Rudolf Virchow - "Omnis cellula e cellula"

THE KEY ROLES OF CELL DIVISION

Cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair
involves the distribution of identical genetic material to two daughter
cells
Cell division distributes identical sets of chromosomes to daughter
cells
genome - genetic material of an organism
replication and distribution is manageable because DNA are packaged
into chromosomes
somatic cells - all body cells except reproductive cells (46
chromosomes - humans)
gametes - reproductive cells; sperm or egg cell (23 chromosomes humans)
chromatin - DNA-protein complex; uncondensed chromosome
sister chromatids - contains identical copies of the chromosome's
DNA molecule (letter V)
centromere - region that joins two sister chromatids
mitosis - division of the nucleus
cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm
meiosis - yields daughter cells that have half as many chromosomes
as the parent cell
THE MITOTIC CELL CYCLE
The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle
mitosis is only one part of the cell cycle
mitotic (M) phase - consists of mitosis and cytokinesis; shortest part
of the cell cycle
o prophase
condensing of chromatin fibers --> chromosomes
nucleoli disappears
two identical sister chromatids
mitotic spindle begins to form (made of microtubules from
two centrosomes)
centrosomes move away from each other
o prometaphase
nuclear envelope fragments
more condensed
presence of kinetochore (located in the centromerewhere microtubules attach)
o metaphase
centrosomes at opposite poles of cell
chromosomes align on the metaphase plate
kinetochores are attached to microtubules from opposite
poles
o anaphase
paired centromeres separate

chromatid --> chromosome

moves toward opposite poles
microtubules shorten
poles of the cell move farther apart
each pole ha equivalent and complete number of
chromosomes
o telophase and cytokinesis
nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell
daughter nuclei form at two poles
nuclear envelopes from nuclear fragments
chromatin fiber becomes less tightly coiled
cytokinesis - division of cytoplasm
(animal cells) - cleavage furrow
(plant cells) - cell plate
interphase - cell grows and copies its chromosomes
o G1 phase ("first gap")
o S phase ("synthesis") - chromosomes are duplicated
o G2 phase ("second gap")
nucleus is well defined
bounded by nuclear envelope
two centrosomes
asters - radial arrays of microtubules from the
centrosome
duplicated chromosomes
loosely packed chromatin fibers
o all three - cell produces proteins and cytoplasmic organelles
G1 phase S phase G2 phase M phase
The mitotic spindle distributes chromosomes to daughter cells
mitotic spindle begins to form during prophase
made up of fibers from microtubules
centrosome - microtubule organizing center
during interphase, a single centrosome replicates to form two
centrosomes
centrosomes move farteher apart as spindle grows out
kinetochore - section of DNA at the centromere
two kinetochores in one centromere
kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase by
depolymerizing at kinetochore ends
motor proteins
nonkinetochore microtubules - elongates the whole cell
Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm
(animal cell) - formation of cleavage furrow
(plant cell) - formation of cell plate
Mitosis in eukaryotes may have evolved from binary fission in
bacteria

REGULATION OF THE CELL CYCLE

A molecular control system drives the cell cycle

cell cycle is driven by specific chemical signals in the cytoplasm
cell-cycle control system - triggers and coordinates key events in
the cell cycle
cell cycle is regulated at certain checkpoints by internal and external
controls
Cell-cycle checkpoints
o checkpoint - critical control point where stop and go signals
can regulate the cycle
o checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases
o G1 checkpoint - "restriction point" in mammalian cells;
completes cell cycle and divides; if it does not divide it enters G0
phase (nondividing state)
Cell-cycle clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases
o kinases are the ones that drive the cell cycle, but they are
almost always inactive
o kinases must attach to cyclin
o these kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases
o maturation promoting factor - example of cyclin-Cdk
complex
Internal and external cues help regulate the cell cycle
Internal Signals: Messages from the Kinetochores
o kinetochores that are not yet attached to microtubules delays
anaphase
External Signals: Growth Factors
o growth factor - protein released that stimulates cells to divide
o density-dependent inhibition - crowded cells stop dividing;
cells divide until they from a single layer
o anchorage dependence - for cells to divide they must be
attached to a substratum
Cancer cells have escaped from cell-cycle controls
HeLa cells - immortal cells from Henrietta Lacks
tumor - mass of abnormal cells within an otherwise normal tissue
benign tumor - abnormal cells remain on the original site; not harmful
malignant tumor - harmful and can become invasive to impair the
functions of organs
metastasis - spread of cancer cells beyond their original site
treated using high-energy radiation or chemotherapy