1.drowsy Driver Detection and Alerts

A
Project Report
On
PREVENTION OF VEHICLE ACCIDENT USING EYE BLINK SENSOR
Submitted on
Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Award of B.Tech
In
B.TECH ELECTRONIC AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED
BY
S.HEMANTH REDDY
(117Y1A0451)
R.PHANINDHAR GOUD
(117Y1A0439)
M.ARUN REDDY
(117Y1A0431)
Under the guidance of
Mrs.LAKSHMI KALA,M.TECH
Assistant Professor, Dept. Of ECE
Marri Laxman Reddy

Institute of Technology & Management
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU-Hyderabad) Dundigal, Ranga Reddy
District, Hyderabad-500055
Marri Laxman Reddy

Institute of Technology & Management
(Approved by AICTE ,New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU-Hyderabad)
Dundigal, Ranga Reddy District, Hyderabad-500055
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled PREVENTION OF VEHICLE
ACCIDENT USING EYE BLINK SENSOR Being submitted by
S.HEMANTHREDDY (117Y1A0451) ,R.PHANINDHAR GOUD
(117Y1A0439),M.ARUN REDDY(117Y1A0431) in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of B.Tech Electronic and communication
Engineering From Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology & Management
During the course, training his performance has been found satisfactory.
Internal Guide
External Examiner
(HOD, ECE Dept.)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude to my institution at Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology

& Management, Dundigal and our beloved principal Mr.K.Venkateswara Reddy for providing
us means of attaining our most cherished goals.
I would like to thank Mr.K.N.BHUSHAN, Head of the Department of B.Tech in

Electronics & Communication Engineering for providing an opportunity to carry out
this project along with his guidance, and moral support throughout my project work.
I feel glad to say that my Internal guide Mrs.LAKSHMI KALA supported me a lot in
completing my project successfully. I am thankful for his moral support and constant encouragement
I am extremely thankful to all my departmental staff members for the extreme help throughout
my project. I am thankful to department non-teaching staff for their constant help and made my task
easier.
S.HEMANTH REDDY
(117Y1A0451)
R.PHANINDHAR GOUD
(117Y1A0439)
M.ARUN REDDY
(117Y1A0431)
ABSTRACT
PREVENTION OF VEHICLE ACCIDENT USING EYE BLINK
SENSOR
Now a day's every system is automated in order to face new challenges. In the present days
Automated systems have less manual operations, flexibility, reliability and accurate. Due to this
demand every field prefers automated control systems. Especially in the field of electronics automated
systems are giving good performance.
The main aim of this project is to alert the vehicle driver to avoid accidents when the driver
was detected drowsy or by using Eye blink sensor. As this project uses the Eye blink sensor, alcohol
sensor technology, so that the vehicle driver and owner gets alerts as the vehicle speed is reduced and
alerts through buzzer alarm system.
The system uses eye blink sensor and reduces the vehicle speed and alerts through buzzer
alarm system. This project is designed around a microcontroller which forms the control unit of the
project.
This project makes use of a micro controller, which is programmed, with the help of
embedded C instructions. This Microcontroller is capable of communicating with input and output
modules. The Eye blink sensor provides the information to the Microcontroller (on board computer).
The controller is interfaced with Buzzer, and DC Motor
INDEX
TOPICS
Certificates
Acknowledgement........
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of the project

1.2 Project overview...
1.3 Thesis
CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
2.1 Introduction to embedded systems

2.2 Need of embedded systems...
2.3 Explanation of embedded systems...
2.4 Applications of embedded systems
CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction with block diagram

3.2 Microcontroller.
3.3 Regulated power supply...
3.4 LED indicator........
3.5 Eye blink sensor....
3.6 DC motor...
3.7 Buzzer.
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 Express PCB

4.2 PIC C Compiler.
CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION
CHAPTER 6: SOURCE CODE
CHAPTER 7:ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 8: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
Now a day's every system is automated in order to face new challenges. In the present days
Automated systems have less manual operations, flexibility, reliability and accurate. Due to this
demand every field prefers automated control systems. Especially in the field of electronics automated
systems are giving good performance.
project.
The controller is interfaced with Buzzer, and DC Motor.
Features:
1. Can be easily monitored.
2. Ease in understanding the working module.
3. Easy to operate.
4. Low power consumption
Project Overview:
An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a
dedicated task. Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they

simply accept the inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts
the data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data
and thus finally gives the result.
The project Eye blink detection with buzzer alerts and Vehicle (DC Motor)
Control System using PIC16F877A microcontroller is an exclusive project which is used to detect
the drowsiness detection and alerts through buzzer alarm alerts.
1.3 Thesis:
The thesis explains the implementation of Eye blink detection with buzzer alerts and
Vehicle (DC Motor) Control System using PIC16F877A microcontroller. The organization of the
thesis is explained here with:
Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the project
overview a brief introduction of eye blink sensor, Buzzer, DC motors, and its applications are
discussed.
Chapter 2
Presents the topic embedded systems. It explains the about what is embedded systems,
need for embedded systems, explanation of it along with its applications.

Chapter 3
Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram of the project and
explains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the explanation of microcontrollers, eye blink
sensor, Buzzer, DC motors, power supplies, and DC motors with driver are considered.
Chapter 4 Presents the software description. It explains the implementation of the project using PIC
C Compiler software.
Chapter 5 Presents the project description along with eye blink sensor, Buzzer, DC motors with
driver, interfacing to microcontroller.
Chapter 6 Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the project.
Chapter 7 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the project.
CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Embedded Systems:
An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few
dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete
device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such
as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs.
Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.
Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is
being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful processors. For example,
air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they involve mainframe
computers and dedicated regional and national networks between airports and radar sites. (Each radar
probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.)
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize
it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some
embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.
Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to
very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems have
some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power
them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover,
even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need to support
software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems
will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one or
a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern example of
embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.
Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded
systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually
chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make
things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory, while
at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of
issues specific to the embedded field.
2.1.1 History:
In the earliest years of computers in the 193040s, computers were
sometimes dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for
most kinds of tasks performed by embedded computers of today. Over time
however, the concept of programmable controllers evolved from
traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the use of
computer technology.
One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was
the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT
Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance

computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed
the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and
weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17
guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built
from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman
II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that
was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.
2.1.2 Tools:
Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's also a
large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the
Unix world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more expensive. It also
means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major embedded project, at some point
you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs on
your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program
difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part. However, if you stop
on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent
equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded programming quickly become
masters at using serial IO channels and error message style debugging.
2.1.3 Resources:
To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can do
the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing with
large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can hurt you.
Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and optimize only
when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same reason debuggers don't
work well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems usually
have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory efficient
(unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for memory, rather than the
reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded applications generally use
deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc" functions, so that leaks
can be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources programmers expect may not even exist.
For example, most embedded processors do not have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing
Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in software, or avoided altogether.
2.1.4 Real Time Issues:
Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to them
in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage hardware such
as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available. Almost all embedded
systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority
tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.
2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new products
are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years,
hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So
when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own
custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs
far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that
"writing your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation viewpoint,
there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often
required to provide Real-Time response. The main elements that make embedded systems unique are
its reliability and ease in debugging.
2.2.1 Debugging:
Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities
available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the following areas:
Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded operating
system (e.g. Forth and Basic)
External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a
monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.
An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via a
JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled
externally, but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the processor.
An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent, providing full
control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to
be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software
through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The
view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements, the
debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and microprocessor) centric
embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the processing is
performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of embedded systems
today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with multi-core development is
the proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the embedded system design may
wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires very lowlevel debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.
2.2.2 Reliability:
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for
years without errors and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. Therefore the
software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair. Examples
include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems, and
automobiles.
The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable. Often
backups are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor control
systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-engine
aircraft.
The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches, factory
controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making, automated sales and
service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors
both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:
Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the watchdog
Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
software "limp modes" that provide partial function
Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly secure &
reliable system environment
An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem

component, so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other
subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from
propagating from one subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
Immunity Aware Programming
2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:
There are several different types of software architecture in common use.
Simple Control Loop:
In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of
which manages a part of the hardware or software.
Interrupt Controlled System:
Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupting controlled. This means that
tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be
generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a
byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the event handlers are
short and simple.
Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not
very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue
structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop.
This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
Cooperative Multitasking:
A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop

scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each
task gets its own environment to run in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called
pause, wait, yield, nop (stands for no operation), etc.The advantages and disadvantages are
very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new
task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.
Primitive Multitasking:
In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads
based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally
considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it
introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in
parallel.
As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems
using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be
controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking
synchronization scheme.
Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time
operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather
than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the
overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding memory size,
performance, and/or battery life.
Microkernels And Exokernels:
A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that
the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution.
User mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc.
In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask communication
is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls.
The hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and extensible by application
programmers. Based on performance, functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided
into three categories:
2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:
These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces desired
output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in standalone mode.
Such embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded systems
Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..
2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:
Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a specific
time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types of real-time
embedded systems.
Hard Real-time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the tasking is
not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire equipment.
Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this valve is
not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use
embedded systems for doing automatic operations.
Soft Real Time embedded systems:
These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e.., if the task is not done in a
particular time that will not cause damage to the equipment.
Eg: Consider a TV remote control system , if the remote control takes a few milliseconds delay it will
not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when
they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-time embedded systems.
2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded systems.
Eg:
Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to
spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer
with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.
Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to
the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with
image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock just by clicking the
mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications in embedded systems.
Fig 2.2:
Network
communication
embedded
systems
2.3.5 Different
types of
processing units:
The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following microprocessor,
microcontroller, digital signal processing.
Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage of
microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication interfaces, analog
to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of external
components that are connected to it are very less according to the application.
Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major applications
with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires many external
components like memory, serial communication, hard disk, input output ports etc.., so the
power consumption is also very high when compared to microcontrollers.
Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved with
processing of signals
2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:
At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven,
remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc.
Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

2.4.2 Office automation:
We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc
Fig2.4: Fax machine
Fig2.5: Printing machine
2.4.3. Industrial automation:
Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In industries
we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring temperature,
pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels we do control other
devices, we can send information to a centralized monitoring station.
Fig2.6: Robot
In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use robots which
are programmed to do a specific operation.
2.4.5 Computer networking:

Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..
Fig2.7: Computer networking
CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:
FIG 3.1:
Block diagram of Automatic Vehicle (DC Motor) Control System based on eye blink
sensor with buzzer alerts

The main blocks of this project are:
1. Micro controller (16F877A)
2. Crystal oscillator
3. Regulated power supply (RPS)
4. LED Indicator
5. Eye blink sensor
6. DC motor with driver
7. Buzzer
3.2 Micro controller:
Fig: 3.2 Microcontrollers

3.2.1 Introduction to Microcontrollers:
Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had their
beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made it
possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a prerequisite for
production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding external peripherals such
as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of the volume of the package
resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits contained both processor and
peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer, or what would later be known as a
microcontroller came about.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded
systems products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller
has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer
embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and
number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications
in which cost and space are critical.
The microcontroller used in this project is PIC16F877A. The PIC families of
microcontrollers are developed by Microchip Technology Inc. Currently they are some of the most
popular microcontrollers, selling over 120 million devices each year. There are basically four families
of PIC microcontrollers:
PIC12CXXX 12/14-bit program word
PIC 16C5X 12-bit program word
PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX 14-bit program word
PIC17CXXX and PIC18CXXX 16-bit program word
The features, pin description of the microcontroller used are discussed in the
following sections.
3.2.2 Description:
Introduction to PIC Microcontrollers:
PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller given by Microchip Technology to
identify its single-chip microcontrollers. These devices have been very successful in 8-bit
microcontrollers. The main reason is that Microchip Technology has continuously upgraded the
device architecture and added needed peripherals to the microcontroller to suit customers'
requirements. The development tools such as assembler and simulator are freely available on the
internet at www.microchip.com
Low - end PIC Architectures:
Microchip PIC microcontrollers are available in various types. When PIC
microcontroller MCU was first available from General Instruments in early 1980's, the
microcontroller consisted of a simple processor executing 12-bit wide instructions with basic I/O
functions. These devices are known as low-end architectures. They have limited program memory and
are meant for applications requiring simple interface functions and small program & data memories.
Some of the low-end device numbers are
12C5XX
16C5X
16C505
Mid range PIC Architectures:
Mid range PIC architectures are built by upgrading low-end architectures with more number of
peripherals, more number of registers and more data/program memory. Some of the mid-range
devices are
16C6X
16C7X
16F87X
Program memory type is indicated by an alphabet.
C = EPROM, F = Flash, RC = Mask ROM
Popularity of the PIC microcontrollers is due to the following factors.
1. Speed: Harvard Architecture, RISC architecture, 1 instruction cycle = 4 clock cycles.
2. Instruction set simplicity: The instruction set consists of just 35 instructions (as opposed to 111
instructions for 8051).
3. Power-on-reset and brown-out reset. Brown-out-reset means when the power supply goes
below a specified voltage (say 4V), it causes PIC to reset; hence malfunction is avoided. A
watch dog timer (user programmable) resets the processor if the software/program ever
malfunctions and deviates from its normal operation.
4. PIC microcontroller has four optional clock sources.
Low power crystal
Mid range crystal
High range crystal
RC oscillator (low cost).
5. Programmable timers and on-chip ADC.

6. Up to 12 independent interrupt sources.
7. Powerful output pin control (25 mA (max.) current sourcing capability per pin.)
8. EPROM/OTP/ROM/Flash memory option.
9. I/O port expansion capability.
CPU Architecture:
The CPU uses Harvard architecture with separate Program and Variable (data) memory interface.
This facilitates instruction fetch and the operation on data/accessing of variables simultaneously.
Architecture of PIC microcontroller
Fig.3.2.3.Architecture of PIC microcontroller

Basically, all PIC microcontrollers offer the following features:
RISC instruction set with around 35 instructions _9 Digital I/O ports
On-chip timer with 8-bit prescaler.
Power-on reset
Watchdog timer
Power saving SLEEP mode
Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes
External clock interface
RAM data memory
EPROM (or OTP) program memory
Peripheral features:
High sink/source current 25mA
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler can be incremented during sleep via external
crystal/clock
Timer2:8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register prescaler and post scalar.
Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module
Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5ns
Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns
PWM max, resolution is 10-bit
8-bit 5 channel analog-to-digital converter
Synchronous serial port (SSP) with SPI (Master/Slave) and (Slave)
Some devices offer the following additional features:
Analogue input channels
Analogue comparators
Additional timer circuits
EEPROM data memory
Flash EEPROM program memory
External and timer interrupts
In-circuit programming
Internal oscillator
User interface
3.2.4 Pin Diagram:
Fig.3.2.4.PIN
DIAGRAM OF
PIC16F877
Pic16f877 is a 40
pin
microcontroller. It
has 5 ports port A,
port B, port C,
port D, port E. All
the pins of the
ports are for
interfacing input
output devices.
Port A: It consists
of 6 pins from A0
to A5
Port B: It consists of 8 pins from B0 to B7
Port C: It consists of 8 pins from C0 to C7
Port D: It consists of 8 pins from D0 to D7
Port E: It consists of 3 pins from E0 to E2
The rest of the pins are mandatory pins these should not be used to connect input/output devices.
Pin 1 is MCLR (master clear pin) pin also referred as reset pin.
Pin 13, 14 are used for crystal oscillator to connect to generate a frequency of about 20MHz.
Pin 11, 12 and31, 32 are used for voltage supply Vdd(+)and Vss(-)
PIC 16F877A Specification:
RAM
368 bytes
EEPROM
256 bytes
Flash Program Memory
8k words
Operating Frequency
DC to 20MHz
I/O port
Port A,B,C,D,E
This is the specification for PIC16F877A from Microchip. A single microcontroller
which is very brilliant and useful. Also this microcontroller is very easy to be assembled, program and
also the price is very cheap. It cost less than 10 dollar. The good thing is that single unit can be
purchased at that 10 dollar price. Unlike some other Integrated Circuit that must be bought at a
minimum order quantity such as 1000 units or 2000 units or else you wont be able to purchase it.
One unit of PIC16F877A microcontroller can be programmed and erased so many times.
Some said about 10 000 times. If you are doing programming and downloading your code into the
PIC 20 times a day that means you can do that for 500 days which is more than a year!
The erasing time is almost unnoticeable because once new program are loaded into the PIC,
the old program will automatically be erased immediately. During my time of Degree study, I did not
use PIC but I use other type of microcontroller. I have to wait for about 15 to 30 minutes to erase the
EEPROM before I can load a new program and test the microcontroller. One day I can only modify
my code and test it for less than 10 times. 10x15 minutes = 150 minutes.
RAM:
PIC16F877A already made with 368 bytes of Random Access Memory (RAM) inside it. Any
temporary variable storage that we wrote in our program will be stored inside the RAM. Using this
microcontroller you dont need to buy any external RAM.
EEPROM:
256 bytes of EEPROM are available also inside this microcontroller. This is very useful to
store information such as PIN Number, Serial Number and so on. Using EEPROM is very important
because data stored inside EEPROM will be retained when power supply is turn off. RAM did not
store data permanently. Data inside RAM is not retained when power supply is turn off.
The size of program code that can be stored is about 8k words inside PIC16F877A ROM. 1
word size is 14 bits. By using the free version of the CCS C compiler only 2k words of program can
be written and compiled. To write 8k words of C program you have to purchase the original CCS C
compiler and it cost less than 700 dollar.
Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the PIC microcontroller range from DC to
20Mhz. Using the CCS C compiler normally 20Mhz oscillator will be used and the price is very
cheap. The 20 MHz crystal oscillator should be connected with about 22pF capacitor. Please refer to
my circuit schematic.
There are 5 input/output ports on PIC microcontroller namely port A, port B, port C, port D
and port E. Each port has different function. Most of them can be used as I/O port.
3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

3.3.1 Introduction:
Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is
called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to
electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.
A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as
primary or secondary sources of energy such as
Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic devices.
Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the devices they
supply, such as computers and household electronics.
Batteries.
Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.
Solar power.
Generators or alternators.
3.3.2 Block Diagram:
Fig 3.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as
load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.
Fig 3.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection
The components mainly used in above figure are
230V AC MAINS
TRANSFORMER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
RESISTOR
LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:
Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to

another
is
called
transformation.
For
transforming
energy
we
use
transformers.
Transformers:
A transformer is
device
that
transfers electrical
energy from
one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors without changing
its frequency. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a

varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic
field through
the secondary winding.
This
varying
magnetic
field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This

effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in
the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary
circuit through the transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of
force and has the same shape as a bar magnet.
If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the
coil. If the current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field
moves out or in, the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil.
As it does this, a voltage is induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains
supply, this will happen 50 times a second. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION
and forms the basis of the transformer.
The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.
Fig 3.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.
For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the
secondary will have half the primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary
has 500 turns, then the turns ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be
x 10 smaller = 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by
the primary must equal the power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt
lamp is connected across a 24 volt secondary, then the primary must supply 24
watts.
To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils
are wound on a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY
CURRENTS, into this core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up
from metal sheets insulated from each other. Transformers to work at higher
frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly
changing current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a
steady field and there would be no induction.
Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary
and secondary. This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the
equipment down into the mains supply, or in the other direction. Transformers
are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE MATCHING.
We can use the transformers as step up or step down.
Step Up transformer:
In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less

compared to secondary winding.
Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more
energy, and it releases more voltage at the output side.
Step down transformer:
Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux
than the secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of
turns because of that it accepts less number of flux, and releases less amount of
voltage.
Battery power supply:
A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that
traditional line-operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability.
A battery consists of multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the
voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery
Fig 3.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell
battery. Dry-cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of
electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately until the desired total voltage is
achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have one of the following
voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-zinc
battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and
magnesium dioxide is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a
voltage of approximately 1.5 V.
The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is
rechargeable; it consists of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed
in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this type of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V
potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During discharge, the lead
is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When the
battery is charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide
A nickel-cadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This battery
cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The electrolyte is not involved in the
electrode reaction, making the voltage constant over the span of the batteries
long service life. During the charging process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its
higher oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium
batteries have many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged.
They have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and
the ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.
Fig 3.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

RECTIFICATION:
The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct
current is called as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.
Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have
many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio
signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes,
mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to
AC) is known as an inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative
or positive portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and
the term rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode
that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of
diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is
possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor
rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks
were used.
Bridge full wave rectifier:
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.8, which converts an
ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The
Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes
connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1
and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The
conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance R L and hence the load
current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4
conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will
be in series with the load resistance R L and hence the current flows through R L in
the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is
converted into a unidirectional wave.
Input
output
Fig 3.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of
DB107. In our project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of
DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.3.8.
Features:
Good for automation insertion
Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak
Ideal for printed circuit board
Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded
Glass passivated device
Polarity symbols molded on body
Mounting position: Any
Weight: 1.0 gram
Filtration:
The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct
current using filters is called as filtration.
Filters:
Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signalprocessing functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components
from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.
Introduction to Capacitors:
The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive
device, and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which
produces a potential (static voltage) across its plates. In its basic form a
capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not connected but
are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called
the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging
up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other
plate an equal and opposite negative charge this flow of electrons to the plates is
known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the
plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point
the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below.
The
construction of capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9

and 3.3.10 respectively.
Fig 3.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor

3.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor
Units of Capacitance:
Microfarad (F) 1F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F
Fig
Regulation:
The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated
voltage is called as regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage
regulators.
Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator (also called a regulator) with only three
terminals appears to be a simple device, but it is in fact a very complex
integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage into a constant regulated
output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs like 5V,
6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for
positive input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is
used. Using a pair of voltage-divider resistors can increase the output voltage of
a regulator circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You
cannot use a 12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are
very robust. These can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also
over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before any damage occurs.
The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input.
Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows
voltage regulator.
Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage
across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it
in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a highresistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,
maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include
temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as
Voltage dividers, to dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used
in combination of other components. Basic unit is ohms.
Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Power dissipation:
The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:
Fig 3.3.12: Resistor
Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor
3.4. LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs
are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for
lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs
emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the
visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The
internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 3.4.1 and 3.4.2
respectively.
Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED
Fig 3.4.2:
Parts of a LED
Working:
The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the
light bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The lightemitting semiconductor material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is
based on the semiconductor diode.
When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more
expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting

(particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and
video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.
Fig 3.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:
High-levels of brightness and intensity
High-efficiency
Low-voltage and current requirements
Low radiated heat
High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)
No UV Rays
Long source life
Can be easily controlled and programmed
Applications of LED fall into three major categories:
Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human
eye, to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects.
Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human
visual system.
3.5 EyeBlink Sensor

This Eye Blink sensor is IR based , . The Variation Across the eye will vary as per eye blink . If the
eye is closed means the output is high otherwise output is low. This to know the eye is closing or
opening
position.
This
output
is
give
to
logic
circuit
to
indicate
the
alarm.
This can be used for project involves controlling accident due to unconscious through Eye blink.
Senses eye blink using IR sensor, comparator and potentiometer. Location of iris is detected by one IR
sensor and output is given to one comparator.
Vin:12V
Vout: 0 to 5V
Iout:75mA
Sensor: IR
Sensitivity adjustment: Potentiometer
Position of iris detected by IR
Blinking of eye is exactly using comparators.
Comparator
Potentiometer
IR sensor
Infrared transmitter is one type of LED which emits infrared rays generally called as IR
Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter.
One important point is both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line to each other.
The transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter whenever the signal is high, the IR transmitter
LED is conducting it passes the IR rays to the receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator.
The comparator is constructed with LM 358 operational amplifier. In the comparator circuit the
reference voltage is given to inverting input terminal. The non inverting input terminal is connected
IR receiver. When interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver, the IR receiver is not
conducting. So the comparator non inverting input terminal voltage is higher then inverting input.
Now the comparator output is in the range of +5V. This voltage is given to microcontroller or PC and
led so led will glow.
When IR transmitter passes the rays to receiver, the IR receiver is conducting due to that non
inverting input voltage is lower than inverting input. Now the comparator output is GND so the
output is given to microcontroller or PC. This circuit is mainly used to for counting application,
intruder detector etc.
The eye-blink sensor works by illuminating the eye and eyelid area with infrared light, then
monitoring the changes in the reflected light using a phototransistor and differentiator circuit. The
exact functionality depends greatly on the positioning and aiming of the emitter and detector with
respect
to
the
eye.
FEATUTRES
EYE
Instant
BLINK
output
digital
indication
signal
for
directly
by
Connecting
LED
to
microcontroller
Compact
Size
Working
Voltage
+5V
DC
APPLICATION
Digital Eye Blink monitor for Vehicle Accident prevention & .Suitable for real time driving
applications.
SPECIFICATION
Operating
Voltage
:+5V
Operating
Output
Eye
using
DC
regulated
Current
Data
Blink Indicated
:100mA
Level
by
LED
: TTL
and
Output
Level
High
Pulse
sensor
Connect regulated DC power supply of 5 Volts. Black wire is Ground, Next middle wire is Brown
which is output and Red wire is positive supply. These wires are also marked on PCB.To test sensor
you only need power the sensor by connect two wires +5V and GND. You can leave the output wire
as it is. When Eye closed, LED is off & the output is at 0V.Put Eye blink sensor glass on the face
within 15mm distance, and you can view the LED blinking on each Eye blink.The output is active
high for Eye close and can be given directly to microcontroller for interfacing applications.
EYE
BLINK
5V
(High)
0V
(Low)
OUTPUT
LED
ON
When
Eye
is
close.
LED
OFF
when
Eye
is
open.
nother nice approach works by illuminating the eye and/or eyelid area with
infrared light, then monitoring the changes in the reflected light using a
phototransistor.
The exact functionality depends greatly on

the positioning and aiming of the emitter and detector with respect to the eye.
in front of it.
3.6 D.C. Motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical
energy, very typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and currentcarrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from
mechanical energy, is accomplished by an alternator, generator or dynamo.
Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. The
input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).
Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stationary part
that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called the stator. Figure
shows a picture of a typical DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Fig shows a
picture of a typical stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of wire wrapped
around the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You should also notice
that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one end of the armature. The
termination points are called the commutator, and this is where the brushes make electrical contact to
bring electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.
Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to the
simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 shows an electrical diagram of a simple
DC motor. Notice that the DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The
armature and the field are both shown as a coil of wire. In later diagrams, a field resistor will be added
in series with the field to control the motor speed.
When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field coil from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong magnetic field in the field winding. Current
also begins to flow through the brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil.
The current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the
coil and returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in the armature coil sets up a strong
magnetic field in the armature.
Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor
Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to rotate.
This occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles repelling
each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator segments will also begin to move under
the brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive
voltage, it will become positive, and when it moves under a brush connected to negative voltage it
will become negative. In this way, the commutator segments continually change polarity from positive
to negative. Since the commutator segments are connected to the ends of the wires that make up the
field winding in the armature, it causes the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity
continually from north pole to south pole. The commutator segments and brushes are aligned in such a
way that the switch in polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic
field and the field winding's magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the armature will not
lock up magnetically with the field. Instead the magnetic fields tend to build on each other and
provide additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the armature and the
field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to zero. If
voltage is applied to the motor again, the magnetic fields will strengthen and the armature will begin
to rotate again.
Types of DC motors:
1. DC Shunt Motor,
2. DC Series Motor,
3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)
4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)

The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between
two magnetic fields chasing each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and
an
armature,
to
which
DC
electricity
is
fed,
The
Magnetic
Poles
are
electromagnets, and when they are energized, they produce a strong magnetic
field around them, and the armature which is given power with a commutator,
constantly repels the poles, and therefore rotates.
1. The DC Shunt Motor:
In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of windings,
connected to a commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch
with carbon brushes. The brushes are static, and the commutator rotate and as
the portions of the commutator touching the respective positive or negative
polarity brush will energize the respective part of the armature with the
respective polarity. It is usually arranged in such a way that the armature and the
poles are always repelling.
The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the
magnetic field, and faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature
revolves between the poles, the magnetic field of the poles induce power in the
armature conductors, and some electricity is generated in the armature, which is
called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the armature. Generally an
armature has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with heavy voltages
of Direct Current could result in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps us
there.
When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces,
and therefore the back emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to
flow. This results in more armature field, and therefore it results in torque.
Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the
reduction of the back emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current
flow thru the armature.
The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called
a Shunt Motor.
2. The DC Series Motor:
Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. Therefore any
amount of power drawn by the armature will be passed thru the field. As a result
you cannot start a Series DC Motor without any load attached to it. It will either
run uncontrollably in full speed, or it will stop.
Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load
applied. So these are on Electric Trains and elevators.
Specifications
DC supply: 4 to 12V
RPM: 300 at 12V
Total length: 46mm
Motor diameter: 36mm
Motor length: 25mm
Brush type: Precious metal
Gear head diameter: 37mm
Gear head length: 21mm
Output shaft: Centred
Shaft diameter: 6mm
Shaft length: 22mm
Gear assembly: Spur
Motor weight: 105gms
We generally use 300RPM Centre Shaft Economy Series DC Motor which is high
quality low cost DC geared motor. It has steel gears and pinions to ensure longer
life and better wear and tear properties. The gears are fixed on hardened steel
spindles polished to a mirror finish. The output shaft rotates in a plastic bushing.
The whole assembly is covered with a plastic ring. Gearbox is sealed and
lubricated with lithium grease and require no maintenance. The motor is screwed
to the gear box from inside.
Although motor gives 300 RPM at 12V but motor runs smoothly from 4V to 12V
and gives wide range of RPM, and torque. Tables below gives fairly good idea of
the motors performance in terms of RPM and no load current as a function of
voltage and stall torque, stall current as a function of voltage.
3. DC Compound Motor:
A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound
DC Motor. This gives the best of both series and shunt motors. Better torque as in
a series motor, while the possibility to start the motor with no load.
Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, while in a short shunt, the shunt coil
will be connected after the serial coil.
A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor without connecting the serial
coil at all but not vice versa.
DC Motor Driver:
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both
devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping
motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1
and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the
associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs.
When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the
high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge)
reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output
clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from
VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are
characterized for operation from 0C to 70C.
Fig 3.22: L293D IC

Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:
Fig 3.23: L293D pin diagram
Fig 3.24: Internal structure of L293D.
Features of L293D:
600mA Output current capability per channel

1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
Enable facility
Over temperature protection
Logical 0input voltage up to 1.5 v
High noise immunity
Internal clamp diodes
Applications of DC Motors:
1. Electric Train: A kind of DC motor called the DC Series Motor is used in Electric
Trains. The DC Series Motors have the property to deliver more power when they
are loaded more. So the more the people get on a train, the more powerful the
train becomes.
2. Elevators: The best bidirectional motors are DC motors. They are used in
elevators. Compound DC Motors are used for this application.
3. PC Fans, CD ROM Drives, and Hard Drives: All these things need motors, very
miniature motors, with great precision. AC motors can never imagine any
application in these places.
4. Starter Motors in Automobiles: An automobile battery supplies DC, so a DC
motor is best suited here. Also, you cannot start an engine with a small sized AC
motor,
5. Electrical Machines Lab in Colleges.
3.7 Buzzer
Basically, the sound source of a piezoelectric sound component is a piezoelectric diaphragm. A
piezoelectric diaphragm consists of a piezoelectric ceramic plate which has electrodes on both sides
and a metal plate (brass or stainless steel, etc.). A piezoelectric ceramic plate is attached to a metal
plate with adhesives. Applying D.C. voltage between electrodes of a piezoelectric diaphragm causes
mechanical distortion due to the piezoelectric effect. For a misshaped piezoelectric element, the
distortion of the piezoelectric element expands in a radial direction. And the piezoelectric diaphragm
bends toward the direction. The metal plate bonded to the piezoelectric element does not expand.
Conversely, when the piezoelectric element shrinks, the piezoelectric diaphragm bends in the direction
Thus, when AC voltage is applied across electrodes, the bending is repeated, producing sound waves
in the air.
To interface a buzzer the standard transistor interfacing circuit is used. Note that if a different
power supply is used for the buzzer, the 0V rails of each power supply must be connected to provide a
common reference.
If a battery is used as the power supply, it is worth remembering that piezo sounders
draw much less current than buzzers. Buzzers also just have one tone, whereas a
piezo sounder is able to create sounds of many different tones.
To switch on buzzer -high 1
To switch off buzzer -low 1
Notice (Handling) In Using Self Drive Method

1) When the piezoelectric buzzer is set to produce intermittent sounds, sound may be heard
continuously even when the self drive circuit is turned ON / OFF at the "X" point shown in Fig. 9.
This is because of the failure of turning off the feedback voltage.
2) Build a circuit of the piezoelectric sounder exactly as per the recommended circuit shown in the
catalog. Hfe of the transistor and circuit constants are designed to ensure stable oscillation of the
piezoelectric sounder.
3) Design switching which ensures direct power switching.
4) The self drive circuit is already contained in the piezoelectric buzzer. So there is no need to prepare
another circuit to drive the piezoelectric buzzer.
5) Rated voltage (3.0 to 20Vdc) must be maintained. Products which can operate with voltage higher
than 20Vdc are also available.
6) Do not place resistors in series with the power source, as this may cause abnormal oscillation. If a
resistor is essential to adjust sound pressure, place a capacitor (about 1F) in parallel with the piezo
buzzer.
7) Do not close the sound emitting hole on the front side of casing.
8) Carefully install the piezo buzzer so that no obstacle is placed within 15mm from the sound release
hole on the front side of the casing.
Fig: Picture of buzzer
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
This project is implemented using following softwares:
Express PCB for designing circuit
PIC C compiler - for compilation part
Proteus 7 (Embedded C) for simulation part
4.1 Express PCB:

Breadboards are great for prototyping equipment as it allows great
flexibility to modify a design when needed; however the final product of a
project, ideally should have a neat PCB, few cables, and survive a shake test. Not
only is a proper PCB neater but it is also more durable as there are no cables
which can yank loose.
Express PCB is a software tool to design PCBs specifically for
manufacture by the company Express PCB (no other PCB maker accepts Express
PCB files). It is very easy to use, but it does have several limitations.
It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CAD program.
It has a poor part library (which we can work around)
It cannot import or export files in different formats
It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIY production
Express PCB has been used to design many PCBs (some layered and
with surface-mount parts. Print out PCB patterns and use the toner transfer
method with an Etch Resistant Pen to make boards. However, Express PCB does
not have a nice print layout. Here is the procedure to design in Express PCB and
clean up the patterns so they print nicely.
4.1.1 Preparing Express PCB for First Use:

Express PCB comes with a less then exciting list of parts. So before
any project is started head over to Audio logic and grab the additional parts by
morsel, ppl, and tangent, and extract them into your Express PCB directory. At
this point start the program and get ready to setup the workspace to suit your
style.
Click View -> Options. In this menu, setup the units for mm or in
depending on how you think, and click see through the top copper layer at the
bottom. The standard color scheme of red and green is generally used but it is
not as pleasing as red and blue.
4.1.2 The Interface:
When a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline.
This yellow outline is the dimension of the PCB. Typically after positioning of parts
and traces, move them to their final position and then crop the PCB to the
correct size. However, in designing a board with a certain size constraint, crop
the PCB to the correct size before starting.
Fig: 4.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the following
functions:
Fig 4.1: Tool bar necessary for the interface
The select tool: It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and
manipulate parts. When this tool is selected the top toolbar will show
buttons to move traces to the top / bottom copper layer, and rotate
buttons.
The zoom to selection tool: does just that.
The place pad: button allows you to place small soldier pads which are
useful for board connections or if a part is not in the part library but the
part dimensions are available. When this tool is selected the top toolbar
will give you a large selection of round holes, square holes and surface
mount pads.
The place component: tool allows you to select a component from the top
toolbar and then by clicking in the workspace places that component in the
orientation chosen using the buttons next to the component list. The
components can always be rotated afterwards with the select tool if the
orientation is wrong.
The place trace: tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of
varying thicknesses. The top toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom
layer to place the trace on.
The Insert Corner in trace: button does exactly what it says. When this tool
is selected, clicking on a trace will insert a corner which can be moved to
route around components and other traces.
The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will
achieve the same result.
4.1.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a PCB and
one must be chosen to suit the projects needs.
Single sided, or double sided?
When making a PCB you have the option of making a single sided
board, or a double sided board. Single sided boards are cheaper to produce and
easier to etch, but much harder to design for large projects. If a lot of parts are
being used in a small space it may be difficult to make a single sided board
without jumper over traces with a cable. While theres technically nothing
wrong with this, it should be avoided if the signal travelling over the traces is
sensitive (e.g. audio signals).
A double sided board is more expensive to produce professionally,
more difficult to etch on a DIY board, but makes the layout of components a lot
smaller and easier. It should be noted that if a trace is running on the top layer,
check with the components to make sure you can get to its pins with a
soldering iron. Large capacitors, relays, and similar parts which dont have axial
leads can NOT have traces on top unless boards are plated professionally.
Ground-plane or other special purposes for one side
When using a double sided board you must consider which traces
should be on what side of the board. Generally, put power traces on the top of
the board, jumping only to the bottom if a part cannot be soldiered onto the top
plane (like a relay), and vice- versa.
Some projects like power supplies or amps can benefit from having a
solid plane to use for ground. In power supplies this can reduce noise, and in
amps it minimizes the distance between parts and their ground connections,
and keeps the ground signal as simple as possible. However, care must be
taken with stubborn chips such as the TPA6120 amplifier from TI. The TPA6120
datasheet specifies not to run a ground plane under the pins or signal traces of
this chip as the capacitance generated could effect performance negatively.
4.2 PIC Compiler:
PIC compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be
dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. PIC compiler also supports C language code.
Its important that you know C language for microcontroller which is commonly
known as Embedded C. As we are going to use PIC Compiler, hence we also call it PIC C. The PCB,
PCM, and PCH are separate compilers. PCB is for 12-bit opcodes, PCM is for 14-bitopcodes, and
PCH is for 16-bit opcode PIC microcontrollers. Due to many similarities, all three compilers are
covered in this reference manual. Features and limitations that apply to only specific microcontrollers
are indicated within. These compilers are specifically designed to meet the unique needs of the PIC
microcontroller. This allows developers to quickly design applications software in a more readable,
high-level language. When compared to a more traditional C compiler, PCB, PCM, and PCH have
some limitations. As an example of the limitations, function recursion is not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the PIC has no stack to push variables onto, and also
because of the way the compilers optimize the code. The compilers can efficiently implement normal
C constructs, input/output operations, and bit twiddling operations. All normal C data types are
supported along with pointers to constant arrays, fixed point decimal, and arrays of bits.
PIC C is not much different from a normal C program. If you know assembly, writing
a C program is not a crisis. In PIC, we will have a main function, in which all your application
specific work will be defined. In case of embedded C, you do not have any operating system running
in there. So you have to make sure that your program or main file should never exit. This can be done
with the help of simple while (1) or for (;;) loop as they are going to run infinitely.
We have to add header file for controller you are using, otherwise
you will not be able to access registers related to peripherals.
#include <16F72.h> // header file for PIC 16F72//
CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of PIC16F877A
microcontroller with each module is considered.
Fig 5.1: schematic diagram of Eye blink detection and automatic control
system with buzzer alerts
The above schematic diagram of Eye blink detection and
automatic control system with buzzer alerts explains the interfacing section
of each component with micro controller and sensor. Crystal oscillator connected
to 13th and 14th pins of micro controller and regulated power supply is also
connected to micro controller and LEDs also connected to micro controller
through resistors.
The detailed explanation of each module interfacing with microcontroller is
as follows:
5.2 Interfacing crystal oscillator and reset button with micro controller:
Fig 5.2: explains crystal oscillator and reset button which are connected to micro controller.
The two pins of oscillator are connected to the 13th and 14th pins of micro controller; the purpose of
external crystal oscillator is to speed up the execution part of instructions per cycle and here the
crystal oscillator having 20 MHz frequency. The 1st pin of the microcontroller is referred as MCLR
ie.., master clear pin or reset input pin is connected to reset button or power-on-reset.
Fig 5.2: crystal oscillator and reset input interfacing with micro controller
CHAPTER 6: SOURCE CODE

Program Code:
The program code which is dumped in the microcontroller of our project is shown below.
#include <16F877A.h> //Microcontroller Used
#include <dc_motor.h>
#include <eyeblink.h>
#use delay(clock=20M)
// operating Clock frequency
void main()
{
int blink_sensed;
output_high(PIN_D3); //Buzzer
output_high(PIN_D2); //LED
delay_ms(500);
output_low(PIN_D3);
output_low(PIN_D2);
delay_ms(500);
output_high(PIN_D2);
delay_ms(500);
output_low(PIN_D2);
while(1)
{
eye_blink_sensed = is_eye_blink_sensed();
if(blink_sensed == 1)
{
output_high(PIN_D3); //Buzzer
output_high(PIN_D2); //flasher
M1_Speed(80); //reduce PWM speed by 80%
delay_ms(2000);
delay_ms(2000);
delay_ms(2000);
delay_ms(2000);
M1_Speed(0); //reduce PWM speed by 0% (stop)
M2_Speed(0); //reduce PWM speed by 0% (stop)
while(1);
}
while(1);
}
}
}
CHAPTER 7: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages:
1. Usage of eye blink sensor for drowsiness detection

2. Automatic speed control of vehicle to avoid accidents
3. Fast response
4. Wide detection range
5. Stable performance and long life
6. Simple drive circuit
7. Efficient and low cost design.
8. Low power consumption.
9. Easily operable.
Disadvantages:
1. This system supports only inside the vehicle.
2. Interfacing of eye blink sensor with microcontroller is highly sensitive
Applications:
This system can be implemented in vehicles in real time to avoid accidents
CHAPTER 8: RESULTS
8.1 Result:
The project Eye blinks Detection and Automatic Vehicle (DC Motor) Control
System with buzzer alerts was designed such that to avoid accidents for drunken people and
drowsy people and alerts the through buzzer alarm.
8.2 Conclusion:
Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced ICs with the help of growing technology, the
project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and
tested.
8.3 Future Scope:
Our project Eye blink Detection and Automatic Vehicle (DC Motor) Control
System with buzzer alerts is mainly intended to control the vehicle (DC motor) using when on
drowsiness of driver was detected.
project.
The controller is interfaced with Buzzer, and DC Motor.
The main drawback of this system is that the vehicle speed can be controlled but not intimated
to the people related to the person about the status. The project can be extended by using GSM
modem which can send the SMS alerts o the concerned people when the driver was detected alcoholic
and sleepy while driving the vehicle.
REFERENCES
The sites which were used while doing this project:
1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.allaboutcircuits.com
3. www.microchip.com
4. www.howstuffworks.com
Books referred:
1. Raj kamal Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi Embedded Systems.
3. PCB Design Tutorial David.L.Jones.
4. PIC Microcontroller Manual Microchip..
5. Embedded C Michael.J.Pont.

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A

Under the guidance of

Marri Laxman Reddy

Marri Laxman Reddy

(HOD, ECE Dept.)

I express my gratitude to my institution at Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology

I would like to thank Mr.K.N.BHUSHAN, Head of the Department of B.Tech in

1.1 Introduction of the project

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction to embedded systems

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction with block diagram

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 Express PCB

CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 6: SOURCE CODE

CHAPTER 7:ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 8: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they

need for embedded systems, explanation of it along with its applications.

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance

Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to

software "limp modes" that provide partial function

An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem

Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

Simple Control Loop:

Interrupt Controlled System:

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop

Microkernels And Exokernels:

Hard Real-time embedded systems:

Soft Real Time embedded systems:

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc

Fig2.4: Fax machine

Fig2.5: Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

2.4.5 Computer networking:

Fig2.7: Computer networking

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

sensor with buzzer alerts

Fig: 3.2 Microcontrollers

Low power crystal

Mid range crystal

High range crystal

RC oscillator (low cost).

5. Programmable timers and on-chip ADC.

Fig.3.2.3.Architecture of PIC microcontroller

RISC instruction set with around 35 instructions _9 Digital I/O ports

On-chip timer with 8-bit prescaler.

Power saving SLEEP mode

Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes

External clock interface

RAM data memory

EPROM (or OTP) program memory

High sink/source current 25mA

Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module

Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5ns