Incinerators and boilers

Compactors

Ballrooms, function suites and discos

Bars and cocktail lounges

Lobbies

Public toilets

Swimming pools and leisure centres


Outdoor recreation areas
Areas sensitive to noise include:

Bedrooms

Meeting rooms

Conference halls.
In an existing hotel a noise audit should be the first step. This requires the identification of all
possible sources of noise in the hotel, both interior and exterior, and the provision of a summary of known
problems, partially based on an analysis of complaints. Noise can be tackled partly by changes in
procedures, but investment in noise control may be necessary.
Measures to avoid noise will depend upon the specific problems identified, but could include the
following:

Determine day of week/time of day during which noisy work can be carried out.

Plan so that any known noisy activities coincide, leaving more quiet time.

Determine maximum sound levels within guest rooms for telephone ring, TV, radio and music
sound levels and set accordingly.

Use telephone wake-up calls rather than alarm clocks.

Determine necessity for public paging and set restrictions for time of day and location.

Set schedules and maximum sound levels for musical entertainment in public areas for each
outlet.

Evaluate effects of noisy functions on guest room sound levels, especially when they take place
at night.

Consider relocation/elimination of disturbing night clubs and discos.

Investigate causes of frequent false fire alarms and take remedial action.

Check if better maintenance can reduce sound levels of elevators.

Check that all doors are kept continuously closed, as appropriate.

Insist that ear protectors are worn by employees/ contractors involved in noisy work.

Install time clocks for noisy ice machines on guest room floors, to switch them off at night.
Investing in Noise Control
When a sound wave strikes the surface of a material it may be reflected back, absorbed by the surface
or transmitted through the material. This information can be used to control sound. We can contain sound
by surrounding the source of the sound with reflective or absorbent material. Alternatively, we can build
breaks into the structure of the building to prevent or damp transmission. Active measures are aimed at
reducing the noise at source. These are the most effective and cheapest ways and may require new
plant/major renovation/equipment replacement, such as:

Installing quieter motors and transmissions

Specially stiffened equipment structures

Damping

Low flow velocities

Well-designed ducts to prevent sound transmission from noisy areas to quiet areas through the
ducting.
As sound can be carried through structures of the building, such as walls, ducting and paperwork it
may be necessary to change some of the structural aspects in order to introduce a reduction of sound
transmission by structure, ducting and piping. Vibration can be a major source of noise transmission.
Where possible, it should be controlled at source by, for example:

Encapsulation at source.

Enclosure of either the equipment or the entrance to the room with highly sound-absorbing
materials.

Providing access to enclosures via easy-to-open and close hatches.

Ensuring better construction of plant rooms, with noise-emitting sources isolated.


Using sound-absorbent inner walls (mineral wool, fibre-glass, rubber).

Mounting noise attenuators on any cooling air opening.

Isolating equipment in machines, through rubber mountings.

Providing reinforced foundations for heavy equipment.

Using special damping material, such as elastic panel mounting.

Passive measures can also be effective. These are aimed at protecting the recipients ear. This can be
done by the erection of sound barrier constructions which can reduce the transmission of sound. These
measures must be taken whenever the emission source cannot be controlled and is at a level which cannot
be influenced (e.g. aircraft, traffic and train) They should also be used where noise created in the hotel
travels to undesirable areas.
The major decisions that determine the quality and quantity of noise in the hotel are made at the time
of construction, Four factors play a major role.
1. Location and position of the hotel (influenced by owner)
2. Location of major noise sources in relation to other spaces requiring quiet (influenced by the
architect).
3. Quality and design of construction, such as materials, routing of pipes and ducts, isolation
techniques used (influenced by architect and engineers).
4. Quality of workmanship, such as sealing around pipes and ducting (influenced by the
contractor).
However, considerable improvements can be made afterwards through:

All measures listed above.

Better windows (also have benefit of improving thermal insulation).

Closing all openings found in walls, ceilings or floor.

Installing gaskets, drop seals and automatic door closers on guest room door.

Replacing noisy fan coils by efficient quiet types.

Mini-bars to be supplied with absorber refrigerators rather than compression.

Replacing toilet flush valves with quiet flush tank

Providing sound-absorbing barrier underneath bathtub

Checking if sockets in adjoing rooms are offset.

Providing a quiet hairdryer.

LIGHT
Lighting is normally provided by a mixture of artificial lighting and daylight. The intensity of light
which falls on a surface is expressed in terms of the illuminance, which is a measure of density of light on
an area of a surface. The unit of illuminance is the lux or lumen/m2. For staff carrying out detailed work,
illuminance values of between 500 and 1000 lux are recommended, but this reduces to 200-300 lux for
non-detailed work. Other areas, such as corridors and public areas, require between 100 and 250 lux. In
bedrooms, the important factor is to provide ample localized control over lighting, allowing the guest full
control.
In addition to its intensity, light is also categorized by its wavelength. Different forms of artificial
light have different spectral distribut;ons or colous. The colour of lighting can be important in food
preparation and service areas, since some types of artificial lighting can distort the colour of foods. The
colour of light is often measured in terms of the colour temperature. As the colour temperature increases,
the colour of the light changes from orange/ yellow to white. In the case of fluorescent lighting, the
situation is more complex because the light produced has a more complex distribution of wavelengths. For
this reason, it is important to test types of fluorescent lighting with furnishings, crockery and food items to
check for any undesirable colour distortion.
Other important factors are the direction of the lighting and whether it is focused, such as from a
spotlight, or diffused. This is particularly important in lounge areas where a variety of activities will take
place including relaxation, reading and holding conversations.
Effective levels of lighting are important because they:


Add to the comfort experienced by the guest.

Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of employees.

Decrease the risk of accidents to guests and employees.

An excess of artificial lighting, or the absence of effective localized control over lighting levels, can
lead to excessive energy consumption.
NON-IONIZING RADIATION
Most forms of radiation form a health hazard but, in terms of hotel operations, there are only a
limited number of sources of radiation, typically from microwave ovens (microwave radiation), lasers in
printers (visible tradition) and sun beds (ultra-violet radiation), Ionizing radiation, usually associated with
radioactivity, is not commonly found in the hotel industry, other than emissions of radon from certain types
of building materials.

Microwaves are a type of emission known as non-ionizing radiation. With non-ionizing radiation, the
harmful effects are thought to be due mainly to the thermal effects resulting from the fact that the radiation
causes a heating effect. The eyes are particularly sensitive and exposure can result in a symptom similar to
a cataract. Routine measurements of radiation leakage from microwave ovens should be included in
maintenance contracts. Most leakage occurs around overn door seals, particularly if spillages of food are
allowed to accumulate. The recommended maximum exposure level is 100 W/m2.
Lasers can cause damage to the retina of the eye as well as burning of the skin. Most commercial
sound equipments and office printers which use lasers have sufficient protection for the normal users, but
staff must be trained not to carry out anything other than routine maintenance as described in the
manufacturers handbook. Any repairs should be undertaken by individuals who have received specialized
training.
Ultra-violet radiation can cause burning of the skin, skin cancer and damage to the eyes. There are
three categories of UV radiation, based on the wavelength of radiation:
UV A 400-315 nm
UV B 315-280 nm
UV C 280-100 nm.
In relation to sun beds, staff operating this equipment should be given strict training covering the
hazards associated with, and operational controls related to, specific pieces of equipment.
QUESTIONS FOR ANSWER
1. Write a note on chemical hazards in hotel industry and explain how this can be minimized.
2. Write a note on the significance of indoor air quality in hotels. Also explain sources of our
pollutants and the steps for improving indoor air quality,
3. Discuss nature and effects of noise pollution. Also write, a note on the programme for tackling
noise pollution in hotels,
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Non-ionizing radiation.
(b) Light and environment
(c) Need and significance of indoor environmental study.