University of the Cordilleras

Introduction to Logic
Atty. Nestor Mondoc

Feb 21, 2015

Symbolic Logic

Nagulman, Harmony T.

Symbolic Logic

Two bodies of logical theory:

1. Classical or Traditional logic (chapter 5 through 7)
Fundamental elements were terms and the relation of classes of things is central.
Traditional logic is the system of logic originally formulated by Aristotle, the Greek philosopher,
in the fourth century BC. Traditional logic involves mostly the study of the classical syllogism.
Traditional logic has also been called term logic, since it deals primarily (but not
exclusively) with the relation of terms in an argument (in this case, the terms man, mortal, and
Socrates). Whether the reasoning is valid depends on the proper arrangement of these terms in an
argument.1
Here is a classic example of a simple syllogism, which we will use shortly as a way to see
how the two systems of traditional and modern logic are different:

All men are mortal

Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal2
2. Modern logic
Although traditional categorical logic can be used to represent and assess many of our most
common patterns of reasoning, modern logicians have developed much more comprehensive and
powerful systems for expressing rational thought. These newer logical languages are often called
"symbolic logic," since they employ special symbols to represent clearly even highly complex logical
relationships.3
Modern Logic begins by first identifying the fundamental logical connectives on which
deductive arguments depends. Using these connectives, a general account of such arguments is
given, and methods for testing the validity of arguments are developed.
There are five connectives: negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and
biconditional. In the notation of symbolic logic, these connectives are represented by operators.
With symbols we can perform some logical operations almost mechanically, with eye, which
might otherwise demand great effort. It may seem paradoxical, but a symbolic language therefore
helps us to accomplish some intellectual tasks without having to think too much.
The system of modern logic is in some ways less elegant than analytical syllogistic, but it is more
powerful. Using the approach taken by modern logic with its more versatile symbolic language, we
can pursue the aims of deductive analysis directly and permit more efficient achievement of the
central aim of deductive logic: discriminating between valid and invalid argument. 4

Statement
1 http://vereloqui.blogspot.com/2012/12/the-difference-between-traditional-and.html

2 14th Edition of Introduction to Logic by Copi, Cohen & McMahon

3 http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e10a.htm
4 Copi, Cohen chap 8

To understand the symbolic representation used in propositional logic, we must distinguish Simple
statements from Compound statements.

Simple statement
- Does not contain another statement as a component.
- Contains a subject and a predicate.
E.g.

Charlie is neat
S
P
James Joyce wrote Ulysses.5
S
P

Compound statement
It contains at least one simple statement as a component along with a connective.

E.g.

Either Charlie is neat or Charlie is sweet.

1
2
Paris is the capital of France and Rome is the capital of Italy.
1
2

Compound statements can be formed by inserting the word NOT, or joining two or more
statements with connective words such as AND, OR, IFTHEN, ONLY IF, IF AND ONLY IF. (Will be
discussed on the later part)

Logical operators:
a. Negation (~)
Truth function:
The ~ signifies logical negation; it simply reverses the truth value of any statement (simple or
compound) in front of which it appears: if the original is true, the ~ statement is false, and if the
original is false, the ~ statement is true. Thus, its meaning can be represented by the truth-table
below.6

The
function,
assertion
in a

~p

English expression "It is not the case that . . ." serves the same
though of course we have many other methods of negating an
in ordinary languagesometimes the single word "not" embedded
sentence is enough to do the job.

The tilde ~ symbol is used to translate any negated simple or compound statements.
Rolex does not make computers
It is not the case that Rolex make computers
It is false that Rolex makes computers

5 Patrick Hurley
6 http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e10a.htm

~R
~R
~R

Jamal and Derek will not both be elected

~ (J D)

It is not the case that Rolex makes computer nor

1
Honda makes computer.
2

~ (R H)

Morgans law
The rules allow the expression of conjunctions and disjunctions purely in terms of each
other via negation.
Examples:
~ (R H)

~ [~(R v H) v A]

~(R) v ~ (H)

(R v H) ~ A

As these example shows, the tilde is always placed in front or before the proposition it
negate. All of the other operators are placed between two propositions. Also unlike other
propositions, the tilde cannot be used to connect two propositions. 7

Argument Forms and refutation

by Logical Analogy

This method of refutation by logical analogy points the way to an excellent general technique
for testing arguments. To prove the invalidity of an argument, it suffices to formulate another
argument that:
(1) Has exactly the same form as the first and;
(2) Has true premises and false conclusions.
This method is based on the fact that validity and invalidity are purely formal characteristics of
arguments, which is to say that any two arguments that have exactly the same form are either
both valid or both invalid, regardless of any differences in the subject matter with which they are
concerned8
This informal account of validity must now be made more precise. To do this, we introduce the
concept of an argument form. Consider the following two arguments:
Modus ponens: affirms an antecedent
Valid argument
If it rained last night then the ground is wet
It rained last night____________________
Therefore, the ground is wet
Fallacy of affirms the consequent

7 Patrick Hurley and Copi, Cohen chap 8

8 Copi, Cohen chap 8

If P then Q
P_________
therefore Q

 Not valid
If it rained last night, then the ground is wet
If P then Q
The ground is wet_______________________________Q_________
Therefore, It rained last night
therefore P