EG-260 DYNAMICS 1 COURSE HANDBOOK

6.5

1.1

VIBRATION AND THE FREE RESPONSE

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

1.2

Single degree of freedom system (SDOF)

1.3

DAMPING

1.4

The idealised dashpot

1.5

Characteristic equation

1.6

Critical damping coefficient and the damping ratio

1.7

The damped solution

2.1

MEASUREMENT
The log decrement method

2.1.1
Under damped system
2.1.2
Measurement over more than one cycle.
2.2 Added mass method
3
3.1

STIFFNESS
Combination of springs

5
5
5

10
11

5
6
6
6

5.1

STABILITY
Stable

5.2

Unstable, divergent

5.3

Flutter

6.1

HARMONIC EXCITATION
Equation of motion

6.2

Harmonic excitation of undamped SDOF system

6.3

The phenomenon of beats

6.4

Resonance

10

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6.5.1
Equation of motion
6.5.2
Particular Solution
6.5.3
The Complementary Solution
6.5.4
The Complete Solution
6.5.5
Transient and steady state responses
7
RESONANCE IN DAMPED SYSTEMS
8
ALTERNATIVE solution methods
8.1 The geometrical method.

3.1.1
Springs in parallel
3.1.2
Springs in series
4
MODELLING AND ENERGY METHODS
4.1 A vertical spring-mass system

12

6
6
7

Harmonic excitation of damped SDOF system

13
14
15

10
11
11
11
11
11

12
12
12

8.2

The frequency response method

12

8.3

The transform method

12

HARMONIC EXCITATION OF THE BASE

Force transmitted to the base

13

9.1

13

ROTATING IMBALANCE
MEASUREMENT
11.1 Transducers

14
14

11.2 Accelerometers

14

OTHER FORMS OF DAMPING

12.1 Fundamental definition of damping.

15

12.2 Viscous damping

15

12.3 Coulomb damping

15

12.4 Structural Damping

16

FOURIER TRASFORM
13.1 Fourier Series

16

MULTIPLE DEGREES OF FREEDOM

LAGRANGES METHOD
15.1 An overview of the procedure.

17
17

15.2 Advantages of Lagranges method

18

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14

15

16

18

1 VIBRATION AND THE FREE RESPONSE

1.2 Single degree of freedom system (SDOF)

1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simplest form of oscillatory motion - a single mass attached to a light

spring
0

Simple harmonic motion is defined as oscillating motion of an object

about a fixed point, such that the acceleration, a, is:

Proportional to the displacement, x from the fixed point.

Always directed towards the fixed point.

Mass, m
Friction-free surface

Equation for SHM is :

Equilibrium

x(t ) = n2 x(t )

(1)
is
the
acceleration
(m/s2),
x(t)
is
the
displacement
(m)
and
wn
x(t )
is the angular natural frequency (rads/s) and the negative sign indicates
that the acceleration is always directed towards the fixed point.

-kx

Newtons 2nd Law

Figure 1 Spring - Mass system

( )
2

F = ma = m n x = -( constant) x

(2)

Thus restoring force must be proportional to the displacement from a

fixed point.
ANY OSCILLATING SYSTEM FOR WHICH THE RESTORING
FORCE MEETS THESE CONDITIONS WILL MOVE IN SHM

Free body diagram

Considering the only the horizontal forces in Figure 1

mx(t ) = kx(t )

(4)

Dividing through by m and re-arranging the equation of motion is:

Solution of the SHM equation

Compact form of the solution is :
x( t ) = A sin( n t + )

x(t ) +

(3)
where is the phase angle and is the natural frequency. Remember
thee are other forms of the solution.

Let natural frequency

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n =

k
x(t ) = 0
m

(5)

k
then equation of motion is:
m

x(t ) + x(t ) = 0
2

(6)

If the mass is displaced from equilibrium and then released from rest,
the initial conditions are:
x(0) = x #
t =0
"
Using
v(0) = v !
x(t ) = A sin( t + )
(7)
and substituting for the initial conditions gives:
0

1.4 The idealised dashpot

The dashpot is modelled as a piston inside an oil filled cylinder as seen
in Figure 2
Casing

A=

x +v

& x
% v

= tan $$
1

#
!!
"

Mounting point

Seal

Mounting point
Piston

(8)

Oil

Thus the solution is

x(t ) =

&
x +v
sin % t + tan

$
2

where the period T is

T=

, x
**
+ v
n

)#
''"
(!

Orifice
(9)

Figure 2 Idealised Dashpot

2
(10)

1.3 DAMPING

Schematically the dashpot is indicated by

For the homogeneous equation:

mx(t ) + cx(t ) + kx(t ) = 0

Equation of motion

mx(t ) + cx(t ) + kx(t ) = f (t )

Damping dissipates energy and the physical representation for

dissipating energy is the dashpot or damper.

(13)

Assume solutions of form

x(t ) = ae t

(11)

The constant c is the damping coefficient and has units Ns/m or kg/s
and the damping force is:
f c (t ) = cx (t )
(12)

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x(t)

(14)

Successive integration gives:

1.5 Characteristic equation

m2 + c + k = 0
which and has two solutions:

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(15)

1,2 =

c
c 2 4mk

2m
2m

(16)

The roots will be either real or complex depending on the value of the
discriminant, c2 - 4mk.

1.6 Critical damping coefficient and the damping

ratio

Underdamped

< 1 c 2 4mk < 0

1 and 2 will be a complex conjugate pair with negative real part.
Solution is of the form:

x(t ) = Ae nt sin( d t + )

The critical damping coefficient, ccr is defined as:

c cr = 2 km

k
c cr = 2m
= 2m n
m
And the non-dimensional damping ratio, , is defined as:
c
c
c
=
=
=
c cr 2 km 2m n

Does not oscillate but returns to rest position exponentially.

(21)

where the damped natural frequency, wd in rads/s, is given by:

d = n (1 2 )

(17)

(22)

Oscillatory motion with decaying amplitude.

(18)

1.7 The damped solution

Critically damped

= 1 c 2 4mk = 0

The solution to the characteristic equation (16)may be expressed as:

2

1,2 = n n 1

(19)

1 and 2 will be equal negative numbers, such that

Solution is of the form:

Overdamped

x(t ) = (a1 + a2t )ent

n .

(23)

> 1 c 4mk > 0

Does not oscillate but returns to rest position. Critical damping

provides the fastest return to zero without oscillation.

1 and 2 will be distinct real numbers. Solution is of the form:

x(t ) = a1e 1t + a2 e 2t
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(20)

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the critical value of damping given by: and the damping coefficient c is

2 MEASUREMENT
Mass and stiffness are measured statically but damping must be
measured from a dynamic test. Hence, damping measurements are often
the least reliable coefficient in the equations of motion.

related to critical damping by thus:

c = 2

2.1 The log decrement method

Undamped system The logarithmic decrement method measures
damping from the transient response of the system and represents the
rate at which the amplitude decays. The logarithmic decrement is
defined as:

&

x(t ) #

!!
= ln$$
% x(t + T ) "
2.1.1 Under damped system

(24)

(25)

After substitution, the log decrement for an under-damped system is:

2
= n T =
1 2
(26)

2.1.2 Measurement over more than one cycle.

If the amplitudes are measures over n cycles then the logarithmic
decrement is given by:
(29)
1 & x(t ) #
!!
= ln$$
n % x(t + nT ) "

Mass and stiffness are usually measured from static tests, but
occasionally this is not possible. In such cases the frequency of the
system is measured before and after an additional mass m2 has been
applied
Given two values of frequency 1 and

1 =

Thus the damping ratio is given by:

and once is known

k
m1

and 2 =

2, then:

k
m1 + m2

(30)

which may be solved for m1 and k

4 +

(27)

may be calculated. If k and m are known then

ccr = 2 km
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(28)

2.2 Added mass method

Displacement given by:

x(t ) = Ae n t sin(d t + )

km
4 2 + 2

c = ccr

3 STIFFNESS
The stiffness of a body is directly related to the geometry and material
properties of the body. Youngs modulus, E, commonly called the
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elastic modulus, units pascal (Pa), i.e. newtons per square metre, N/m2,
as does G, the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity

4.1 A vertical spring-mass system

3.1 Combination of springs

A number of springs may be combined in many practical applications
to form a single equivalent spring. There are two ways that the springs
may be combined

k
Mass,

3.1.1 Springs in parallel

keq = i =1 ki

- static equilibrium

x(t)

If n springs in parallel, the equivalent stiffness, keq is:

n

- rest position

mg

(31)

Free body diagram

Figure 4 Vertical Spring Mass System

3.1.2 Springs in series

For n springs in series, the equivalent stiffness, keq is:
n

1
1
=
k eq i =1 k i

(32)

4 MODELLING AND ENERGY METHODS

The Energy Method is an alternative method to the Method of Forces to
derive the equations of motion.
If the total potential energy is U and the total kinetic energy of the
system is T then:
T + U = constant
(33)

The PE of the system is due to gravity and the spring. From above:
1
2
(34)
U grav = mgx
U spring = k ( + x )
2
where is the static equilibrium position and x is the displacement
from equilibrium. The negative sign for gravity PE indicates that the
mass is below the reference point.
The KE of the system is:

T=
Substituting in equation (33)gives:

1 2
1
2
mx mgx + k ( + x ) = constant
2
2

When T is a maximum U must be a minimum and vice versa, thus the

equation of motion may be obtained by equating Tmax with Umax
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1 2
mx
2

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(35)

(36)

Differentiating with respect to time:

x(mx + kx) + x(k mg ) = 0

unstable

(37)

But from the free body diagram in Figure 3

k = mg

(38)

x(mx + kx) = 0

(39)

stable

hence
asymptotically stable

but the velocity can not be zero for all time, so

mx + kx = 0

(40)

which is the same equation as obtained using the summation of forces

method.

5 STABILITY
A system may be either:

Stable x(t ) a finite constant

Figure 5 Response

The response equations in Figure 5 are:

Stable
x(t ) = sin(t ) a finite constant

Lim
Asymptotically stable t (x(t ) 0)

x(t ) = e 2t sin(t )

()
Unstable, x t divergent, grows without bound

Asymptotically stable

Flutter x(t ) oscillates as grows without bound

This is illustrated in Figure 5

Unstable, divergent

Flutter
x(t ) = e 2t sin(t )

Lim
t

(x(t ) 0)

x(t ) = sinh(t ) + cosh(t ) grows without bound

oscillates as it grows without
bound

5.1 Stable
For the undamped case

x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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(41)

Thus for all values of t

x(t ) = A sin(t + ) = A
Hence

x(t ) is bounded by the finite number A.

(42)

In the damped case the motion may be unstable in one of two ways

5.2 Unstable, divergent

x(t)
k

F(t)
fk

c
Friction-free surface

fc

The motion may grow without bound and does not oscillate, i.e.
divergent instability

mg
Free body diagram

5.3 Flutter

Figure 6 Viscously damped SDOF spring-mass-damper system

The motion may grow without bound oscillates, i.e. flutter. or selfexcited vibration. In all such cases a source of energy is required to
maintain the instability

The equation of motion is:

6 HARMONIC EXCITATION

The homogenous equation:

mx + cx + kx = F (t )

(43)

6.1 Equation of motion

(44)
mx + cx + kx = 0
represents the free vibration of the system, and dies out due to the effect
of damping, i.e. underdamped, overdamped or critically damped
Thus the general solution to equation (43)eventually reduces over time
to particular solution, xp (t), i.e. to the steady state vibration.

A force F (t) acts on a viscously damped spring-mass system is shown

in Figure 6

6.2 Harmonic excitation of undamped SDOF

system

Harmonic excitation refers to the excitation due to a sinusoidal external

force of a single frequency

An undamped system is harmonically excited by a horizontal force:

F0 cos( t)
The equation of motion is:

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mx + kx = F0 cos(t )

(45)

x + n2 x = f 0 cos(t )
where f 0 = F0 m and n2 = k m

6.3 The phenomenon of beats

First find xcf the solution to the complementary equation:

2
n

x + x = 0

(46)
then consider the right hand side of equation. The particular solution
will be of the form:
x p = X cos(t )
(47)
where X is the amplitude of the forced response, since the system is
undamped .

f
X = 2 0 2
n

if n :

(48)

and the particular solution is

x p (t ) =

f0
cos(t )
2
2
n

(49)

Thus the complete solution is x(t ) = x cf (t ) + x p (t ),

Given initial conditions x0

x(t ) =

v0 the full solution is:

(
%
f
f
sin( n t ) + && x0 2 0 2 ## cos( n t ) + 2 0 2 cos(t )
n
n $
n
'

For initial conditions v0 = 0 and x0 = 0 equation (50) gives:

f
f
x(t ) = 2 0 2 cos(nt ) + 2 0 2 cos(t )
n
n

f
x(t ) = 2 0 2 (cos(t ) cos(nt ))
n

Equation (51) may be written as

2f
& # & n + #
(52)
x(t ) = 2 0 2 sin$ n
t ! sin$
t!
n
% 2
" % 2
"
If forcing frequency is close to natural frequency then ( n ) is

& #
small and (n + ) is large so that sin$ n
t ! has a much longer
% 2
"
& + #
period than sin$ n
t ! i.e. phenomenon of BEATS
% 2
"
The beat frequency is the time between two successive maximums, i.e.
half the time for one complete oscillation.:

v0

(50)

The beat frequency is

The period the beat is

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(51)

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beat = n
Tbeat = 2 (n )

(53)
(54)

2 f0
& #
sin$ n
t!
2

% 2
"
2
n

Figure 8 Resonance - Spring mass system

(n )

Figure 7 Phenomenon of Beats

6.4

Resonance

If n the particular solution x p = X cos(t ) to equation (50) is not

valid (identical roots, see revision).
f
The particular solution is x p = 0 t sin(t )
(55)
2
The general solution is of the form:
f
(56)
x(t ) = A1 sin(t ) + A2 cos(t ) + 0 t sin(t )
2
Given initial conditions x0 v0
v
f
(57)
x(t ) = 0 sin(t ) + x0 cos(t ) + 0 t sin(t )

2
The type of response given by equation (57) for a spring-mass system is
shown in Figure 8

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Figure 8 shows that the response x(t) grows without bound, which is the
definition of resonance. For the spring-mass system this occurs if
k
, in which case the spring would fail
= n =
m

6.5

Harmonic excitation of damped SDOF system

x(t)
F(t)

10 of 18

fk
f

c
F
ig
u
r
e
Friction-free
9
surface
D
a
m
Figure
9 Damped SDOF system
p
e
d
S
D
O
F

N
m
Freegbody
diagram

6.5.1 Equation of motion

6.5.3 The Complementary Solution

(58)

mx + cx + kx = F (t )
Dividing by m gives
c
k
x + x + x = f 0 cos(t )
m
m

x(t ) = Ae t sin(d t + )
n

frequency and damping ratio, giving:

x + 2 n x + n2 x = f 0 cos(t )

(60)

6.5.2 Particular Solution

x p (t ) = X cos(t )

(61)
The phase shift is due to the effect of the damping force
The particular solution is given by:
f0
x p (t ) =
cos(t )
2
2
n2 2 + 2n
The forcing term amplitude is given by:
X=

f0

2
n

2 2

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The complete solution is:

x(t ) = Ae nt sin(d t + ) + X cos(t )

(66)

6.5.5 Transient and steady state responses

(67)
x(t ) = Ae nt sin(d t + ) +
X cos(t )

transient response steady state response

Assuming that the system has relatively large damping, i.e. transient

, which
n

(62)

term may be ignored, the frequency ratio r is defined as r =

(63)

is a dimensionless quantity. The frequency ratio may be used in

equations (63) and (64) to give the forcing term amplitude as:
f 0 n2
(68)
X =

) + (2 )

The forcing term phase angle is given by:

& 2 #
= tan 1 $$ 2 n 2 !!
% n "

6.5.4 The Complete Solution

Equation (66) may be considered as a combination of a transient

response and a steady state response as below:

The particular solution is assumed to be of the form

) (

(65)

(59)

F0
where f 0 =
. Equation (59) may be written in terms of the natural
m

For the under-damped case (0<

<1), the solution to the
complementary function, i.e. the case of free vibration, is:

2 2

(1 r ) + (2r )

(64)

& 2r #
The forcing term phase angle as = tan 1 $
2 !
%1 r "

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(69)

If the system is lightly damped, i.e. very small, the transient term may
last a sufficiently long time that it may be significant.

7 RESONANCE IN DAMPED SYSTEMS

Resonance is defined to occur if = n i.e. r = 1. Equation (68) may
be expressed in terms of the normalised amplitude as:
Xn2 Xk
1
(70)
=
=
f0

F0

2 2

(1 r ) + (2r )

The maximum value of Xk occurs at different values of r depending on

F0

the value of the damping ratio

8 ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION METHODS

Alternatives to the method of undetermined coefficients are

8.1 The geometrical method.

Uses the fact that position, velocity and acceleration will be out of
phase with each other by /2 radians. Therefore express displacement,
velocity and acceleration as a vector Compute X in terms of F0 via
vector addition

8.2 The frequency response method

If the forcing function for a harmonically excited system is expressed
in complex form as:
(71)
F (t ) = F0 e jt
Then the equation of motion for the spring-mass-damper system may
be expressed as:
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(72)
mx + cx + kx = F0e jt
But the excitation is real, so the response will also be the real part of
x(t), where x(t) is a complex function that by definition must satisfy the
equation of motion (72) and the particular solution must also be a
complex number
(73)
x p (t ) = Xe jt
The solution proceeds using the complementary function and the
particular solution using complex algebra to give:
F0
(cos(t ) + j sin(t )) (74)
x p (t ) =
2
2
k m 2 + (c )

Comparing the real part of equation (74) with equation (62), both
methods yield the same result

8.3 The transform method

The equation of motion for a spring-mass damper system subject to
harmonic excitation is given by:
(75)
mx + cx + kx = F0 cos t
which may be transformed using the Laplace transform:

X ( s ) = L( x( t )) = x( t )e st dt

(76)

F0 s
:
(77)
( ms + cs + k )( s 2 + 2 )
Then an inverse transformation must be performed to obtain the
solution in the time domain
To give

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X( s ) =

9 HARMONIC EXCITATION OF THE BASE

X
=
Y

Figure 10 shows a spring- mass-damper SDOF system undergoing

harmonic excitation of the base. The displacement of the base is
denoted by y(t) and the displacement of the mass from its static
equilibrium position at time t is denoted by x(t).

+
x

+
y

y(t)=
Ysin(t)

k (x y )

c(x y )

Free body diagram

The equation of motion is:

(78)

The base is moving under harmonic motion such that y(t ) = Y sin(t )
then equation (78) gives:

mx + cx + kx = kY sin(t ) + cY cos(t )

(79)

The particular solution is :

x p (t ) = X sin(t )

X
=
Y

mc 3

1 + (2r )
2 2

(1 r ) + (2r )

(83)
X Y = Td is the displacement transmissibility. Describes how motion
is transmitted from the base to the mass of the system. is the
frequency of the base and r = n is frequency ratio

9.1 Force transmitted to the base

A force F(t) is transmitted to the mass due to the reaction from the
spring and dashpot. Must balance the inertial force, hence:

F (t ) = k (x y ) + c(x y ) = mx

(84)

The steady state solution is:

Fp (t ) = FT sin(t )

(85)
where FT is the amplitude or maximum value of the force transmitted
and is given by:

(80)

where

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!
= tan $
2 !
2
% k k m + (c ) "

+
x

Figure 10 Base excitation spring-mass-damper SDOF system

mx + c(x y ) + k (x y ) = 0

(81)

(k m ) + (c )
1 &
$

+ x

2 2

(82)
Equation (81)may be expressed as the ratio of the maximum response
amplitude and the input displacement amplitude:

m
k

and

k 2 + (c )

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FT
= r2
kY
The ratio

1 + (2r )
2 2

X=

(1 r ) + (2r )

(86)

FT kY is the force transmissibility.

mo e
r2
m ( 1 r 2 )2 + (2 r )2

& 2 r #
and = tan 1 $
2 !
%1 r "

(89)

11 MEASUREMENT

10 ROTATING IMBALANCE

11.1 Transducers

A schematic of rotating imbalance of mass m0 a distance e, eccentricity,

from the centre of rotation is shown in Figure 11 Assuming no motion
in the horizontal direction due to t presence guides

Transducers converts mechanical vibration into an electric signal such

as voltage proportional to acceleration, Used to measure vibration.

11.2 Accelerometers
Accelerometers are based on piezoelectric elements and are springmass-damper systems. Convert the acceleration into an electric signal

Figure 11Free body diagram of the imbalance (a), and machine (b)

Considering the forces for the rotating imbalance and the machine
gives:
(87)
mx + m0 xr + cx + kx = 0
The particular solution is:
(88)
x p ( t ) = X sin( r t )
The magnitude and the phase of the steady state motion of the mass m
due to the rotating imbalance of mass m0

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OTHER FORMS OF DAMPING

11.5 Coulomb damping

11.3 Fundamental definition of damping.

For Coulomb or dry friction damping force is constant in magnitude but

opposite to the direction of motion of the vibrating body. Caused when
components of a system slide relative to one another.

By definition the change in energy, E, is equal to the work done by

damping forces over a cycle, so that:

E = Fd dx

Friction force, fc is given by:

$ N
!
f c ( x ) = # 0
! N
"

(90)

Loss factor, , is defined as:

=

E
2U max

(91)

mx + mg sgn( x ) + kx = 0

Evisc = cx 2 dt

(94)
If resonance then

U max =

(92)

(%
Evisc = 2 X 2 c& # = X 2 c
' $

(93)

1
kX 2
2

Evisc
c
=
visc =so
=
n 2U max
k
c
visc =
= 2
k

sgn ( y ) = 1 for

y<0

sgn ( y ) = 0

y=0

for

(98)
sgn ( y ) = 1 for y > 0
fc always opposes the direction of motion therefore equation of motion
is nonlinear which may be solved as piecewise linear.
Harmonic motion
Eclmb = mgX cos tsgn(cos t )dt

(99)
Eclmb = 4 mgX
2
The change in energy for viscous damper is Evisc = X c and
the equivalent damping coefficient for Coulomb damping as:
(95)

X 2ceq = 4 m gX
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(97)

where sgn(y) is the signum function, where

Energy dissipated in a viscously damped system per cycle, with a

viscous damping coefficient, c is

For harmonic motion

(96)

x (t ) < 0

The equation of motion is:

11.4 Viscous damping

Assuming harmonic motion

x (t ) > 0
x (t ) = 0

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ceq =

4 m g
X

(100)
The equivalent damping ratio for a system with Coulomb damping is:
2 g
eq =
(101)
n X
If driving force is large with respect to the friction force, Coulomb
damping can be approximated by viscous damping, using the effective
relationships

Assuming the solution is x(t ) = Xe it gives:

mx + k (1 + i )x = F0 eit

(106)

leads to the concept of complex stiffness. This analysis is only valid

for harmonic excitation.
This analysis is only valid for harmonic excitation.

12 FOURIER TRASFORM

11.6 Structural Damping

Generated by friction, rubbing or impact of two surfaces at a joint.
Common to assume some amplitude-dependent loss mechanism. For
harmonic excitation the change in energy is defined as:

Estruc = (k )X 2

(102)

where is a frequency dependent multiplier. An equivalent viscous

damping coefficient is given by:
(k )X 2 = ceq X 2 c eq = k
(103)

Any function which is periodic, can be expressed as a series of

sinusoids. Given the solution for sinusoidal forcing function, the
solution may be found of the dynamics of a system to any periodic
input

12.1 Fourier Series

A periodic function may be expressed as a sum of an infinite series of
sine and cosine functions.

The equivalent damping ratio for a system with structural damping is:

f (t ) =

ao
+ an cos(nT t ) + bn sin(nT t )
2 n =1
n =1

(107)

where :

eq =

k
2mn2

= 2 eq

The equation of motion with complex forcing function is:

k
mx +
x + kx = Fe it

S.Adhikari 2012

2 T
f (t ) dt
T 0
2 T
an = f (t ) cos(mT t ) dt m = 1,2,3,..............
T 0
2 T
bn = f (t ) sin (mT t ) dt m = 1,2,3...............
T 0
ao =

(104)

(105)

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(108)
(109)
(110)

13 MULTIPLE DEGREES OF FREEDOM

(MDOF) Number of degrees of freedom of a system dependant on the
number of moving parts and the directions in which they may move.
Each degree of freedom will have an associated natural frequency thus
increasing the opportunity for the occurrence of resonance. Illustrated
for two degrees of freedom.

m1

k1

k2

m2

m1x1 = k1x1 + k2 (x2 x1 )

m2 x2 = k2 (x2 x1 )
Expressed in matrix form as:
where

Mx + Kx = 0

(113)

&m
M=$ 1
%0

(114)

0#
m2 !"

&k + k
K=$ 1 2
% k2

For non-trivial solution

k2 #
k 2 !"

det 2 M + K = 0
Figure 12 MDOF example

TO SOLVE YOU MUST DRAW A FORCE DIAGRAM

See Figure 13 MDOF Force diagram

k1
x1

k2(x2 - x1)
k2(x2 x1)

S.Adhikari 2012

(116)

To obtain the mode shapes (Eigenmodes) u 1 u 2 solve:

( M + K )u
( M + K )u

Only motion in horizontal direction so considering the forces on each

mass in the horizontal direction only.

(115)

Equation (116) is quadratic in so solve for the two frequencies

(Eigenfrequencies) 1 and 2

x Figure 13 MDOF Force diagramx

(111)
(112)

2
1

=0

(117)

2
2

=0

(118)

14 LAGRANGES METHOD
Lagrangian methods use an energy approach to obtain the equations of
motion in terms of generalised co-ordinates. The equation of motion in
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terms of the kinetic energy (T), potential energy (U) and generalised
co-ordinated qi for an n degree of freedom system is given by:

d ( T % T U
&&
##
+
= Qi(n ) i = 1,2,.......n
dt ' qi $ qi qi
where qi = q

(119)

is the generalised velocity and

Qi(n) is the non-conservative force corresponding to the generalised coordinates qi

If Fxk, Fyk and Fzk represent the external forces acting on the kth mass if
the system in the x, y and z directions, respectively, the generalised
force is given by:

'
x
y
z $
Qi(n ) = %% Fxk k + Fyk k + Fzk k ""
qi
qi
qi #
&

14.2 Advantages of Lagranges method

(120)

where xk, yk, zk are the displacements of the kth. mass in the x , y and z
directions, respectively.
For a torsional system the force Fxk is replaced by the moment Mxk
about the x axis and the displacement xk is replaced by the angular
displacement qxk about the x axis
If the Lagrangian, L, is defined as L = T- U, then equation (119) may
be expressed as:
d ( L
&
dt &' q i

% L
##
= Qi
$ qi

(121)

14.1 An overview of the procedure.

S.Adhikari 2012

Determine a set of generalized co-ordinates, denoted by q,

which are an independent set of variables to record position.
Express the kinetic and potential energy in terms of the
generalised co-ordinates q.
Express the work done by forces and moments.
Derive the equation of motion using equations of the type
expressed by equations (119) and (121)

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Equations contain only scalar quantities

One equation for each degree of freedom.
The resulting equations are independent of the choice of
coordinate system since kinetic and potential energy does not
depend on coordinates