Geophysics 424 September 2014

B : Resistivity of rocks and minerals

B1 : Basic physics of electrical current flow

B1.1 Simple resistor in circuit

Ohms Law states that for a resistor, the resistance (in ohms), R is defined as

R=

V
where V = voltage (volts); I = current flow (amps)
I

B1.2 Electric current flow in a finite volume

Ohms Law as written above describes a resistor, which has no dimensions. In
considering the flow of electric current in the Earth, we must consider the flow of electric
current in a finite volume. Consider a cylinder of length L and cross section A that carries
a current I

Current density = J =

I
A

Resistance of cylinder, R

L L
=
A
A

where is the electrical resistivity of the material (ohm-m). This is the resistance per
unit volume and is an inherent property of the material.

RA
L

If we were to examine two cylinders made of the same material, but with different
dimensions, they would have the same electrical resistivity, but different electrical
resistances. Often it is more convenient to discuss the conductivity () which is
measured in Siemens per metre.
= 1/
1

Geophysics 424 September 2014

B1.3 Electric current flow across a slab of material
Consider an electric current (I) flowing through a slab of material with resistivity, and
cross-sectional area, A

Applying Ohms Law

R=

x
A

V
I
=

V
I

Rearranging gives

V I
=
A
x

Taking limits

dV
I
=E=
= J
dx
A

Thus Ohms Law for a continuous medium can be written as

electric field strength (Volts per m)

J = E where E is the

Geophysics 424 September 2014

B1.4 Charge carriers
Electric current will flow through a medium as charge carriers move under an applied
electric field (E). How is the resistivity () related to the number and type of charge
carrier? Consider current flow through a cylinder of length L and area A.

n = number of charge carriers per unit volume

q = the charge on each carrier
Consider one of the charge carriers. It will accelerate under the applied electric field until
it strikes an atom or another charge carrier. This will reduce the velocity, and it will then
start to accelerate again. This process will repeat itself, but over a long time it will move
through the material with an average velocity, v

The ease with which the charge carrier can move is described by the mobility, , which is
defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field = v/E
In a time t, the electric charges will move a distance x

= vt.

This corresponds to a volume of charge carriers

= Avt

The total charge leaving the cylinder is thus q

= nqAvt

By definition, the current I =

Thus current density, J =

q nqAvt
=
= nqAv
t
t

I
= nqv = nqE
A

By comparison with Ohms Law, we see that

1
1
=
nq
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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Thus a material will have a low electrical resistivity (high conductivity) if it has many,
highly mobile, charge carriers.
If several types of charge carriers are present, then the contribution from each charge
carrier must be summed.

B2 : Conduction mechanisms in mineral, brine and molten rock

Several conduction mechanisms are possible in typical Earth materials. A list of some
minerals and typical resistivity values is given on Telford, page 285.

B2.1 Electronic conduction

Electronic conduction occurs in pure metals. The charge carriers are electrons that exist
as a gas between ions and can move very easily through the metal. Thus both and n are
high giving a very low resistivity (~ 1.6 10-8 m)

http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/bonding/metallic.htm

B2.2 Semiconductors
Semi conduction occurs in minerals such as sulphides. Here the charge carriers are
electrons, ions or holes. Compared to metals, the and n are lower, and thus the
resistivity is higher (typically 10-3 to 10-5 m). This type of conduction occurs in
igneous rocks and usually shows a temperature dependence of the form

E
kT

where T is the temperature in K, E is an activation energy and k is the Boltzmann

constant.

Geophysics 424 September 2014

Most resistive material is diamond, with carbon atoms
covalently bonded in linked tetrahedra. There are no
naturally occurring charge carriers. Huge forces would
be required to rip atoms from the lattice and create
charge carriers. Thus both and n are very low, giving
~ 1010 m

Note that if the carbon atoms are rearranged, they form graphite (right). The 3-fold covalent bonding leaves free electrons that can easily move along the sheets of linked
hexagons.
The electrons cannot move across the sheets, giving a very low resistivity parallel to the
sheets. However the resistivity is higher in a direction orthogonal the sheets. This is an
example of electrical anisotropy (more later!)
B2.3 Ionic conduction in brines
In liquids the ions can freely move. As
the salinity of a brine increases, the
resistivity decreases as more charge
carriers become available. Empirical
studies (Block, 2001) show that the
resistivity of brines (w ) in the Alberta
Basin varies as:
w = 4.5 TDS-0.85
where TDS is the amount of total
dissolved solids in g/litre.

Geophysics 424 September 2014

Seawater has a salinity of around 30 g/litre, and this can also be expressed as 30,000 ppm
The resistivity of a brine varies with temperature, as shown by the figure below from
Ussher et al (2000). Note that:
At constant salinity, resistivity decreases with temperature in the range 0
300C. This is because the ions become more mobile as their thermal energy
increases and bonding with the polar water molecules decreases.
Above a temperature of 300C, the resistivity of the brine increases. This is
analogous to the effect seen in most metals where increasing temperature
increases resistivity. This is because the increased thermal energy of ions and
molecules (vibration) impedes the motion of ions through the solution.
Geothermal fluids can have a salinity significantly higher than seawater. This can
cause corrosion problems in geothermal plants.
This temperature variation of brine resistivity is important in deep hydrocarbon
reservoirs and geothermal exploration.

For more details about the resistivity of aqueous fluids, see my recent review article
(Unsworth and Rondenay, 2013). This book chapter can be downloaded at :
http://www.ualberta.ca/~unsworth/recent_papers.html

Geophysics 424 September 2014

B2.4 Ionic conduction in magma
When a rock melts, ions can easily move through the liquid and carry electric current. In
a silicic melt, the sodium ions are the most important charge carriers since they are
smaller and more mobile than the larger potassium ions.
In a silicic melt, the anions are the silica tetrahedra ( SiO44- ) and they have a low
mobility owing to their size. Thus they do not contribute much to melt conductivity.
Typical melts have an electrical conductivity in the range 0.1 10 S/m. The melt
conductivity depends primarily on temperature, sodium content, water content and
silica content.
A compilation of laboratory experiments is described by Pommier and Le Trong (2011)
and can be found on the SIGMELTS webpage. This can be used to calculate the
resistivity of a melt of any composition.
SIGMELTS : http://www.calcul.isto.cnrs-orleans.fr/sigmelts/

B3 : Resistivity of two phase systems : Archies Law

A typical sedimentary rock consists of
mineral grains (white) and pores (green).
The fraction of the rock occupied by the
fluid is called the porosity (). This is a
number in the range 0 to 1.
Possible pore fluids include water, oil,
air, natural gas and melt. Just one of
these fluids can present as can a
mixture.

If the pore fluid is saline water, then the resistivity of the pore fluid (w) will be much
lower than the resistivity of the mineral grains (r). In this scenario, Archie (1942)
discovered an empirical relationship for the resistivity of a completely saturated whole
rock (o) is given by

o
= F = m
w
where F is called the formation factor.

Geophysics 424 September 2014

Note that the resistivity of the rock grains (r) does not appear in Archiess Law. This is
because it is assumed to be so high, that no conduction occurs through the rock grains.
In cases where there is significant conduction in the grains, Archies Law is not valid.
For example, in a partially molten rock, the fluid can be melt. At high temperatures there
will be thermally activated conduction through the grains. A modified Archies Law, or
other models (e.g. modified brick layer model) should be used.
On a log-log plot of o as a function of , a straight line should result with slope m.
This exponent m termed the cementation factor. Typical values include: 1.8-2.0 for
consolidated sandstones to 1.3 for unconsolidated sands.
The graph below is taken from Archie (1942) from Nacatoch sand from Lousiana. What
is the value of m for this set of samples?
What is the difference between permeability and porosity? Are they correlated?

The following plots show theoretical results when w = 1 m

Geophysics 424 September 2014

Example of using Archies law

Magnetotelluric exploration of the San Andreas
Fault at Parkfield in California has revealed that the
fault is characterized by a wedge of low-resistivity
rock.
This has been interpreted a zone of breccia, termed
the damaged zone (Unsworth et al, 1997). In this
area the groundwater is very saline with w = 0.26
m.
What porosity is required to explain a bulk
resistivity of 3 m (orange zone)? Consider the
possible values of m, and assume the rock is
saturated.
Note that this calculation assumes that no clay is present. As we will see later, clay
minerals provide an alternate conduction mechanism. Thus estimates of porosity that
ignore the presence of layer will give an upper limit to the possible porosity.

Physical interpretation of the cementation factor, m

Note that the elongated pores will connect to form an interconnected electrical network at
a lower porosity than the spherical pores. Is the permeability of the two cases different?
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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Partial saturation
The analysis above assumes that all the pore space is filled with the low resistivity water.
Archies study was motivated by the application to hydrocarbon reservoirs, and thus
partial saturation must be considered. Typically oil and gas in the pore spaces will be
resistive. Additional experiments by Archie showed that the bulk resistivity () is given
by

= S n
o
where S is the saturation, defined as the fraction of pore space filled with fluid and n is
(another) empirical constant.
What value of n is implied in the figure
on the left that shows S (vertical axis) as
a function of /o (horizontal axis)?
Figure 3, Archie (1942)

Combining the above equations gives the general form of Archies Law

= w S n m
Archies Law can also be extended to include the case where some conduction occurs
through the solid phase (Ussher et al, 2000; Glover et al, 2000).
This is important when studying partially molten rocks, since the temperature is high
enough for some conduction to occur through the unmolten grains (minerals with highest
melting points)

B4 : Influence of fluid geometry on bulk resistivity

To emphasize how fluid distribution controls the bulk resistivity, consider the two rock
samples that both have =0.1 that comprises a set of cracks.
In the first example the rock (1000 m) and fluid (0.3 m) form a series electrical
circuit. In the second case, the rock and fluid form a parallel circuit.
What is the overall electrical resistance of each case? Use the space next to each figure to
calculate the resistance of the cube (1 m x 1 m x 1 m).
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Geophysics 424 September 2014

This illustrates that the anisotropy of rock can be an important factor in determining the
overall resistivity.
The resistivity can also be defined for intermediate values of fluid fraction (porosity) and
details will be investigated on Assignment 1 in Geophysics 424. The results are sketched
below for the case of rock = 1000 m and f = 0.3 m.

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Note that at low porosity (low fluid fraction) Archies Law for m =2 predicts a resistivity
greater than 1000 m. This is clearly impossible, and shows that Archies Law can be
invalid at low porosity, with poorly connected pore fluids. With limited fluid present,
conduction through the mineral grains will be significant.
We can also define the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds that are closely related to the above
example. These are (approximately) the maximum (HS +) and minimum (HS -) possible
resistivities for a given amount of fluid in a rock.

Review question : What factors can cause Archies Law to be invalid?

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

B5 : Clay minerals
Clay has two meanings. It can refer
to certain sheet silicate minerals,
and also to sediment that has
particles smaller than 1/256 mm.
These
definitions
are
not
independent as weathering of clay
minerals usually forms small
particles.

If a rock contains clay minerals,

then an extra conduction pathway is
possible via the electrical double
layer that forms at the interface of
the clay mineral and the water.
This effectively allows ions to move through the system with a lower effective viscosity
than in the liquid phase.

Some cations are held tightly right next to the surface

Others held more loosely further away
Anion exclusion zone next to surface
Soluble cations are reached only when concentrations of cations and anions
are equal

http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/robert.fuller/370%20Files/Week5Ion%20Exchange/Electricdoublelayer.htm

Waxman and Smits (1968) developed an equation for the resistivity due to conduction
through both the liquid and the double layer

F
( BQv +

where B is the equivalent conductance of the ions in solution and F is the formation
factor and

Qv = CEC (1 ) m

with m the matrix grain density and CEC the cation exchange capacity of the clay.
Thus the term BQv is a measure of how much the clay contributes to conduction.

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Values of CEC vary from one type of clay to another. For example: smectite, CEC = 120;
illite, CEC = 20.
Application to geothermal exploration
In geothermal exploration, a clay cap is often found above the geothermal reservoir. The
clay minerals are formed as the hot water causes alteration of the rock. Smectite has a
low resistivity, owing to the high value of CEC. At temperatures above 200 C the most
stable mineral is illite. This has a higher resistivity owing to the reduced CEC.
The clay cap has a low permeability and traps the high temperature water in the
geothermal reservoir below.
The figure below from Ussher et al., (2000) shows how this change in resistivity can be
measured at a geothermal field in Indonesia. The electrical resistivity was measured by
both (a) a well log shown in the left column and (b) a surface based magnetotelluric
survey shown in the middle column. Note that both methods show a low resistivity layer
that is coincident with the smectite zone (right column).

The depth to the base of the

smectite layer can thus be
determined by measuring
electrical resistivity. This
in turn can be used to infer
the depth of the 200C
isotherm and often the top
of the geothermal reservoir.
This exploration strategy is
effective once a well has
been
completed
and
logged. Extrapolation away
from the well can be done
with
surface
based
geophysics, and is much
cheaper
than
drilling
multiple wells.
More about clay minerals and double layers at:
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/Chemistry/Electrochemis/Electrochemical/Electric
alDouble/ElectricalDouble.htm
http://www.zeta-meter.com/5min.pdf

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

B6 : Other causes of high electrical conductivity (low electrical resistivity)
In the upper 10 km, aqueous pore fluids dominate the resistivity of most rocks. However,
other materials, even in small amounts, can dramatically lower the resistivity of a rock.
These include:
Graphite films: Proposed as an explanation of why the lower crust often has a high
conductivity (Frost et al., 2000). This requires interconnection of the graphite films,
which may be difficult to maintain over geological time scales. See the debate by Yardley
and Valley (1997) and Wannamaker (2000). These papers refer to lot of prior literature
on an important research question. The alternative explanation of the lower crustal, low
resistivity is aqueous fluids.
Iron oxides and metallic sulphides: Usually localized in a discrete body, and allows
detection of these deposits with airborne EM methods (see later in this class).
Partial melting: Rocks are
complex mineral assemblages, so
they dont melt at one temperature.
In a partial melt, molten rock
collects along the boundaries of
mineral grains that melt at higher
temperature.
Typical resistivities of partial
melts are shown on the right and
taken from Shankland and Waff
(1977). These values are for dry
rocks. Wet rocks melt at lower
temperatures and the water
generally raises the conductivity.
The wetting angle () determines the shape of
the melt pockets and is controlled by the surface
energies.

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Consider a drop of liquid on a glass surface (S). If the value of is large (A and B) the
liquid stays in a drop. If is smaller (C) the drop spreads out and wets the surface.
Figures above taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetting where more details can be
found.
Similar effects occur when melt is in contact with mineral grains in a partial melt. If the
wetting angle is relatively small (< 60), the melt will be distributed in tubes along the
grain boundaries. If > 60 then the melt will remain in localized pockets.

High wetting angle (5% melt)

Low wetting angle (5% melt)

Laboratory experiments (suggest that partial melts
seem to interconnect at low melt fractions, with a
relatively low wetting angle (see figure on left from
ten Grotenhuis et al., 2005).
Thus Archies Law can be used to calculate the
overall resistivity with m = 1.3 (ten Grotenhuis et al.,
2005) or alternatively the HS + bound can be used
(Li et al., 2003).

Partial melting is believed to be widespread in the asthenosphere and beneath geothermal

fields and volcanoes. Partial melting may also occur in the crust tectonically active areas
(Tibet, Altiplano) where MT surveys reveal a zone of low resistivity in the crust.
The magnetotelluric (MT) surveys image a layer around 3 m. Recent laboratory studies
have confirmed that these resistivities are consistent with a wet, granitic melt (Gaillard et
al, 2004). Tectonic processes and erosion extrude these rocks in the Himalaya, some 1012 million years later.

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Beaumont et al., 2001

Gaillard et al., (2004)

Diffusion of hydrogen : At the high temperatures found in the upper mantle, water
molecules dissociate into ions. The hydrogen ions (H+) can act as charge carriers and
lower the resistivity from the high values expected for dry olivine.
Experiments by different research groups gives very different estimates of the change in
olivine resistivity for a given concentration of H+ (Karato, 1990, Wang et al., 2006,
Yoshino et al., 2009). These differences are significant, and support very different
interpretations of upper mantle conductivity (e.g. Karato (1990) proposes that only H+ is
needed, while Yoshino et al., (2006) propose that partial melt is needed.
The anisotropy of olivine may cause different diffusion rates in different directions and
thus produce electrical anisotropy that is anisotropic (Simpson and Tommasi, 2005).
Grain boundary effects : Some conduction mechanisms occur along grain boundaries.
Thus a change in grain size could enhance the conductivity. Could this explain upper
mantle conductivity variations? See ten Grotenhuis et al., (2004) for a discussion.
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Geophysics 424 September 2014

B7 : Summary of resistivity of rocks

Factors that will DECREASE the resistivity of a rock

(a) Add more pore fluid
(b) Increase the salinity of the pore fluid - more ions to conduct electricity
(c) Fracture rock to create extra pathways for current flow
(d) Add clay minerals
(e) Keep fluid content constant, but improve interconnection between pores
Factors that will INCREASE the resistivity of a rock
(a) Remove pore fluid
(b) Lower salinity of pore fluid
(c) Compaction - less pathways for electric current flow
(d) Lithification - block pores by deposition of minerals
(e) Keep fluid content constant, but decrease connection between pores

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

Crust and mantle

Crust/mantle definition is based on chemical properties of rocks

Crust / mantle separated by the Moho
Thickness of continental crust varies from 20 90 km

Lithosphere-asthenosphere

Lithosphere-asthenosphere definition based on mechanical properties

Separated by lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB)
Depth range of LAB is 150 250 km

Causes of high / low resistivity by layer

(a) Sedimentary basins : Low resistivity due to sedimentary rocks with significant porosity
and saline pore fluids. Resistivity rises with depth due to compaction, and reduction of
porosity.
(b) Upper crust: High resistivity due to low porosity crystalline rocks (igneous and
metamorphic).
(c) Lower crust : Low resistivity. Fluids or graphite?
(d) Upper mantle : Intermediate resistivity
(e) Asthenosphere : Low resistivity, few percent partial melt.

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Geophysics 424 September 2014

B8 : References
Archie GE, The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics,
Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Pet. Eng., 146, 54-62, 1942.
Beaumont C, RA Jamieson, MH Nguyen and B Lee, Himalayan Tectonics explained by extrusion
of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation, Nature, 414, 738742, 2001.
Block D, 2001, Water Resistivity Atlas of Western Canada Abstract, paper presented at Rock the
Foundation Convention of Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, June 18-22, Calgary.
Frost RB, WS Fyfe, K Tazaki and T Chan, Grain-boundary graphite in rocks and implications for
high electrical conductivity in the lower crust, Nature, 340, 134-136, 2000.
Gaillard F, B Scaillet, M Pichavant, Evidence for present-day leucogranite pluton growth in
Tibet, Geology, 32, 801-4, 2004.
Glover P, MJ Hole and J Pous, A modified Archies Law for two conducting phases, Earth and
Planetary Letters, 180, 369-383, 2000.
Karato S, The role of hydrogen in the electrical conductivity of the upper mantle, Nature, 347348, 1990.
Li S, MJ Unsworth, JR Booker, W Wei, H Tan and AG Jones, Partial melt or aqueous fluids in
the Tibetan crust: constraints from INDETH magnetotelluric data, Geophys. J. Int., 153, 289304, 2003.
Pommier A, E Le Trong, SIGMELTS : A web portal for electrical conductivity calculations in
geosciences, Computers and Geosciences, 37, 1450-1459, 2011.
Shankland TJ and HS Waff, Partial melting and Electrical conductivity anomalies in the upper
mantle, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 5409-5417, 1977.
Simpson F, and A Tommasi, Hydrogen diffusivity and electircal anisotropy of a peridotite
mantle, GJI, 160, 1092-1102, 2005.
ten Grotenhuis SM, MR Drury, CJ Spiers, CJ Peach, Melt distribution in olivine rocks based on
electrical conductivity measurements, J. Geophys. Research, 110,B12201, 2005.
ten Grotenhuis SM, MR Drury, CJ Peach, CJ Spiers, Electrical properties of fine-grained olivine:
Evidence for grain boundary transport, JGR, 109, B06203, doi:10.1029/2003JB002799, 2004.
Unsworth MJ, PE Malin, GD Egbert and JR Booker, Internal Structure of the San Andreas Fault
Zone at Parkfield, California, Geology, 25, 359-362, 1997.
Unsworth MJ, S Rondenay, Mapping the distribution of fluids in the crust and lithospheric mantle
utilizing geophysical methods, Chapter 13 in Metasomatism and Metamorphism: The Role of
Fluids in Crustal and Upper Mantle Processes, 535-598, edited by DE Harlov and H
Austrheim, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Lectures in Earth Sciences, doi 10.1007/9783-642-28394-9_13, 2013.
Ussher G, C Harvey, R Johnstone, E Anderson, Understanding the resistivities observed in
Geothermal systems, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, Kyushu, Japan, 2000.
Wang D, M Mookherjee, Y Xu, S Karato, The effect of water on the electrical conductivity of
olivine, Nature, 977-980, 2006.
Wannamaker PE (2000), Comment on The petrologic case for a dry lower crust by Bruce W.
D. Yardley and John W. Valley, J. Geophys. Res., 105(B3), 60576064.
Waxman MH, LJ M. Smits, Electrical Conductivities in Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal, 243, 107-122, 1968.
Yardley B and J Valley, The petrologic case for a dry lower crust, J.Geophys. Res., 102, 12,173,
1997.
Yoshino T, T Matsuzaki, A Shatskiy, T Katsura, The effect of water on the electrical conductivity
of olivine aggregates and its implications for the electrical structure of the upper mantle,
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 288, 291-300, 2009.
Yoshino T, T Matsuzaki, S Yamashita, T Katsura, Hydrous olivine unable to account for
conductivity anomaly at the top of the asthenosphere, Nature, 443, 973-976, 2006.

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