EARLY PHILIPPINES POLITICS

Before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers in the Philippines in the 16th century, the
Barangays were well-organized independent villages - and in some cases, cosmopolitan
sovereign principalities, which functioned much like a city-state. The Barangay was the
dominant organizational pattern among indigenous communities in the Philippine archipelago.
The name barangay originated from balangay, a Malay word meaning "sailboat".
Difference from the modern civilization
The word Barangay in modern use refers to the smallest administrative division in the
Philippines, also known by its former Spanish adopted name, the barrio. This modern context for
the use of the term barangay was adopted during the administration of President Ferdinand
Marcos when he ordered the replacement of the old barrios and municipal councils. This act was
eventually codified under the 1991 Local Government Code.
There are a number of distinctions between the modern Barangay or Barrio, and the citystates and independent principalities encountered by the Spanish when they first arrived in 1521
and established relatively permanent settlements in 1574. The most glaring difference would be
that the modern entity represents a geographical entity, the pre-colonial barangays represented
loyalty to a particular head (datu). Even during the early days of Spanish rule, it was not unusual
for people living beside each other to actually belong to different barangays. They owed their
loyalty to different Datus. Also, while the modern barangay represents only the smallest
administrative unit of government, the barangay of precolonial times was either independent, or
belonged to what was only a loose confederation of several barangays, over which the rulers
picked among themselves who would be foremost - known as the Pangulo or Rajah. In most
cases, his function was to make decisions which would involve multiple barangays, such as
disputes between members of two different barangays. Internally, each datu retained his
jurisdiction.
Description
Historically, the first barangays started as relatively small communities of around 50 to
100 families. Most villages have only thirty to one hundred houses and the population varies
from one hundred to five hundred persons. When the Spaniards came, they found communities
with twenty to thirty people only. They also encountered large and prestigious principalities.
Theories, as well as local oral traditions, say that the original "barangays" were coastal
settlements formed as a result of the migration of these Malayo-Polynesian people (who came to
the archipelago) by boat from other places in Southeast Asia. Most of the ancient barangays were
coastal or riverine in nature. This is because most of the people were relying on fishing for
supply of protein and for their livelihood. They also travelled mostly by water up and down
rivers, and along the coasts. Trails always followed river systems, which were also a major
source of water for bathing, washing, and drinking.

The coastal villages were more accessible to trade with foreigners. These were ideal
places for economic activity to develop. Business with traders from other Countries also meant
contact with other cultures and civilizations, such as those of Japan, Han Chinese, Indian people,
and Arab people.
In time, these coastal communities acquired more advanced cultures, with developed
social structures (sovereign principalities), ruled by established royalties and nobilities.
Social Organization and Stratification
The barangays in some coastal places in Panay, Manila, Cebu, Jolo, and Butuan, with
cosmopolitan cultures and trade relations with other Countries in Asia, were already established
Principalities before the coming of the Spaniards. In these regions, even though the majority of
these barangays were not large settlements, yet they had organized societies dominated by the
same type of recognized aristocracy (with birthright claim to allegiance from followers), as those
found in established Principalities. The aristocratic group in these pre-colonial societies was
called the Datu Class. Its members were presumably the descendants of the first settlers on the
land or, in the case of later arrivals, of those who were Datus at the time of migration or
conquest. Some of these Principalities have remained, even until the present, in unhispanized
and mostly Islamized parts of the Philippines, in Mindanao.
Social Organization and Stratification of Pre-colonial Principalities in the Visayas
In more developed barangays in Visayas (e.g. Cebu, Bohol, and Panay) which were never
conquered by Spain but were subjugated as vassals by means of pacts, peace treaties, and
reciprocal alliances, the datu was at the top of the social order in a sakop or haop (elsewhere
referred to as barangay).
This social order was divided into three classes. The members of the tumao class (which
includes the datu) were the nobility of pure royal descent, compared by the Boxer Codex to the
titled Spanish lords (seores de titulo). Below the tumao were the vassal warrior class known as
the timawa, characterized by the Jesuit priest Francisco Ignatio Alcina as "the third rank of
nobility" and by the conquistador Miguel de Loarca as "free men, neither chiefs nor slaves".
These were people of lower nobility who were required to render military service to the datu in
hunts, land wars (Mangubat or Managayau), or sea raids (Mangahat or Magahat). Aside from
this, the timawa also paid taxes and tribute (buwis or handug) and were sometimes called upon
for agricultural labor to the datu, though the personal vassals of the datu may be exempt from
such obligations (the latter were characterized by the Boxer Codex as "knights and hidalgos).
Below the timawa were the oripun class (commoners and slaves), who rendered services to the
tumao and timawa for debts or favors.

To maintain purity of bloodline, the tumao usually marry only among their kind, often
seeking high ranking brides in other barangay, abducting them, or contracting brideprices in
gold, slaves and jewelry. Meanwhile, the datu keep their marriageable daughters secluded for
protection and prestige. These well-guarded and protected highborn women were called binokot
(literally "veiled" or "swaddled"), and the datu of pure descent (at least for four generations)
were called potli nga datu or lubus nga datu.
Social Organization and Stratification of Pre-colonial Principalities in the Tagalog Region
The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a less stable and more complex
social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga and Laguna.
Enjoying a more extensive commerce than those in Visayas, having the influence of Bornean
political contacts, and engaging in farming wet rice for a living, the Tagalogs were described by
the Spanish Augustinian friar Martin de Rada as more traders than warriors.
The more complex social structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of
the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating. A Jesuit priest Francisco Colin
made an attempt to give an approximate comparison of it with the Visayan social structure in the
middle of the 17th century. The term datu or lakan, or apo refers to the chief, but the noble class
to which the datu belonged to was known as the maginoo class. Any male member of the
maginoo class can become a datu by personal achievement.
The term timawa referring to freemen came into use in the social structure of the
Tagalogs within just twenty years after the coming of the Spaniards. The term, however, was
being incorrectly applied to former alipin (commoner and slave class) who have escaped
bondage by payment, favor, or flight. Moreover, the Tagalog timawa did not have the military
prominence of the Visayan timawa. The equivalent warrior class in the Tagalog society was
present only in Laguna, and they were known as the maharlika class.
At the bottom of the social hierarchy are the members of the alipin class. There are two
main subclasses of the alipin class . The aliping namamahay who owned their own houses and
serve their masters by paying tribute or working on their fields were the commoners and serfs,
while the aliping sa gigilid who lived in their masters' houses were the servants and slaves.
Hispanization
Upon the arrival of the Spanish, smaller ancient barangays were combined to form towns. Every
barangay within a town was headed by the cabeza de barangay (barangay chief), who formed
part of the Principala - the elite ruling class of the municipalities of the Spanish Philippines.
This position was inherited from the datu, and came to be known as such during the Spanish
regime. The Spanish Monarch ruled each barangay through the cabeza, who also collected taxes
(called tribute) from the residents for the Spanish Crown.

Economy During the Spanish Colonial Period

Ferdinand Magellan was the first European recorded to have landed in the Philippines.
He arrived in March 1521 during his circumnavigation of the globe. He claimed land for the
king
of
Spain
but
was
killed
by
a
local
chief.
Following several more Spanish expeditions, the first permanent settlement was established in
Cebu in 1565. After defeating a local Muslim ruler, the Spanish set up their capital at Manila in
1571, and they named their new colony after King Philip II of Spain. In doing so, the Spanish
sought to acquire a share in the lucrative spice trade, develop better contacts with China and
Japan, and gain converts to Christianity. Only the third objective was eventually realized.
As with other Spanish colonies, church and state became inseparably linked in carrying out
Spanish objectives. Several Roman Catholic religious orders were assigned the responsibility of
Christianizing the local population. The civil administration built upon the traditional village
organization and used traditional local leaders to rule indirectly for Spain. Through these efforts,
a new cultural community was developed, but Muslims (known as Moros by the Spanish) and
upland
tribal
peoples
remained
detached
and
alienated.
Trade in the Philippines centered around the Manila galleons, which sailed from Acapulco on
the west coast of Mexico (New Spain) with shipments of silver bullion and minted coin that
were exchanged for return cargoes of Chinese goods, mainly silk textiles and porcelain. There
was no direct trade with Spain and little exploitation of indigenous natural resources. Most
investment was in the galleon trade. But, as this trade thrived, another unwelcome element was
introduced

sojourning
Chinese
entrepreneurs
and
service
providers.
During the Seven Years War (175663), British East India Company forces captured Manila.
Although the Philippines was returned to Spain at the end of the war, the British occupation
marked the beginning of the end of the old order. Rebellions broke out in the north, and while
the Spanish were busy fighting the British, Moros raided from the south. The Chinese
community, resentful of Spanish discrimination, supported the British with laborers and armed
men.
The restoration of Spanish rule brought reforms aimed at promoting the economic development
of the islands and making them independent of subsidies from New Spain. The galleon trade
ceased in 1815, and from that date onward the Royal Company of the Philippines, which had
been chartered in 1785, promoted direct and tariff-free trade between the islands and Spain.
Cash crops were cultivated for trade with Europe and Latin America, but profits diminished
after Spains Latin American colonies became independent in the 1810s and 1820s.

In 1834 the Royal Company of the Philippines was abolished, and free trade was formally
recognized. With its excellent harbor, Manila became an open port for Asian, European, and
North American traders. In 1873 additional ports were opened to foreign commerce, and by the
late
nineteenth
century
three cropstobacco, abaca, and sugardominated Philippine exports.
Religion in the Philippines
The Philippines is a secular nation with a constitutional separation of church and state. As
a result of Spanish cultural influence, Religion in the Philippines is marked by a majority of
people being of the Christian faith (~90%). The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman
Catholic countries in Asia, the other being East Timor, a former Portuguese colony. More than
90% of the population are Christians: about 80.6% belong to the Roman Catholic Church while
about 9.5% belong to Protestant Christian denominations, such as the Iglesia ni Cristo, the
Philippine Independent Church, United Church of Christ in the Philippines (a mainline Protestant
United Church), and Jehovah's Witnesses.
As of 2012 Muslims were a minority reported as comprising 511% of the population,
most of whom live in parts of Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago an area known as
Bangsamoro or the Moro region. Some have migrated into urban and rural areas in different parts
of the country. Most Muslim Filipinos practice Sunni Islam according to the Shafi'i school. There
are some Ahmadiyya Muslims in the country. Philippine traditional religions are still practiced
by an estimated 2% of the population, made up of many aboriginal and tribal groups. These
religions are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam. Animism, folk religion, and
shamanism remain present as undercurrents of mainstream religion, through the albularyo, the
babaylan, and the manghihilot. Buddhism is practiced by 1% of the populations, and together
with Taoism and Chinese folk religion it is dominant in Chinese communities. There are smaller
number of followers of Hinduism, Sikhism, and Judaism and Baha'i. Less than one percent of
the population is non-religious.
Ancient indigenous beliefs
During pre-colonial times, a form of animism was widely practiced in the Philippines.
Today, the Philippines is mostly Catholic and Christian, and only a handful of the indigenous
tribes continue to practice the old traditions. These are a collection of beliefs and cultural mores
anchored more or less in the idea that the world is inhabited by spirits and supernatural entities,
both good and bad, and that respect be accorded to them through nature worship. These spirits all
around nature are known as "diwatas", showing cultural relationship with Hinduism (Devatas).
Some worship specific deities, such as the Tagalog supreme deity, Bathala, and his
children Adlaw, Mayari, and Tala, or the Visayan deity Kan-Laon; while others practice Ancestor
worship (anitos). Variations of animistic practices occur in different ethnic groups. Magic, chants
and prayers are often key features. Its practitioners were highly respected (and some feared) in

the community, as they were healers, midwives (hilot), shamans, witches and warlocks
(mangkukulam), priests/priestesses (babaylan/katalonan), tribal historians and wizened elders
that provided the spiritual and traditional life of the community. In the Visayan regions,
shamanistic and animistic beliefs in witchcraft (barang) and mythical creatures like aswang
(vampires), duwende (dwarves), and bakonawa (a gigantic sea serpent), may exist in some
indigenous peoples alongside more mainstream Christian and Islamic faiths.
Spanish occupiers during the 16th century arrived in the Philippines noting about warrior
priestesses leading tribal spiritual affairs. Many were condemned as pagan heretics. Although
suppressed, these matriarchal tendencies run deep in Filipino society and can still be seen in the
strong leadership roles modern Filipino women are assuming in business, politics, academia, the
arts and in religious institutions.
Nominally animists constitute about one percent of the population But animism's
influence pervade daily life and practice of the colonial religions that took root in the Philippines.
Elements of folk belief melded with Christian and Islamic practices to give a unique perspective
on these religions.
Buddhism
Many Filipino customs have strong Buddhist influences. Buddhism in the Philippines is
growing fast, mainly because of increasing immigration to the country. Buddhism is largely
confined to the Filipino Chinese, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese
communities though local adherents are on the rise. There are temples in Manila, Davao, and
Cebu, and other places. Several schools of Buddhism are present in the Philippines Mahayana,
Vajrayana, Theravada, as well as groups such as Soka Gakkai International.
Christianity
Christianity arrived in the Philippines with the landing of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. In
the late 16th century, the archipelago was claimed for Spain and named it after its king.
Missionary activity during the country's colonial rule by Spain and the United States led the
transformation of the Philippines into the first and then, along with East Timor, one of two
predominantly Christian nations in East Asia, with approximately 92.5% of the population
belonging to the Christian faith.
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Cebu Metropolitan Cathedral, built on the site of the Church of St. Vitales, the first
church built in the Philippines
Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion and the largest Christian denomination,
with estimates of approximately 80% of the population belonging to this faith in the

Philippines.The country has a significant Spanish Catholic tradition, and Spanish style
Catholicism is embedded in the culture, which was acquired from priests or friars.
The Catholic Church has great influence on Philippine society and politics. One typical
event is the role of the Catholic hierarchy during the bloodless People Power Revolution of 1986.
Then-Archbishop of Manila and de facto Primate of the Philippines, Jaime Cardinal Sin appealed
to the public via radio to march along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue in support of rebel forces.
Some seven million people responded in what became known as the 1986 People Power
Revolution, which lasted from 2225 February. The non-violent revolution successfully forced
dictator Ferdinand E. Marcos out of power and into exile in Hawaii.
Every year on 1 November, Filipino families celebrate the Day of the Dead, on which
they spend much of the day and evening visiting their ancestral graves, showing respect and
honor to their departed relatives by feasting and offering prayers. On 1 November Filipino
families celebrate All Saint's Day, where they honor the saints of the Catholic Church.
November 2 is All Soul's Day.
Religion and Politics
The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines declares: The separation of Church and State
shall be inviolable. (Article II, Section 6), and, No law shall be made respecting an establishment
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious
profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No
religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights. (Article III, Section 5).
Joaquin Bernas, a Filipino Jesuit specializing in constitutional law, acknowledges that there were
complex issues that were brought to court and numerous attempts to use the separation of Church
and State against the Roman Catholic Church, but he defends the statement, saying that the fact
that he [Marcos] tried to do it does not deny the validity of the separation of church and state.
On April 28, 2004, the Philippines Supreme Court reversed the ruling of a lower court
ordering five religious leaders to refrain from endorsing a candidate for elective office. Manila
Judge Conception Alarcon-Vergara ruled that the "head of a religious organization who
influences or threatens to punish members could be held liable for coercion and violation of
citizen's right to vote freely". The lawsuit filed by Social Justice Society party stated that "the
Churchs active participation in partisan politics, using the awesome voting strength of its
faithful flock, will enable it to elect men to public office who will in turn be forever beholden to
its leaders, enabling them to control the government". They claimed that this violates the
Philippine constitution's separation of Church and State clause. The named respondents were
Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila Luis Antonio Cardinal Tagle, El Shaddai Movement
Leader Mike Velarde, Iglesia ni Cristo Executive Minister Eduardo V. Manalo and Jesus Is Lord
Church leader Eddie Villanueva.Manalo's Iglesia ni Cristo practices bloc voting. Former Catholic
Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin had been instrumental in rallying support for the assumption to
power of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Arroyo. Velarde supported Fidel Ramos, Joseph Estrada
and Gloria Arroyo while Villanueva endorsed Fidel Ramos and Jose De Venecia. The papal

nuncio agreed with the decision of the lower court while the other respondents challenged the
decision.
Religion in pre-colonial Philippines
There is little evidence remaining of the nature of religion in pre-colonial Philippines.
The possibilities include animism, Philippine mythologies such as Anito, and influences from
Hinduism or Buddhism. The earliest pieces of evidence that exist are archaeological finds
including Hinduist or Buddhist gold statues. The earliest written evidence comes from the
Laguna Copperplate Inscription, dated to around 900 CE, which uses the Buddhist-Hindu lunar
calendar. With the arrival of Islam in the 14th century, the older religions gradually disappeared,
and after the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 Christianity became the dominant religion.
However, some of the indigenous Philippine tribes continue to practice animism today, and many
of the traditions in Anito have been Christianized and turned into Folk Catholicism.
Ancient artifacts
The Philippines's archaeological finds include many ancient gold artifacts. Most of them
have been dated to belong to the 9th century.
The artifacts reflect the iconography of the Srivijaya empires Vajrayana Buddhism and
its influences on the Philippiness early states. [3] The artifactss distinct features point to their
production in the islands. It is probable that they were made locally because archaeologist Peter
Bellwood discovered the existence of an ancient goldsmiths shop that made the 20-centuries-old
lingling-o, or omega-shaped gold ornaments in Batanes.
The Golden Tara was discovered in 1918 in Esperanza, Agusan by Bilay Campos a
Manobo tribeswoman.The Golden Tara was eventually brought to the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois in 1922. Henry Otley Beyer, the Philippiness pioneer
anthropologist-archaeologist, and some experts have agreed on its identity and have dated it to
belong within 900-950 CE. They can not place, however, its provenance because it has distinct
features.
The golden-vessel kinnari was found in 1981 in Surigao. The kinnari exists in both
Buddhist and Hindu mythology. In Buddhism, the kinnari, a half-human and half-bird creature,
represents enlightened action. The Buddhist Lotus Sutra mentions the kinnari as the celestial
musician in the Himavanta realm. The kinnari takes the form of a centaur, however, in India's
epic poem, the Mahabharata, and in the Veda's Purana part.
The other finds are the garuda, the mythical bird that is common to Buddhism and
Hinduism, and several Padmapani images. Padmapani is also known as Avalokitesvara, the
wisdom being or Bodhisattva of Compassion.

Rise of Islam
The arrival of Muslims changed the demographics of the Philippines. Before
Maynilad (now Manila) was divided into Muslim domains under Rajah Suleyman and
Matanda in the south (now the Intramuros district) and the Buddhist-Hindu settlement
Raja Lakandula in northern Tundun (now Tondo.) With the rise of Islam, other religions
archipelago gradually disappeared.

1521,
Rajah
under
in the