ΠΑΝΑΓΙΩΤΗΣ ΛΙΑΠΗΣ

CHERNIGOV SECRETS
800 - 2012 μ.χ.

COZAKS, HIDEN GOLD, BLACK GRAVE,

ST.ANTONYI MONASTERY and VIKINGS
To Chernihiv is one of the oldest and most interesting cities in Ukraine and
throughout Eastern Europe. Over the centuries been an important political,
economic and cultural center. Krymmeni back thousands of years in time at
the beginning of the history of the first mentioned in the annals of 907, but
archaeological research has shown that the city was much earlier.
In the 6th-7th century a new era in history began. Characterized by the rapid
growth of productive forces, which appear early class relations and to
integrate the Slavic tribes. As the results of the latest archaeological research
show the genesis of Chernihiv old at the time we can say that the topographic
structure of the city began to take its shape, somewhat more than 1300 years
ago. After incorporation of Chernihiv in the old empire Russ entered a new
phase in its history, characterized by further expanding the territory of the
city. In the 11th century was a turning point in the history of Chernihiv and
Chernihiv-Sivers'kyi whole earth. In 1024, after the battle of Lystven
Chernihiv was the capital of Mstyslav Volodymyrovych that significantly
affected the speed of development of the city. In the second half of the 11th
century in general Svyatoslav Yaroslavovych of (1054-1073) the
development of the city continued. At that time Yelets'kyi (1060) and the cave
of Agios Elias (1069) founded monasteries to become future centers of
intellectual life Chernihiv-Sivers'kyi. The top of the old welfare Chernihiv
came in 12th - early 13th century. Unlike other centers Chernihiv had
undergone major upheavals. This was mainly due to the consolidation of the
dynasty prince of Olhovychi. Total area of the city reached 450 hectares,
population - about 40 000 inhabitants, making it possible to consider one of
the biggest in Europe at the time. As the archaeologists say, all kinds of
crafts were developing fast here. In Chernihiv maintained trade relations with
the Byzantine, Scandinavia, Western Europe, Eastern countries, and local
merchants visited even today in London. The Mongol invasion interrupted the
development of the city for centuries that followed. In the early 14th century
Chernihiv was the Lithuanian authorities. In 1320 Poland took over the city. In
1340 came under the power of Kiev princes' and then again in Lithuania.
After Moscow Lithuania-war continued until 1503 Chernihiv and all land
Sivers'kyi got under power of Moscow. The city became the border. The most
reinforced part of the city was then a high promontory facing the river Desna
(where a monument to T. Shevchenko today) and it was a castle surrounded
by deep moats and high walls with soil high wooden walls and towers. Behind
the fortifications, temples, administrative buildings and houses, food stores.
We still do not know how the guard down with water. Perhaps there was
already a way to underground river Stryzhen », as it was in the 17th century.
It is little known about life in Chernihiv at the time, as there are very few
written sources from that era. In 1611 the city was occupied by the army
Gornostay. In 1618 Chernihiv was hit and went under Polish power in
accordance with the Treaty of Dueling between Warsaw and Moscow. In
1623 he took the rule of Magdeburg and Chernihiv Chernihiv court formed.
Two miles surrounding land had been given to maintain the city self-
governance. The same year pidkomorni noble city zemstvo (dealing with the
measurement of land), courts were created and made them equal to Kiev,
and the province was divided into two areas: Chernihiv and Novhorod-
Sivers'kyi. An emblem found paroustike TOT, the double-headed eagle with a
crown. Letter V depicted in the chest - the first letter of the name of King
Vladyslav. Magdeburg citizens generally have very privileges that promotes
trade and crafts. Merchants from other cities were restricted to retail. They
could only wholesale their products to local lines were great profit from it.
Appointed not elected head of the city. Other local authorities were elected
and proved that some progress in the development of self-government. At the
same time locals had converted to Catholic faith. Borys and Hlib Uspens'kyi
and cathedrals was a local Catholic community. This caused a protest by
indigenous dedicated to the Orthodox church.
1648-1654 - National Liberation War led by Kyi B. Hmelnyts ». In 1648
Chernihiv constitution mandated by Martyn Nebaba (lost in 1651) was
created. After the liberation from Polish Chernihiv was the rebirth of Orthodox
Church. In 1649 Stepan Podobailo renewed St. Elias Monastery. 10 years
later and Borys Hlib cathedral was returned to the Orthodox Church, after the
hands of the Dominicans. Yeletskyi ancient Orthodox monastery was again,
Pyatnyts'kyi nunnery renewed. After Polish state facilities and noble
privileges had been abolished significant changes in the life of the city
observed. The basis for the government was a military unit - Polk
(Constitution) divided into sotnias (Cossack squadrons numbered one
hundred horsemen). Hetman, colonels, and sotniks was real early. Judge
remained in Chernihiv and other cities, but address issues of land and the
courts of the city. Gradually, all power came to colonel. At the same time
Moscow tsar voivode (in general) was present and had power over the upper
citadel and garrison. Fort and other structures was the duty of citizens and
provide the military with carriages and homes. Commerce began to revive /
But the basis for the lives of citizens "was still farming. In the 17th century
Chernihiv was a rather well-fortified city. Early 17th century was marked by
new construction. LaMotte Mechanical and Deriver made a plan for a new
fort and led the repair of damaged works of fortifications. The Cathedral of
the Holy Trinity was built in the suburbs and sanctified in 1695. In the early
18th century Chernihiv Collegium built up. Gradually, but with confidence
Chernihiv was converted into a cultural center. In the 18th century there were
four gates in the old town - Zamkova (Castle), Kiev (Lyubech), Prohorili
(Loyevs'ki) and Vodyani (water). There were three streets of old town -
Zamkova (Castle), Kiev and Vodyana (water) and some bands too. There
were four major roads in a new city. Among the buildings in the city "general
revision" refers to two wooden huts, a judge of stone, the house of Colonel, a
shop, plant engineers, artillery yard, parochial school, constitution chancellor
and temples. Most of the houses were wooden. In 1708 the first draft of
Chernihiv was the Kremlin. At that time, about 4 thousand people lived in the
city among which there were 2.5 thousand merchants, craftsmen and 365
laboratory, masters and workers in various professions. There were reports
three times a year in Chernihiv. Local merchants bought goods from traders
from Ukraine and Russia and their marketing abroad too.
The Desna river was an important way of doing business. There was a water
landing near the town. There is only ship received and sent, and new built
and loaded with wooden dishes, duck and other goods and sent to other
cities. Town population consisted mainly citizens of Ukraine - 2381, Cossacks
- 164 farmers - 1124, clergy - 141, monks and nuns - 51. This is to inform the
1786 year. The 1781 Ukrainian privileged classes had the rights of Russian
nobility. Continue Chernihiv vice regency was established Myloradovych as
the first head. Two years before the end of the 18th century fortress
Chernihiv went into liquidation as useless. Fortifications were demolished as
well. The town consisted of 705 houses for citizens, 4 brick factories, 4
monasteries, 12 churches, 2 nursing homes and other secular and
commercial buildings have the opportunity to take new territories. In 1786,
according to the order of Catherine II, three of the four monasteries were
closed in Chernihiv - Borys and Hlib, St. Trinity-St. Elias, Pyatnytskyi. Plants
and soils that had been given to secular institutions.
In the late 19th - early 20th century Chernihiv was a joint provincial city with
prevailing patriarchal life - celebrations during the festival, noble and
meetings zemstvo, receptions and ballroom dancing ...
At that time the city with the suburbs had an area of about 615 hectares.
Revival of economic life after the reforms of 1861 lead to population growth:
1897 to 27,716 in the 1913 to 35850.
Building was carried out in accordance with the plans of the mid-19th century.
statistics refer Chernihiv after reforms in the list of "exclusive wooden
houses ...». The area of compulsory buildings was limited by the blocks
around Red Square. The Streets, namely the Central, was lit by gas lamps
and only from 1895 to electricity used to light up the streets. Horses were
used as the only city transport.
In the early 20th century, thanks to the highway Kiev-St. Petersburg coaches
ever horse to handle in Chernihiv and Chernihiv Homel to Kozelets ». EIA-
mail and a service station phone users 138 (1912) worked in the city. In the
late 19th century bank branches were open in the city. City urban bank
founded in Chernihiv in 1875. Rich people use pawnshop, three mutual
savings banks and service credit society. Commerce played an important role
in the life of Chernihiv. We focus on red (Market) Square, where trade lines
built in the early 19th century. reports were made four times a year and tree
times a week - every Monday, Wednesday and Friday market transactions
held. The number of institutions trading increased: in 1910 there were 428
shops in town and in 1912 to 734. There were 15 hotels, 9 pubs and cafes in
the city 3.
In turn of the 19th 20th century there were two hospitals in our city: provincial
hospital zemstvo and "community health nurses' hospital. In the early 20th
century before the first private educational institutions appeared - two
kindergartens and a nursery. Economic development has led to higher
professional education. In the early 20th century had Chernihiv 3 vocational
schools, 2 schools, merchants, and a religious school and a seminary. A
teacher training institute opened in 1916 which gave an incomplete higher
education pedagogy. According to the first general census of 1897 nearly
53% of Chernihivites could read and write. On the eve of WW I, total number
of students I Chernihiv was 6.2 thousand people. In the autumn of 1917, an
admission of students in the first mixed gym with Ukrainian language of
teaching was announced. The events of WW I and revolution broke peaceful
life of a provincial town from the late 19th - early 20th century.
In 1914 WW I began. Chernihiv was far from the battlefields but serious
global misfortune to touch a lot. Most of the men joined the military, foods
and convenience goods prices rose. The city was full of refugees who were in
projects, institutions and educational institutions. Hospitals appeared. Military
medical nurses annual training opened. After winning the February
Revolution in Russia diarchy founded in Chernihiv. At the same time there
working workers and soldiers councils and local administrations of the
provisional government. City Council also kept working. In 1917-1919 the
power passed from hand to hand in Chernihiv. First was the Central Council
(Tsentral'na Rada), then the system Hetman Skoropads'kyi and finally - the
granting of Petlyura. At night on January 12, 1919 after heavy fighting Bohun
constitution led by Mykola Shchors occupied the city. Soviet government was
established. Nationalization of industry began, the adult evening schools
were opened in five districts. The first performance of the professional body
of society came to the chamber fine in February, 11. "Znamya Moscow"
newspaper was printed. On October 12 Chernihiv was captured by the army
Denikin. For about a month the city remained of them. Red Army captured
the city on November 7. Peaceful, but not entirely quiet life began. On May 9,
1920 Polish troops crossed the border province of Chernihiv. Chernihiv did
not suffer at that time and the Polish army was expelled from the region
Chernihiv. The revival of industry, transport system, educational system and
cultural life continued. In 1921 a factory iron smelting cast, a clinker factory, a
brewery and vinegar factory started to work. On 7 November 1922 "MOLOT
Zhovtnevyi" ( "Hammer October") plant opened. In 1925 there were 11 state-
owned enterprises in the city. At that time there were 35,500 people living in
Chernihiv. City's economy was reviving. In 1924 the activities for the benefit
of workers from suburbs with water began. The city development plan for the
next 30 years was done. It involved the construction of administrative and
residential buildings in the central part of the city and organize vast green
areas. Industrial enterprises have moved from the residential area. In 1923
bacteria regional station was founded in Chernihiv. 1927-1929 a new power
station built in the city. In 1928 a union brick Chernihiv-producing plants
"Tsehla" ( "Brick") created and the construction of Chernihiv-Homel railways
over. Two years later, Chernihiv-Ovruch railway came into operation in early
1931 one of the largest railway junctions in northern Ukraine has been in
operation Chernihiv. A year later ship-repair workshops began their work. By
that time the number of firms that had reached 32 with more than 1000
people working in them. A number of important events marked the next
decade. In 1933 a regional scientific-medical library opened, confectionery
and furniture factories were built. The 1934 M.M. Kotsyubyns'kyi museum
and regional Philharmonic Society opened. In 1936 a court was built. In 1937
he founded a children's library. In 1939 M. Shchors cinema was built. 68.6
thousand people lived in Chernihiv that time, 57 industrial firms which operate
109 retail shops and worked there were 34 public dining. The health system
consisted of a city hospital, 6 policlinics, 2 specialized clinics, physiotherapy
and mental hospitals, 13 first aid stations and 5 X-ray rooms. There were 14
incomplete secondary and secondary schools, 2 institutes and 4 technical
schools, and 8 evening schools for adults. When Great Patriotic War began
thousands Chernihivites joined the army. On September 9, 1941 Red Army
left Chernihiv after heavy fighting. A tragic period of German-Fascist
occupation began for residents, accompanied by mass shootings, robberies
forced labor and peaceful society in Germany. Performances held in the city
jail, where about 3000 people were killed and parks Kryvolivshchyna - 20000,
Podusivka - 15000, and Yalivshchyna, Rashevshchyna, Malyeyev Riv and
Berezovyi Rih, which killed thousands of our compatriots, too. During the
German occupation fascists killed 52.5 thousand Chernihivites and Red Army
prisoners of war in the city and its suburbs. Despite the anti-Fascist secret
terror organization of work and instead lost patriots came new characters. In
the middle of September 1943 the 13th army before the battle began for
Central Chernihiv. On September 21 people who remained alive, celebrated
their release. War Chernihiv turned around ruins. 50 industrial buildings were
completely destroyed and 57 are damaged to a large extent the station,
power station, radio station, station phone destroyed. City lost 70% of homes
that had to be restored. At the end of 1943 secondary schools and
Pedagogical Institute in 1944 have continued their work. In 1946, the exhibits
of M.M. Kotsyubyns'kyi museum returned to Chernihiv from Ufa, where they
were evacuated. In 1948 there were 91 doctors and 279 nurses in Chernihiv.
The 1949 musical instrument factory continued to work. In 1950 a railway
bridge was built over the River Desna and in 1951 the station opened. In
1956 Chernihiv got gas and the following year, the manufacture of synthetic
fiber manufacturing plant started

ANCIENT CHERNIGIV
Chernigiv and surrounding oblast worth a visit for at least three reasons. First
of all, -13 to 12 th century, the city was the capital of a
principality difficult for the size of modern France.
Second, you can see musical instruments 15 thousand
years old. Third, you may see the mysterious Black
Monk in caves of St. Anthony, a phenomenon leading
scientists of Ukraine is able to explain
as many historians admit, the Chernigiv holds many
secrets, as the Egyptian Valley of the Kings. The first historical mention of
this city on the right bank of the river Desna 140 kilometers from Kiev dates
from 907. In the 11 th -13 th century, was the capital of the principality before
Chernigiv looted by Mongol Tatars and later conquered by Lithuania and
Poland. In 1654, became affiliated with the Chernigiv Kyivan Rus, is one of
the major cultural centers and crafts. Some believe that the city was named
after its founder, the warrior Cherniga. Locals prefer the romantic legend
about a girl who threw a window and not be forced to marry against her will.
Her father, Prince Chornyy, allegedly was the founder of the city and was
buried there in a grave Horn.
Why SSR great cataclysm that plythysmoi moved to Egypt and Greece
Carpathians;
Why is the army of Cossacks in oak CHERNIGIV?
Ti was the tunnels Lou St. Anthony;
How does the area with Babylon and Atlantis;
What is needed from outside the metalefmata weapons;
What is the secret of Prigkipisas CHORNAS?
Ti is Boldin Hill?
How people will eat chaivanitida;
What is the relationship Nefelim Anounaki and Pharaoh;
How do the Elohim and Greek;
What happens in Arantis;
What t is the warlord of God;
Why is the sword in Mantamados;
What digging to find the monks in the tunnels of St Antony?
That the monks of Sinai;
What came to get the pirates;
And if you took it the first time since coming back;
What have in common terms Paggaio, Sina, Chrnigiv, and Caucasus;
Why others captured Egypt and elsewhere for the Caucasus;
T is the third point of today's Greece and why;
What holds the Arantis;

More Chernigiv architectural spaces that are Dytynets, a historic district

downtown. The earliest settlements occurred in the early first millennium, and
8 th -12 th century fortifications of the city came into being. To the east,
Dytynets Desna next frontier in what is known as the ramparts, where there
are still twelve old cannons once used for defense of the city. Historic
treasure of the city is the 11 th century Church of the Transfiguration of our
Savior. One of the oldest cathedrals of Kyivan Rus, built by the legendary
Prince Mstislav the Brave, which remains down to rest there, along with the
remains of Prince Igor and Prince Svyatoslav. The arms of the prince of Kiev
and the colors of the regiments of Cossacks Battle for Chernigiv also kept
there. The Cathedral of St. Boris and St. Glib, also Dytynets, built in the 12th
century on the ruins of a building, even earlier.
Portals and tsars'
Built in early 18 th century by the order of Hetman Ivan Mazepa, still stand
there, and the cathedral itself houses an architectural manual. The 18-th
century the Church of Saint Catherine in Dytynets considered the symbol of
Chernigiv. It houses the oblast museum of folk art and decorative art (tel.
0462-43-236).
The area is Chernigiv is a paradise for archaeologists prize for researchers,
since the location of the excavation Mezinska is unparalleled in the world.
About 20 thousand years ago, people from the late Paleolithic period lived in
a few primitive shelters there. Tools from the local chalky flint with interesting
works of ancient art as a bracelet made from mammoth ivory, and female
figurines found hanging in space. These objects are exposed to Chernigiv VV
Tarnovsky History Museum (4 Gorky St., Tel: 0462-17-66-50, 17-67-93). But
the most interesting exhibits is a "noisy bracelet" similar to a Castanet and six
mammoth bones decorated with motifs representing the world's only ruins of
Paleolithic percussion orchestra! By analyzing patterns of effects on bone,
experts have even been able to reconstruct the music composed during the
prehistoric period.
Secrets of Chernigiv Caves
The most mysterious and visited the place Chernigiv the legendary Cave of
St Anthony in the Holy Trinity-St Elias Monastery (92 Tolstoy St.), one of the
oldest monuments from the times of Kyivan Rus. In 1069 the founder of the
Kiev-Pechersk Lavra of St. Anthony of Kiev Caves, visited Chernigiv. Later a
monastery was built there, and the famous church of St. Elias "appeared in
the 12th century. For centuries, the monks dug up an underground
catacombs band appeared. These catacombs are the site of many events for
which no scientific explanation. In the 1960s, members of the archaeological
missions requested to hear strange sounds, and smells the scent of incense
burning, and often reported feeling that someone was breathing down the
backs of their necks. In 1970, the famous Black Monk, a show in a long black
jacket, made his first appearance ...
Most visitors to the caves experience increased liveliness, a sense of
euphoria and correcting abnormal heart rhythms, so from time immemorial,
people from all over Ukraine traveled there to cure various diseases. Besides
the caves, the Holy Trinity-St Elias boasts the Monastery of Holy Trinity
Cathedral (1679), where the relics of St. Feodosy and St Lavrenty kept the
church of the Presentation of a bank (1677) and a 58 -- measure tower
offering breathtaking views of the city. No doubt the scenic places have
inspired many writers of Ukraine! From 1898 to 1913, the great writer
Mikhailo Kotsyubinsky lived and worked in Chernigiv. A museum now
occupies the house in the street name. The author of Shades of Forgotten
Ancestors buried near the cave of St. Anthony. Another important Ukrainian
author, Leonid Glibov, is buried in Holy Trinity-St Elias Monastery.
Gemstones of Chernigiv Oblast
From 1669 to 1708 and again from 1750 to 1764, the town of Baturin was
the residence of Hetmans Samoilovych Mazepa and the last Ukrainian
Hetman, Kyryl Rozumovsky. Classic palace (1799-1803) is in poor condition,
but exciting. The museum of local lore and history (tel: 04635-48-437) is also
worth visiting, and you can pay for a tour of the burial vault Rozumovsky
family, the Church of the Resurrection.
History and Culture Kachanivka Reserve (tel: 04633-24-193) is open from
March to September. A unique collection that belonged to Tarnovskys, an
aristocratic family, was created in late 18 th century and completely
renovated in 1980. The museum has a collection of songs V. Tarnovsky Jr of
dedicated to Taras Shevchenko, who was a frequent guest of the family.
The Monastery of the Transfiguration of our Savior is the most interesting
point in Novgorod-Siversky, capital of the principality Siversky mid-11th
century. According to one account, which was founded in 1033 by Prince
Mstislav Vladymyrovych thank God for the victory over the Prince of Kiev
Yaroslav According to another version, was founded by Yaroslav the Wise in
1036. The Cathedral of the Transfiguration of Our Savior (1785-1787) is an
exposition of the museum called A Word About Igor Regiment Party (Pushkin
St., Tel: 04658-21-521).
The partially preserved, 10th century Yuriev House of Prayer is the second
most important monument of the period Kyivan Rus, after the cathedral of St.
Sophia, and draws visitors to the town of Oster in Kozelets.
The first historical reference to the town of Nizhyn appeared in 1147. It was
once the site of exhibitions, a community of Cossack and former Greek
colony in the Ukraine. It is also home to the famous Nizhyn Teachers
Training University, founded in 1820, where the great writer Mykola Gogol
studied.
In the village near Sosnytsa Mensky, visitors can see the wooden hut where
the great Ukrainian writer and filmmaker Alexander Dovzhenko was born,
and an exhibit about him in Literature and Memorial Museum (Dovzhenko St.
Tel.: 04655-21 -590).
Jump The best way is by car along the Kiev-Chernigiv street or public van
transportation from the metro station Lisova. The two-hour trip costs UAH10.
Ukraine International Airlines offers convenient, daily flights to Kiev from
nearly every capital of Western Europe. For more information on flight
schedules and booking, please contact the UIA office in Kiev on 38 0 (44)
581-5050, or visit the UIA: www.flyUIA.com Places to stay and relax
Slovyansky Hotel Complex
Just 200 meters from the main city square with the luxury and semi-deluxe
suites, single and double rooms with all amenities, a cafe / bar, sauna, pool
and parking. Address: Chernigiv, 33 Myra Ave., Tel.: (04622) 74-604
Gradetsky Hotel
Chernigiv largest hotel is 10 minutes walk from downtown and has deluxe
and semi-deluxe suites, single and double rooms and a kitchen might be the
best in town. Address: Chernigiv, 68 Myra Ave., Tel.: (04622) 45-025
Etoile Cafe
At the forefront and very popular with locals, offering the disco Courage,
billiards, bowling alley, the Traffic Light and tasty, cheap food.
Address: Chernigiv, 50 Pyatnitska St., Tel.: (0462) 18-57-30
Old Town Tavern
Located on the main street of the city, has a quiet atmosphere and offers a
variety of reasonably priced dishes Ukraine. Address: Chernigiv, 32 Myra
Ave., Tel: (04622) 7-41-65
 Kachanivka Hotel
This hotel sleeps 26 people (UAH20 per person), has its own restaurant and
is a former employee and guest wings of Tarnosky Palace.
Address: Kachanivka Village, Ichnyanskiy Area; Tel.: (04633) 24-115, 24-
125
Mislivets-Cozelets Grill
Open all day at the 79th kilometer on the E-95 track, 30 minute drive from
Kiev. A very modern room decorated with hunting trophies and souvenirs of
Ukraine with great room seats 50 people, a 10-person banquet hall, an area
with a sofa and two braziers.
Address: 79 th km, Chernigiv Route, Cozelets? Tel.: (04646) 42-454
The Chernihiv is one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe and was an
important center of southern Rus. In times of Kyiv Rus Chernigov was
competing in Kiev importance for many centuries and was the last step
towards the noble throne of Kiev. In 1992 the city celebrated its anniversary
in 1300. The territory of Chernigiv with exciting key Desna river was a real
tasty snack and fight Chernigiv and all territories Severa lasted during the
whole history. Archaeologists believe that Chernihiv which later became the
capital of the principality was founded in the late 7th century on the territories
of "Severa" race was of Iranian origin. According to legends of the city and
Poland in time the name of the first Prince of Chernigov was allegedly Prince
Cherny. People believe that buried in the tomb known as "Cherny Grave".
This tomb is one of the few are held in the former USSR since the pagan
Rus. And maybe Chernihiv was named in honor of the first legendary prince.
And the first Chernigov prince who was mentioned in a time of Mstyslav
Tmutarakan. He was the son of the Kyiv Prince Volodymyr adopted
Christianity as state religion in Kiev Rus. Mstyslav called by contemporaries
"The Brave" and appreciated by chronographers a worthy successor to the
military glory of his father, Volodymyr the Baptizer of Rus and his
grandfather, Kiev Prince Svyatoslav. Someone will fail to find a time similar
words about his brother Yaroslav Mstyslav the Wise whose nature and
ambitions unleashed the first civil war in Kyivan Rus. In 1024 Mstyslav
defeated the troops of his brother Yaroslav the Wise. As a result Rus split
into two states with borders along the Dnieper River: Right-Rus bank capital
Kiev and the Left-Rus bank capital in Chernihiv. The same year Mstyslav that
the cornerstone of Spassky (our Savior and Transfiguration) Cathedral.
Today this cathedral is one of the best preserved ancient Orthodox churches
in the territory of Ukraine and the Russian Federation. Alas the Chernihiv was
the destiny of being the capital for a long time! Mysterious death of his son
Mstyslav after his death in 1036 (he died within 3 days) enabled Kyiv Prince
Yaroslav the Wise to get hold of all Rus lands. In 1054 Svyatoslav prince, the
eldest son of Prince Yaroslav The Wise Kiev announced a Duke of Chernihiv
and had ruled the principality for nearly 20 years. Chernigov turned into a
fortress, and founded and supported Yeletsky (grove Fir) Monastery very
Uspensky (Assumption) Cathedral.
In 1069 the first Russian monk, St. Anthony began to cave Boldin Hills
monastery in Chernigov. The mysteries and secrets of this cave complex
continues to excite many scientists. The Boldin Hills can also boast of two
unique pagan tombs. Found remains of a giant warrior of them. Some
researchers believe that it was buried Russian epic warrior Ilya of Murom.
One of the largest burial mound in the Eastern Europe is also Boldin Hills.
Grand Duke Volodymyr Gladiator Chernihiv held on for about fifteen years
(1078-1093). This later became the Grand Duke of Kiev (1113). In 1120
Chernigiv Prince David of the Boris and Gleb Cathedral in the former pagan
temple in the territory of modern Val (Rampart). A more preserved church of
St. Parasceva Pyatnitsa is the same age as the monument of ancient Rus
literature "The Lay of Igor's War" (end of century XII) and this is the real pearl
of architecture Chernihiv. The main character and probably the author of
"The Lay of Igor War», Prince Igor of Novgorod-Siversky Chernigiv held on
after the failed expedition against Polovtsian in 1185. Considered by some
investigations that was buried in Chernigiv well.
Chernigiv devastated by Tatar-Mongol horde in 1239 similar to many other
cities Rus. Time and had kept silent for almost Chernigov for three centuries
until Chernihiv was under the sovereignty of Lithuania and Poland. In 1503
Moscow Rus came into possession of the bulk soil Chernigiv. But after the
uprising of citizens in the territory of Moscow in 1606 and returned again to
Poland. During the liberation war (1648-1964) Chernigiv Colonel Martyn
Nebaba was one of his closest comrade-in-arms of the Cossack Hetman
Bogdan Khmelnitsky. In 1696 it was in the Chernigov Kozakou constitution
mandated a special Hetman Jakob Lyzogub that the first explosion in the
Turkish fortress Azov. This event was celebrated by the erection
Yekateryninska (St Catherine) Church. This beautiful church is a true pearl of
the Ukrainian Baroque style. A Cossack colonel and is known in history, is
Pavlo Polubotok. He participated in the battle of Poltava on the part of
Moscow, where at 08/07/1709 Peter I defeated King Charles XII of Sweden.
Peter Pavlo Polubotok relied heavily. Nevertheless Polubotok put in jail and
was later cursed by Chernihiv colonel. The condemnation came true! Peter
the Great died shortly.
In 1679, Archbishop Lazar Baranovych that Troitskyi (Trinity) Cathedral on
Boldin Hills. It was the first monumental building on the Left-Bank Ukraine for
the past four centuries. The 1700 Chernigiv Collegium (Academy), which
became the first major educational institution in the territory of the Left-Bank
Ukraine opened. There he taught the children of rich people. And only after
the appropriate institution Tsarskoselsky high school will be located near
Saint-Petersburg. But Chernigiv is not only known for heroic story of many
milestones. Although it should be noted that despite the terrible devastation
caused by bombing during World War II is maintained for a quarter of the Rus
Ancient monuments of the pre-Mongolian period in the former Soviet Union.
Gifted fabulist Leonid Glibov lived and was buried in Chernihiv and Ukrainian
folklorist and ethnographer Afanasiy Markovych who was married to the
equally famous writer Marko Vovchok (Mariya Vilinska). The pair of
Kotsubynskies is also buried in Chernigov. Mikhail Kotsubynsky was an
outstanding Ukrainian writer, public image and founder of modern Ukrainian
literature. And indeed Chernigiv has some inexplicable aura.
Its originality lies in the fact that it was built in two phases: the lower level was
built in 1670-1675 gg. as gate tower defense and later overbuilt upper,
designed to house the bells. Next to the bell tower is the oldest in the Left-
Bank Ukraine monument of wooden architecture - the apartment house, built
in 1688. Also, this house is very honor the monks and pilgrims as the home
of St. Theodosius Uglich. Here in the 17-18 centuries. lived abbots of the
monastery. History Eletsky monastery is also interesting that the monastery
at 11. The Chernihiv was first mentioned in Rus'-Byzantine Treaty (907) (as
Черниговъ), but considered that there was at least the 9th century, as
revealed by archaeological excavations of the settlement which included
exhibits from the Khazar Khaganate. In the late 10th century, the city
probably had its own rulers of. It was there that the Black Grave, one of the
largest and oldest royal mounds in eastern Europe, was excavated back to
the 19th century.
In the southern city of Kievan Rus' was the second of the importance and
richness. [2] From the early 11th century was the seat of the powerful Grand
Principality of Chernigov, whose rulers occasionally compete for power in
Kievan Grand Princes, and often reversed and took the prime position in Kiev
for themselves. The large principality was the largest in Kievan Rus and
included not only the Severian towns and even remote areas such as Murom,
Ryazan and Tmutarakan. The golden
age of Chernihiv, when the city's
population peaked at 25,000, lasted
until 1239, when the city was sacked
by the hordes of Batu Khan, which
started a long period of relative
obscurity. Marble columns of the
Savior Cathedral provides the only
look at the opulence of the original
Byzantine interior 1036.
The area fell under the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania in 1353. The city was
burned again by Crimean Khan Meñli
I Giray in 1482 and 1497 and the
fifteenth to seventeenth century
changed hands many times between
Lithuania, Muscovy (1408-1420 and
since 1503), and the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth (1618
-1648), which was granted
Magdeburg Rights in 1623 and in
1635 became the seat of Chernihiv
Voivodeship. Importance of the
region rose again in the 17th century, during and after the Khmelnytsky
Uprising. The Hetman State Chernihiv city was the establishment of the
constitution Chernihiv Cossack (both military and territorial unit of time).
In 1667 the Treaty of Andrusovo the legal sovereignty of the territory ceded to
the Kingdom of Russia in Chernihiv, still a major center of the autonomous
Cossack Hetmanate. With the repeal of Hetmanate, the city became an
ordinary administrative center of the Russian Empire and the capital of local
administrative units. The area generally was ruled by a commander
appointed by the St. Petersburg, the imperial capital, and Chernihiv was the
capital of local namestnichestvo (province) (since 1782), Malorosiyskaya or
Little Russian (since 1797) and Chernigov Governorate (from 1808).
According to the census of 1897 there were in the city of Chernihiv around
11,000 Jews in a total population of 27,006. The chief occupations of the
Jews is an industrial and commercial. In the neighborhood are many tobacco
plantations and fruit-gardens belonging to Jews. There Chernihiv 1.321
Jewish craftsmen, including 404 tailors and seamstresses, but demand for
artisan work is limited to the city. There are 69 Jewish (day-laborers, almost
exclusively Teamsters. But few involved in plants [3].
The church of Agia Paraskevi (around 1201, restored after World War II).

Eletsky monastery cathedral was modeled after that of Kiev Pechersk Lavra.
Note the contrast between the austere 12th-century walls and Baroque
domes of the 17th century.
Chronicle Chernihiv's architectural monuments two most flourishing periods
of the history of the city - those of Kievan Rus (11th and 12th century) and
Cossack Hetmanate (late 17th and early 18th century). The oldest church in
the city and throughout the Ukraine is the 5 -domed Saviour Cathedral,
commissioned in the early 1030s by Mstislav the Bold and completed several
decades later by his brother, Jaroslav the Wise. The Cathedral of Saints
Boris and Gleb, dating from the mid 12th century, rebuilt much in subsequent
periods, before returning to its original form in the 20th century. Similarly built
in brick, has a single dome and six pillars. The culmination of Chernihiv
masters was beautiful church of St. Paraskeba (Pyatnitskaya), built in the late
12th and 13th century. This graceful building was seriously damaged during
the Second World War; Home perspectives medieval reconstructed a
drawing of Peter Baranovsky.
The first residential buildings in the city center dating from the late 17th
century, a period when a constitution Cossack developed there. Two more
homes are representative of those Polkovnyk Lyzohub (1690s) and
Polkovnyk Polubutok (1700). A former mansion, known as the Mazepa
House, which used to contain the chancellor's constitution. One of the most
lavishly decorated structures Cossack is undoubtedly the church Collegium,
dressed in a bell tower (1702). Archbishop's Residence was built around
1780. Church of St. Catherine (1715), with 5 of the gold-domed pear on the
traditional architecture of Ukraine, is believed to target a monument to the
Constitution to operate during the storm of Azov in 1696.
[Edit] Monasteries
All through the most trying periods in its history, maintained Chernihiv
ecclesiastical importance as the seat of the diocese or archdiocese. On the
outskirts of the modern city are two ancient cave monasteries, formerly used
as residences of bishops. "
The caves of Eletsky monastery is said to be earlier than the Kiev Pechersk
Lavra (Kiev Monastery of the Caves). 6 great-columns of the cathedral was
built in the late 11th and 12th century; Some traces of the 750-year-old
frescoes can still be seen inside. After the dome collapsed in 1611, had
increased and rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style. The wall, monastic cells,
and bell all dating from the 17th century. The nearby home of his mother
superior is considered the oldest residential building in the Left-Bank Ukraine.
The most sacred image cloister used to be that of Mary, who has Epiphany to
Svyatoslav of Chernigov on February 6, 1060. The icon, called Eletskaya
after the fir wood was painted later taken to Moscow by the descendants of
Svyatoslav - Princes Boryatinsky - in 1579. The cave monastery of St. Elias
and Holy Trinity has a small branded church, built 800 years ago. The
spacious Trinity Cathedral, one of the most impressive monuments of the
Cossack Baroque, built between 1679 and 1689. Dining in the nearby church
of presentation in the temple, was completed in 1679. There are also
dominated the 17th century walls, monastic cells and a 5-tiered bell tower
from 1780.
Other historic monasteries can be visited in the region of Chernihiv? Those
Kozelets Hustynya and contain excellent examples of Ukrainian national
architecture. The area is served by Chernihiv Shestovitsa airport, and during
the Cold War was the site of the airbase Chernigov.
Famous people from Chernihiv
• Ossip Maximovitch Bodyanskiy, a Russian-Ukrainian Slavist, writer,
historian and
• Anatoly Rybakov, a Russian writer
• Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, a prominent Soviet Bolshevik leader and
diplomat
Cossack Hetmanate
Vassal of Rzeczpospolita (1649)
Vassal of Russian Empire (1654-1707, 1709-1775) 1649 --
The Hetmanate in 1654.1764 Capital Chyhyryn1 Language (s) Ukrainian
Religion Greek Orthodox Government Republic
- 1648-1657 (first) Bohdan Khmelnytsky - 1750-1763 (last) Kyrylo
Rozumovsky LegislatureCossack Rada-Established 1649 - Treaty of
Pereyaslav1654 - Treaty of Andrusovo January 30, 1667 - Disestablished
1764 Population - 1762 est. 1,027,928 1 The capital was later moved to
Baturyn and then Hlukhiv.
The Hetmanate or officially Viysko Zaporozke (Ukrainian: Гетьманщина,
Het'manshchyna? Військо Запорозьке, Viys'ko Zaporoz'ke) was the state of
Ukrainian Cossacks, consisting of land and Hetmanate Zaporizhian
reception, which was the period of independence followed by the autonomy
of the central and north-east Ukraine, between 1649 and 1775. It began with
the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648, and was the first leader Bohdan
Khmelnytsky, who ruled 1648-57.
The Hetmanate lost its independence as a result of the Treaty of Pereyaslav
(Pereyaslavska Rada) in 1654. The Treaty of Andrusovo (Andrusiv) of 1667
divided the state between Russia and Poland. This division caused the civil
war Ukraine between different parts of the Ukrainian Cossacks which lasted
until the late 17th century. In the 18th century the territory of the left
Hetmanate limited bank of Ukraine. In 1764 the autonomy of the State and
the Cossack Hetman position abolished under Catherine II of Russia.
Capitals were Chyhyryn, Baturyn and finally Hlukhiv.
Hetmanate The situation is more than what is now central Ukraine and a
small part of today's Russia. Specifically, its territory includes what is now the
oblasts (provinces) of Chernihiv, Poltava and Sumy (not southeast), the left
bank of Kiev and territories Cherkasy, and the western part of Bryansk
Russia. The land Zaporizhian host a degree of self-government with its own
administration

CossacksRegistered Cossacks · Kosiński Uprising · Nalyvaiko Uprising ·

Khmelnytsky Uprising · Hadiach Treaty · Hetmanate · Colonisation of Siberia ·
Bulavin Rebellion · Pugachev's Rebellion · 1st Cavalry Army ·
Decossackization · Betrayal · XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps · 1st Cossack
Division

Cossack hosts Azov · Black Sea · Buh · Caucasus · Danube · Don · Volga ·
Ural · Terek · Kuban · Orenburg · Astrakhan · Siberian · Baikal · Amur ·
Semirechye · Ussuri · Zaporozhia

Other groups Danube (Sich) · Tatar Cossacks · Nekrasov · Turkey · Jewish

Cossacks

Famous Cossacks Bohdan Khmelnytsky · Petro Sahaidachny · Ivan Mazepa ·

Ivan Sirko · Yemelyan Pugachev · Stenka Razin · Andrei Shkuro · Pyotr
Krasnov · Yermak Timofeyevich · Shokan Walikhanuli

Cossack terms Ata_man · Het_man · Kontusz · Papakhi · Plastun · Szabla ·

Shashka · Stanitsa · Yesaul

Cossacks (Ukrainian: Козаки́, Kozaky; Russian: Каза́ки́, Kazaky;

Polish: Kozacy)
were originally members of military communities in Ukraine and
southern Russia[1]. Their origin is a subject of scholarly dispute.

In the late 15th century, Zaporozhian Cossacks had set up a Cossack host of
the "wild field" in Ukraine around the Dnieper River. In the 16th century, the
Don Cossacks Cossack host located elsewhere in the catchment of the River
Don. Other Cossack hosts were established later in the southern Urals,
Siberia and the Caucasus.
The Dnieper Cossacks of Ukraine formed the Sikh Zaporozhian centered
around the fortified islands Dnieper. Originally a vassal of Poland-Lithuania,
the growing social and religious pressure from the Commonwealth caused
them to declare an independent Cossack Hetmanate, initiate a rebellion
under Bohdan Khmelnytsky in the mid 17th century. Subsequently, the Treaty
of Pereyaslavl with Russia in most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under
Russian control for the next three hundred years. [2]
The Don Cossack Host, allied with the Kingdom of Russia, began a
systematic conquest and colonization of land to secure its border with the
Volga, the whole of Siberia, the Ural and Terek Rivers.
In the 18th century expansionist ambitions of the Russian Empire relied
securing the confidence of Cossacks, which caused tension with the
traditional independent lifestyle. This led to riots led by Stenka Razin,
Kondraty Bulavin and Yemelyan Pugachev. In extreme cases, whole hosts
could be dissolved, as was the fate of Zaporozhian Sikhs in 1775. By the end
of the 18th century, Cossacks had been transformed into a specific social
property; Who served as guards in the national and internal ethnic borders
(as happened in the Caucasus war) provided regular men in conflicts such as
the many Russo-Turkish Wars. In return, enjoy great social autonomy. This
caused them to form a stereotypical image of 19th century Russian Empire
abroad and within the government. During the Russian Civil War Cossack
regions became centers of anti-Bolshevik White movement, some of which
will be white immigration. The Don and Kuban Cossacks still formed short-
lived independent states in their respective territories. With the victory the
Red Army, the Cossack territories were hungry, and suffered widespread
repression. During the Second World War Cossacks fought for both the
Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, a choice that led to so-called "betrayal of
the Cossacks" from coalition forces after the war as the Soviet Union
performed "repatriated Cossacks and again engaged in repressionary
policies against their group. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the
Cossack way of life and ideas have made a comeback in Russia. Special
units exist in the Russian Cossack military, and the Cossacks have also been
a parallel civil administration and police functions in their home territories
have become an integral part of modern society. There Cossack
organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and other countries.

Truce of Andrusovo
Map of the Commonwealth. Pink indicates areas that were ceded to Russia
Andrusovo The truce of Andrusovo (Polish: Rozejm w Andruszowie, Russian:
Андрусовское перемирие, Ukrainian: Андрусівське перемир'я,
Andrusivs'ke Peremyr "ya, also sometimes known as the Treaty Andrusovo)

was thirteen and a half truce, signed in 1667 between Russia and the
Kingdom of Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth was at war since 1654 over the
territories of today's Ukraine and Belarus.
The agreement signed on January 30 by Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin (Russia)
and Jerzy Chlebowicz (Commonwealth) in a village Andrusovo not far from
Smolensk. Under the terms of a right-bank Ukraine (Pravoberezhna
Ukrayina) and Belarus remained under the control of the Commonwealth,
and the Smolensk and Chernigov Voivodeships ceded to Russia. In addition,
the Commonwealth has recognized Russian control of the Left-bank Ukraine
(Livoberezhna Ukrayina). Kiev was to remain under Russian rule for two
years and then return to Poland, but this is not honored by Moscow. The left
bank had returned after twenty years, but Russia managed to retain the
signature of the Eternal Peace Treaty with the Commonwealth in 1686. The
area was declared Zaporozhian Sikhs to remain under a joint condominium.
The treaty also required the two sides for the common defense against the
Ottoman Empire. In Russia, the Treaty of Andrusovo is generally praised as
an important step towards the integration of three East-Slavic nations,
Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians, in a situation, the future Russian Empire
(from 1721). In Ukraine, the Treaty has often resulted in fragmentation of the
Ukrainian state Hetmanate among the most powerful states in neighboring.
[1] On the Polish side of the Treaty is a major mistake that tilts the balance of
power in the region and replaced Poland as the sovereign state of the
emerging Russian Empire. [2
Rus-Byzantine treaties from 907 to 911 with 945 According to the first year,
the first Rus'-Byzantine treaty concluded in 907 as a result of Oleg raid
against Constantinople (see Rus'-Byzantine War (907) for details). Scholars
generally consider this document as a preliminary to Rus'-Byzantine Treaty of
911. The text of the treaty, as preserved in the Kievan period, opens with a
list of signatories on the part of Rus. It's all Nordic: Karl, Farulf, Vermund,
Hrollaf, and Steinvith. Kievan Rus elements in the text as a patchwork of
cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Polotsk, Rostov, and Lyubech. Aleksey
Shakhmatov commented that the list of cities is arbitrary and that some of
these may be added later by scribes. Most visibly, the treaty governing the
status of the colony of Varangian traders in Istanbul. The text indicates that
settled in the district of Saint Mamas. Varangians was to start in Istanbul with
a specific gate, not guns, accompanied by the imperial guard, not more than
fifty people at a time. On arrival, were registered by the imperial authorities to
be provided with monthly food and nutrition over half a year. The last lines of
the Treaty, the Byzantines kiss the cross, while the Varangians swear by their
arms and claim this Primary Chronicle calls Perun and Veles (the names are
probably translations of names of gods in the Scandinavian language of
Primary time).

907
For the United States telephone area code, see Area code 907.
9th century – 10th century – 11th century Decades: 870s 880s 890s –
900s – 910s 920s 930s Years: 904 905 906 – 907 – 908 909 910
907 in other calendars Gregorian calendar 907 CMVII Ab urbe
condita 1660 Armenian calendar 356
ԹՎ ՅԾԶ Bahá'í calendar-937 – -936Bengali calendar314Berber
calendar1857Buddhist calendar1451Burmese calendar269Byzantine
calendar6415 – 6416
Chinese calendar 丙寅年十二月十五日 (3543/3603-12-15) — to —丁卯年十一月廿四日
(3544/3604-11-24)

Oleg of Novgorod
Oleg of Novgorod by Vasnetsov Reign 879-912 Died 912 Buried ?
PredecessorRurik Successor Igor Offspring ?Oleg Morava DynastyRurik
Dynasty
Oleg of Novgorod (Slavic: Олег, Old Norse: Helgi, Khazarian,
possibly Helgu) or Oleg Batir [edit] was Varangian prince (or
konung) who ruled all or part of Kievan Rus' people in the early
tenth century. It is credited with moving the capital of Rus from
Novgorod the Great to Kiev and, thereby, set the foundation for a
powerful state of Kievan Rus. He also started at least one attack in
Istanbul, capital of the Byzantine Empire. According to the East
Slavic time, Oleg was supreme ruler of Kievan Rus from 882 to 912.
This traditional dating has been questioned by some historians
who point out that this contrasts with other sources, such as
Schechter letter stating the activities of some khagan HLGW the
Rus in the late 940s, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor
Romanos I. The nature of the relationship with Oleg family Rurikid
decision of Rus, namely the successor of Igor of Kiev, is a subject
much controversy among historians
Oleg of the East Slavic chronicles

Feodor Bruni. Oleg Shield is constant at the gates of

Constantinople.
According to the Russian Primary Chronicle, Oleg was a
relationship (likely brother-in-law) of the first ruler, Rurik, and was
entrusted by Rurik to address both the kingdom and the young son
of Ingvar, or Igor. Oleg gradually took control of cities Dnieper,
seized Kiev (previously held by the Varangian warlords, Askold and
directives), and finally moved his capital from Novgorod there. The
new capital was a convenient place to launch a raid against
Tsargrad (Istanbul) in 911. According to the time, the Byzantines
tried to poison Oleg, but the leader of Rus «showed enigmatic
powers by refusing to drink the glass of poisoned wine. Having
solid shield on the gate of the imperial capital, Oleg won a
favorable trade treaty, which eventually was of great benefit to both
peoples. Although Byzantine sources do not record these
hostilities, the text of the treaty survive the first time.
Viktor Vasnetsov. Oleg who mourned by warriors (1899).
Brief overview of the Primary Chronicle the life of Oleg contrasts
with other early sources, specifically the First Novgorod Chronicle,
which reports that Oleg was not linked to Rurik, and was rather a
Scandinavian prince client who served as commander of the army
Igor. The Novgorod First Chronicle does not give the date of the
reign of Oleg, but dates his death in 922, not 912. [1] Scholars have
opposed this system dates back to the "epic" reigns about thirty
three years and for both Oleg and Igor in the Primary Chronicle. [2]
The Primary Chronicle and other sources of Kievan Oleg grave site
in Kiev, and identify sources Novgorodian burial Barrow in Ladoga
as a final resting place of Oleg [3].
Legend of the death of Oleg the Prophet

Reputed burial mound for Oleg of Novgorod; Volkhov River near

Old Ladoga.
In the Primary Chronicle, Oleg is known as the Prophet (вещий), an
adjective to refer to the sacred meaning of the Norse name (priest),
but the irony regarding the circumstances of his death. According
to this legend, romanticised by Alexander Pushkin in his famous
ballad of "The Song of Wise Oleg," [4] was prophesied by the
pagan priests Oleg gathered from the death of the stallion. We are
proud to own foretelling abilities, he sent the horse away. Many
years later, when asked his horse was, and told me that he had
died. Ask to see the ruins and the birthplace. When he touched the
kfali the horse with his boot snake slithered from the skull and just
him. Oleg died, thus fulfilling the prophecy. In the Scandinavian
tradition, this living legend in the history of Orvar-Odd.

Alexander Pushkin
"Pushkin" redirects here. For other uses, see Pushkin
(disambiguation). He died
February 10, 1837 (age 37) poet,
novelist, playwright St.
Petersburg, Russian Empire
Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin
(Russian: Александр
Сергеевич Пушкин,
pronounced [ɐl ʲ ɪksandr s ɪrɡ ʲ
ʲ ejev ʲ ɪtɕ puʃk ʲ ɪn] (listen)) (6
Ιουνίου [OS 26 May] 1799-
February 10 [OS 29 January]
1837) was Russian writer of the
Romantic era [1] who is
considered by many as the
greatest Russian poet [2] [3] [4]
[5] and founder of modern
Russian literature. [6] [7]
Pushkin pioneered the use of vernacular speech in his poems
and plays, creating a style of storytelling-mixing drama, romance,
and satire-associated with Russian literature ever since and
greatly influencing later Russian writers . He also wrote historical
novels. Marie de: A Story of Russian Love provides insight into
Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great. Born in Moscow,
Pushkin published his first poem at the age of fifteen, and was
widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his
graduation from the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo. Pushkin
gradually became committed to social reform and emerged as a
spokesman for literary radicals; In early 1820 he clashed with the
government, which sent him into exile in southern Russia. While
under the strict surveillance of government censors and unable
to travel or publish at will, wrote most famous work, the drama
Boris Godunov, but could not publish until years later. Novel in
verse, Eugene Onegin, was published series from 1825 to 1832.
Pushkin and his wife Natalya Goncharova, whom he married in
1831, later became regulars of court society. In 1837, while falling
into greater and more rumors in debt that his wife had instigated
a scandalous case, denied the allegations Pushkin her lover,
Georges d'Anthès, in a duel. Pushkin was mortally wounded and
died two days later. Because of political views and influence on
generations of Russian rebels, Pushkin was presented by
Bolsheviks as an opponent to bourgeois literature and culture
and a predecessor of Soviet literature and poetry [7]. In 1937, the
town of Tsarskoe Selo was renamed Pushkin in his honor.
Tsarskoye Selo
The city was founded in the 18th century as a summer residence
of the tsars of Russia under the name "Tsarskoye Selo" (Royal
Village). Nicholas II of Russia and his family lived in Alexander
Palace until transferred to Tobolsk on
July 31, 1917. After the October
Revolution, the Catherine Palace
became a museum and a few other
noble mansions converted to
educational and medical institutions.
For this reason, the town was renamed
"Detskoye Selo" (Children's Village) in
1918. In 1937, the name was changed to
"Pushkin, to commemorate the
centenary of the death of the great
Russian poet Alexander Pushkin who
had studied at Imperial High School
there. [5]
Great-grandson [8] of the African
slaves, Aleksandr Pushkin is also the
best known and high profiled Africa and
Russia Early life origins are uncertain.
Early writings on Gannibal show was born in 1696 in a village
called "Lagon," now in Eritrea, which is "on the north side of the
river Mareb ..."[ 2] [3] (which serves as a large part of modern
border between Ethiopia and Eritrea). With a map of the 1810
Henry Salt logo appears (the area corresponding to the region
today Longos Sarda, which had its own rulers, and which is
inhabited by Christian and Muslim Tigrinnya Saho? Others argue
that correspond to near Longos Chewa Further west in Eritrea)
like the other sons brought their father with their hands trussed
with a rope, they enjoy the freedom of the youngest son
swimming in fountains of his father 'notes (to Pushkin Eugene
Onegin). Research (1996) shows the Dieudonné Gnammankou
that could actually from what is now the Sultanate of Logone-
Birni the Logone River in Cameroon, south of Lake Chad. In an
official document that Gannibal submitted in 1742 for Empress
Elizabeth, while reporting for the classification of nobility and a
coat of arms, asked for the right to
use family crest emblazoned with
an elephant and the mysterious
word "FVMMO» (in the home
Kotoko ). However, FVMMO has
also been proposed to stand for
the Latin phrase "Fortuna Vitam
Meam Mutavit Oppido" which
means «Fortune has changed my
life in the city."
 At the age of seven (c. 1703) Gannibal taken by the court of the
Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul. Based on the year, the sultan was
either Mustafa II (reigned 1695-1703) and Ahmed III (reigned 1703-
1730). The German biography of Gannibal, compiled
anonymously from his own words, explains that "the children of
noble families to be taken for the ruler of all Muslims, the Turkish
Sultan as hostages, to be killed or sold into slavery if their fathers
unacceptable behavior. Gannibal Sister Lahan is taken captive at
the same time, but died during the journey.
In 1704, after a year in the capital, Gannibal was removed from
the deputy Russian ambassador Raguzinsky Sava, who after the
orders of his superiors (one of whom Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy,
the great grandfather of the celebrated writer Leo Tolstoy.)
Gannibal baptized in 1705, the church of St. Paraskeva in Vilnius,
with Peter as his godfather. In 1717, Gannibal taken to Paris to
continue his education in the arts, science and war. Until then it
was fluent in many languages and knew mathematics and
geometry. He fought with the forces of Louis XV of France
against those of sulfur Louis «Philip V of Spain and rose to the
rank of commander. It was during his time in France that
Gannibal adopted surname in honor of the Carthaginian general
Hannibal (Gannibal is the traditional transliteration of the name in
Russian). In Paris he met and friend of such figures as
Enlightenment, Denis Diderot, the Baron de Montesquieu and
Voltaire. (This claim by biographer Hugh Barnes questioned by
critic Andrew Kahn. [4]) Voltaire Gannibal called the "dark star of
the Enlightenment. [5]

Under Peter & Elizabeth

Letter signed by A. Ganibal 22 Μαρτίου 1744. Tallinn City Archives.
Education Gannibal was completed by 1722 and that was to return to Russia.
It is rumored that he had achieved on his return from Peter himself, a few
kilometers away from Moscow.
After the death of Peter in 1725, Gannibal was exiled to Siberia in 1727,
about 4,000 miles east of St. Petersburg. It was in 1730 thanks to its abilities
in military engineering. After Peter's daughter Elizabeth became the new
monarch in 1741, became an important person in court, rose to the rank of
Major General and became superintendent of Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia), a
position he held from 1742 to 1752. A letter signed on March 22, 1744 by "A.
Ganibal" (note only one 'n') has been photographed in Tallinn City Archives,
see photo. The Empress Elizabeth in 1742 had given the property in the
province of Pskov Mikhailovskoye with hundreds of serfs. [6] [7] Here, retired
in 1762.
It is rumored that the great General Alexander Suvorov has life as a soldier to
Gannibal, who convinced his father Suvorov to let his son pursue a military
career.
Gannibal married twice. First wife Evdokia was Dioper, a Greek woman. The
couple married in 1731 and had a daughter. Unfortunately Dioper despised
her husband, who was forced to marry. When he discovered that Gannibal
was unfaithful to him, who was arrested and thrown into prison, where he
spent eleven years living in squalid conditions. Gannibal came to live with
another woman, Christina Regina Siöberg (1705-1781), daughter of Mattias
Johan Siöberg and his wife Christina Elisabeth d'Albedyll, and married in
Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia) in 1736, one year after the birth of their first child
while still bigamously married his first wife. Divorce from Dioper will not
become final until 1753, which was a fine imposed on repentance Gannibal,
and Dioper sent to a monastery for the rest of her life. The second marriage
was Gannibal, however, is legal.

Ivan Gannibal, Abram's son

The paternal side, the second wife Gannibal came from noble families in
Scandinavia and Germany: Siöberg (Sweden), Galtung (Norway) and
Grabow (Denmark and Brandenburg). [1] [8] Her paternal grandfather was
Gustaf Siöberg, Rittmester til Estrup, who died in 1694, and his wife Clara
Maria Lauritzdatter Galtung (c. 1651-1698), in turn, the daughter of Lauritz
Lauritzson Galtung ( c. 1615-1661) and his wife Barbara Grabow til
Pederstrup (1631-1696). Abram Gannibal and Christina Regina Siöberg had
ten children including a son, oSIP. OSIP in turn has a daughter, Nadezhda,
the mother of Alexander Pushkin. Gannibal eldest son, Ivan, was an
accomplished naval officer who founded the city of Kherson in 1779 and
reached the rank of General-in-Chief, the second highest military rank in
imperial Russia. It should also be noted that some British aristocrats
descended from Gannibal, as Natalia Grosvenor, Duchess of Westminster,
and George Mountbatten, 4th Marquess of Milford Haven. [9] [10]
According to the Primary Chronicle, Oleg died in 913 and his successor, Igor
of Kiev, ruled from then until his murder in 944. The letter Schechter, [5], a
document written by a Jewish Khazar, a contemporary of Romanos I
Lecapenus, describes the activities of Rus warlord called HLGW (Hebrew:
‫)הלגו‬, usually transcribed as "Helgu". [6] For years many scholars ignored or
discounted the Schechter Letter account referred Helgu (often interpreted as
Oleg) as late as the 940s. [7]
Recently, however, scholars like David Christian and Constantine Zuckerman
have suggested that the account of the Schechter Letter is supported by
several other Russian time, and suggests a struggle in the early Rus state
between factions loyal to Oleg and Igor Rurikid , a battle eventually lost Oleg.
[8] Zuckerman posited that early date the Rus had to redefine in the light of
these sources. Zuckerman between beliefs and those of others who have
analyzed these sources is that the Khazars did not lose Kiev by the beginning
of 900S (instead of 882, the traditional date [9]), Igor was the son of Rurik,
but rather a more distant descendant, the Oleg legtai not immediately
followed Rurik, but rather that there is a lost generation between the
legendary Varangian ruler and his successors founded. [10]
Of particular interest is the fact that the Schechter Letter account of the death
of Oleg (ie, that he left and invaded FRS, tentatively identified with Persia,
[11] and was killed there) has remarkable similarities to the account of the
Arab historians such as Ibn Miskawayh, who described similar Rus attack on
the Muslim state of Arran in the year 944 / 5. [12]
Attempts to settle accounts

The Prince Oleg approached the heathen Priests, an image to Kholuy ballad
of Pushkin. Unlike a Zuckerman, the first time and later tomb of Kiev
Chronicle able Oleg in Kiev, where they could see the moment when the
compiled documents. In addition, researchers noted that, if managed Oleg
Rurik in 879 (such as the East Slavic time claim), could hardly have been
active nearly 70 years, if not his case otherwise unheard of longevity in
medieval times. To overcome these difficulties, it has been suggested that
"helgu", a candidate for "sanctuary" in Scandinavian languages, was a
hereditary title of the pagan monarchs of Rus-priests and the title was held by
Igor, among others. [It has also been suggested that Helgu-Oleg who waged
war in the 940s, was different from both Rurik successors. It could be one of
the "fair and great princes" listed on Russo-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944
or one of the "princes of Kievan Rus' referred to in administrando De Imperio.
Unfortunately, the first time does not define the relationship between the
minor princes Rurikid active during the period, although the names of Rurik,
Oleg, and Igor were recorded between the late 10th-century Rurikids-11th
century. Georgy Vernadsky identified even Oleg Schechter Letter of
otherwise anonymous eldest son of Igor, widow Predslava which refers to the
Russo-Byzantine Treaty of 944. Alternatively, V. Ya. Petrukhin speculated
that Helgu-Oleg the 940s was one of the princes vernacular of Chernigov,
decision dynasty in very close contact with Khazaria, and the findings at the
Black Grave, a large basilica Kurgan found in excavations near Chernigov,
seem to indicate. Neither of these theories has been adopted by the
academic mainstream, however.

References
1. ^ AN Nasonov, Novgorodskaia Pervaia Letopis Starshego i Mladshego
Izvodov, (Moscow and Leningrad: ANSSR, 1950), 109. cf. Kloss 337-343.
2. ^ Shahmatov xxxii-xxxiii.
3. ^ The first and most plausible scenario appears to have retained the First
Novgorod Chronicle, which says that Oleg left "outside" (ie, in Scandinavia)
and was buried there.
4. ^ Leningrad, Aurora Art Publishers, 1991.
5. ^ The text of the letter given to Schechter Golb 106-121. It is listed in this
profile, and by line (eg SL Fol. X: x)
6. ^ SL Fol. 2r, 15-16? 17. The author of the letter describes Khazaria as 'our
land'. SL Fol. 1R: 19, 2v: 15,20.
7. ^ No less a figure than Mikhail Artamonov said authenticity of the
manuscripts "undeniable. Artamonov 12. However, other scientists
expressed skepticism on his behalf, largely due to the contradiction in the
Primary Chronicle. For example, Gregoire 242-248, 255-266? Dunlop 161.
Novoseltsev, noting the discrepancy, acknowledges authenticity of the
document, but the author states that "displaces the real historical facts rather
freely." Novoseltsev 216-218. Brutskus HLGW claimed was in fact another
name Igor. Brutskus 30-31. Mosin proposed HLGW was a different person
from Oleg and was an independent prince in Tmutarakan? The existence of
an independent state in Rus Tmutarakan in the first half of the tenth century,
has been rejected by nearly all scholars. Mosin 309-325? Cf. Zuckerman
258.
8. ^ Zuckerman 257-268. Zuckerman refers, inter alia, the First Novgorod
Chronicle. Cf., For example, Christian 341-345.
9. ^ Pritsak 60-71? Shahmatov xxxii-xxxiii?
10. ^ Pritsak 60-71. Pritsak surrounding the "lost generation" between Oleg
and Igor. Zuckerman is dismissed as' speculation permanent "; And places
such as contemporaries in the early to mid-tenth century.
11. ^ Pavel Kokovtsov, when publishing a Russian translation of the letter in
1932, claimed that FRS may refer to Thrace, where Rus forces defeated the
armies of Lecapenus (online).
12. ^ Cf Miskawaihi 67-74?. SL Fol. 2v: 3 et seq.
13. ^ Parkhomenko 24 et seq.
14. ^ Brook 154.
15. ^ Vernadsky 41 et seq.
16. ^ Petrukhin 226-228
Sources

• Artamonov, Mikhail. Istoriya Khazar. Leningrad, 1962.

• Brutskus, Julius D. Pismo Hazarskogo Evreja Ol X Veka.
Berlin 1924.
• Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and
Mongolia, Vol. 1. Blackwell, 1998.
• Dunlop, D.M.. History of the Jewish Khazars. Princeton:
Princeton Univ. Press, 1954.
• Gregoire, H. 'Le "Glozel' khazare." Revue des Études
Byzantines 12, 1937.
• Golb, Norman and Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew
Documents of the Tenth Century. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press,
1982. [Note:as each author was responsible for separate
sections of the work, they are referenced separately above.]
• Kloss, B.M. "Letopis' Novgorodskaja pervaja". Slovar'
Kniznikov i Knizhnosti Drevnej Rusi, vol. 1. Leningrad 1987.
 • Kokovtsov P.S. Еврейско-хазарская переписка в X веке.
Leningrad 1932.
• al-Miskawaihi. The Eclipse of the 'Abbasid Caliphate. D. S.
Margoliouth, trans. Oxford 1921.
• Mosin, V. "Les Khazars et les Byzantins d'apres l'Anonyme de
Cambridge." Revue des Études Byzantines 6 (1931): 309-325.
• Nasonov, A.N., ed. Novgorodskaja Pervaja Letopis Starshego i
Mladshego Izvodov. Moscow, 1950.
• Novoseltsev, Anatoli P. Hazarskoe Gosudarstvo i Ego Rol' v
Istorii Vostochnoj Evropy i Kavkaza. Moscow 1990.
• Parkomenko V.A. У истоков русской государственности.
Leningrad, 1924.
• Petrukhin V.Ya. "Князь Олег, Хелгу Кембриджского
документа и русский княжеский род". Древнейшие
государства Восточной Европы. 1998. Памяти А.П.
Новосельцева. Moscow, Russian Academy of Sciences, 2000:
222-230.
• Pushkin, Alexander. The Song of the Wise Oleg. Leningrad,
Aurora Art Publishers, 1991.
• Shahmatov, A.A. Ocherk Drevnejshego Perioda Istorii
Russkogo Jazyka. Petrograd, 1915 (reprinted Paris 1967).
• Zuckerman, Constantine. "On the Date of the Khazar’s
Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of the
Rus Oleg and Igor." Revue des Études Byzantines 53 (1995):
237-270.
• Vernadsky, Georgy. Kievan Rus. Moscow, 1996.

Rurik, or Riurik (Russian: Рюрик; pronounced [ˈrʲʉrʲɪk]; Old East

Norse: Rørik, meaning "famous ruler"; c. 830 – c. 879), was a
Varangian chieftain who gained control of Ladoga in 862, built the
Holmgard settlement near Novgorod, and founded the Rurik Dynasty
which ruled Kievan Rus and then Galicia-Volhynia until 14th and
Muscovy until the 16th century.
Varangians
Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the 11th century chronicle of
John Skylitzes.
The Varangians or Varyags or Vikings (Old Norse: Væringjar? Greek:
Varangians, Variagoi, Varangoi, Variagoi? Russia and Ukraine: Варяги,
Varyagi / Varyahy), sometimes referred to as Variagians, the Vikings [1] [2]
which went to the east and south through what is now Russia, Belarus and
Ukraine, especially in the 9th and 10th centuries. However, according to
some scholars (including those known as a MV Lomonosov) the term
"Varangians" used to refer to any sea travelers, merchants and pirates,
regardless of their origin. This term is used in connection with Vikings, and
the Slavic soldiers moving between major commercial centers of the time and
sometimes dealing with conflict. A similar term in Russian is "nemets"
(немец), which was used in relation to almost all foreigners from European
countries, but particularly in relation to the Germans. In modern Russia the
term has only one meaning-"German". According to the Rus Primary
Chronicle, compiled in about 1113, groups of Norsemen Varangians are
known as Rus, as some were known as the Swedes, Normans, Angles,
Gotlanders and so on. [3] However, mainly because of geographical
considerations, most of the Varangians who traveled and settled in the
eastern Baltic, Russia and lands in the south came from the world of modern
Sweden. [4] engage in trade, piracy and mercenary activities, which roamed
the river systems and portages of Gardariki, reaching the Caspian Sea and
Istanbul.

Varangian Rus'
Having settled Aldeigja (Ladoga) in the 750s, Scandinavian colonists were
probably an element in the early ethnogenesis of the people of Rus ', and
likely played a role in shaping Khaganate of Kievan Rus'. The fortress of
Ladoga was built in the 12th century and rebuilt 400 years later. It is mostly
since the reconstructed largely destroyed during the Second World War
Note the way that is chtismni the church, it appears outside with panyschiri
door and very small and a large amount of windows, a castle in fact hard to
get through the main entrance but easy to beat in the embrasures. You
establish a link between Flor and m other items

St. George's Church in the Ladoga Fortress.

St. George's Church contains magnificent frescoes painted in 1167.

And of course very close to a river to have the necessary supplies easily in
water. Are the churches were simply vestibules castles; Think of the moment.
Why all this strategic planning without apparent cause;
Eighth to Tenth Century Viking burial mounds along the Volkhov River near
Staraya Ladoga.

View the Novaya Ladoga in 1911.

Staraya Ladoga (Russian: Старая Ладога), Finnish: Vanha Laatokka or
Aldeigjuborg the Saga, is a village (selo) in Volkhovsky County Leningrad,
Russia, located on the Volkhov River near Lake Ladoga, 8 km north of the
city of Volkhov. The village used to be a prosperous trading outpost in the 8th
and 9th century. A multinational settlement was dominated by Scandinavians
who were called by the name of Rus and therefore sometimes called the first
capital of Russia Dendrochronology suggests that Ladoga was founded in
753. Up to 950, was one of the most important commercial ports in Eastern
Europe. Merchant ships sailed from the Baltic Sea through Ladoga to
Novgorod and then in Istanbul or the Caspian Sea. This route is known as
the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks. An alternative way led
along the Volga trade route to the Volga Khazar capital of Atil, and then to the
southern shores of the Caspian Sea all the way to Baghdad. Apparent, the
oldest medieval Arabian currency in Europe was discovered in Ladoga.
Residents of Old Ladoga were Norsemen, Finns, Slavs, and therefore,
different names for the city. The original Finnish name, Alode-Joki (ie, "flat
river") was adopted as Aldeigja the Nordic languages as Ladoga (Ладога) in
Old East Slavic.
Ladoga under Rurik
According to Hypatian Code, legendary Varangian leader Rurik came to
Ladoga in 862 and made the capital. Successors to Rurik moved to
Novgorod and then to Kiev, thus laying the foundation for the powerful state
of Kievan Rus. There are several major kurgans, or royal tombs on the
outskirts of Ladoga. One of them is said to be serious Rurik, and another-that
of his successor Oleg. But only graves or have some significance as krymmni
pistimoniki say mark the position energiakou stellar channel;
The Norse Heimskringla and other sources indicate that in the late 990s
Eiríkr Hákonarson Norway raided the coast and the burning city. Ladoga was
the largest shopping center in Eastern Europe from about 800 with 900 CE,
and it is estimated that between 90 and 95% of all Arab dirhams found in
Sweden passed Ladoga. Next Ladoga reference to a time dating to 1019,
when Sweden Ingigerd married Yaroslav of Novgorod. Under the terms of the
settlement of their marriage, the Ladoga Yaroslav gave way to his wife, who
appointed her father's cousin, the Swedish crown Ragnvald Ulfsson, to rule
the city. This information was confirmed by sagas and archaeological
evidence suggesting that Ladoga gradually evolved into a primarily
Varangian settlement. At least two Swedish kings spent their youth at
Ladoga, Stenkil and Inge King I and King may also Anund Gårdske.
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Ladoga operated as a trade outpost of the
powerful Novgorod Republic. Later importance of trade declined and the
majority of the population engaged in fishing in the XV century. [2]. After a
new forts as Oreshek Korela and built in the 14th century further to the west
of Ladoga military importance of the city also fell. Ladoga pyatina Vodskaya
belonged to the Republic and includes 84 homes in XV century.
Most of the land belonged to the church. Nata again the church land and
mysteries. [2] Novgorodians built a citadel with five towers and many
churches. The fort was rebuilt in the late 15th and 16th century and the mid-
12th century churches of St. George and the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
stand in all their original glory. Inside St. George, some magnificent 12th-
century frescoes are still visible. The reconstruction of such Staraya Ladoga
fortress is expected to be completed in 2010. [3] In 1703, Peter the Great
founded the city of Novaya Ladoga (New Ladoga) closer to the bank of Lake
Ladoga. The ancient fortress has since declined and became known as Old
Ladoga, in order to distinguish the new town.The heart of Staraya Ladoga is
an old fort where Yelena River flows into the River Volkhov. In earlier times,
was a strategic location because it was the only possible haven for marine
vessels could not navigate through the Volkhov River. Besides the churches
mentioned above, there is a mid-12th century church of St. Climent, which
lies in ruins. There is also a monastery dedicated to St. Nicholas and mainly
manufactured in the 17th century Saint Nicholas (Greek: Aghios Nikolaos,
Aghios Nikolaos = "victory of the people"
(270 - December 6th, 346) is the standard and most popular name for Saint
Nicholas, the saint and Greek [3] Bishop of Myra (Demre, in Lycia, a part of
modern Turkey). Because of the many miracles attributed to the mediation, is
also known as Nicholas miraculous. He had a reputation for secret gift to the
entrance are coins in the shoes of those who left them out for him, DEITE
POSO PARADOPISTOI EINAI OI KLHRIKOI KI APO POTE traditional in
Germanic areas of France (North, Alsace, Lorraine) and in Luxembourg
Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Czech Republic and the city of Trieste and the eastern Friuli in Italy.
Moreover, many Roman Catholics of Alsace and Lotharingian descent in
Cincinnati, Ohio, celebrate "Saint Nicholas Day" for the morning of December
6. The traditions vary from country to country, even between Belgium and the
Netherlands. The Sinterklaas feast celebrates the name day, December 6,
Saint Nicholas (280-342), patron saint of children and seafarers. St. Nicholas
was bishop of Myra in present-day Turkey. In the eleventh century, the
remains moved to Italy making holiday Church. This paves the way for the
folk festival. At first, there was childbishop. A child who was dressed as a
bishop on St. Nicholas eve and to perform the mass the next day. This folk
tradition was a challenge the Church. Also, instead of incense, burnt shoes
produce a very strong smell. Some poems contain swear words like
«kapoentje» (castrated male chicken) or a negative sense. These poems
were often older children at the beginning of delivery did not show as
opposed to younger children. In modern tradition, have lost their derogatory
meanings in songs. In earlier times, the celebration was an opportunity to
help the poor by putting some money in their shoes (which became a place
gifts in the shoes of children) and a wild feast, similar to Carnival, which often
led to massive public drunkenness. After the Netherlands was largely
Protestant country, many Calvinists argued that the feast of Sinterklaas was
very «paaps» (a slang term for the Catholic) and should be repealed.
However, the festival was so popular, even among the Protestant population,
that these efforts were largely unsuccessful. The modern tradition of
Sinterklaas celebration as children probably comes from the picture book for
children Sint Nicolaas en zijn Knecht (St. Nicholas and her assistant) written
in 1850 by Professor Jan Schenkman (1806-1863). This book introduced the
concept of Sinterklaas tradition is through the chimney, riding the roofs of the
houses on a white horse, and arriving in Spain by steamboat. He also
introduced the song "Zie ginds
komt de stoomboot" ( "See,
there is the steamer), which
remains one of the most
famous songs Sinterklaas in
the Netherlands. In the
Netherlands, St. Nicholas Eve
(December 5) is the main
reason for gift-giving. The
evening is called
"sinterklaasavond" or
"pakjesavond" ( "presents the
evening). In the Netherlands,
children receive gifts on this
afternoon in Belgium and
children shoes in front of the fireplace on the
evening of December 5, then go to sleep, and find
the shows around the shoes on the morning of 6.

Sinterklaas during the Second World War

In difficult times of German occupation of Holland
(1940-1945), Sinterklaas, however, came to cheer
everyone, not just
children. Many of
the traditional
Sinterklaas poems
written during
those years [1]
contain references
to current events,
and many celebrate the Royal Air Force. In
1941, for example, the RAF dropped boxes
of candy over the occupied Netherlands.
One of the poems attached: RAF Kapoentje,
Gooi wat in mijn schoentje,
Bij de Moffen gooien, Maar strooien in Holland! The
rhyme is a variation on one of the most famous
traditional Sinterklaas poems with "RAF"
replacement "Sinterklaas" in the first line
(coincidentally, both expressions have the same
metric properties) and the third and fourth
Sinterklaas urge to throw bombs for "Moffen" (censure for "Germans" as
"krauts" in English) and candy for the Netherlands. Many of the poems
lament the lack of food and basic necessities, and the fact that the Germans
had taken everything of value; Other admiration for the Dutch resistance. [2]
Physical description. Sinterklaas has a long red cape, wearing a white dress
and red bishop's miter (bishop's hat), and holds crosier, very golden staff with
a fancy curled top. Is a great book says that if every child is good or bad in
the past year. The traditional rides a white horse.
Sinterklaas Zwarte Piet Assistant of Zwarte Piet (Black Pete) is origin of the
legendary past of the bishop. Three little Moorish boys were sentenced to
death for a crime he did not commit. The bishop intervened, saving them. To
show their gratitude, the boys remained Sinterklaas to help him, falling and
jumping on the roofs night Sinterklaas deliver gifts. Black skin can refer either
to Moorish background, or occupation of chimneysweep, this possibility is
reinforced by their clothes, reminiscent of Italian clothing and chimneysweep
rooftop Piet possession. Sinterklaas and Black Piets are usually of a bag
containing candy to good children and their eggs, a chimney sweep broom
made of willow branches, used to spank naughty children. Some of the older
songs Sinterklaas say naughty children put in the bag and taken back to
Spain. The Zwarte Pieten candy toss around a tradition that is supposed to
come from the history of Sint Nicolaas »saving three young girls from
prostitution by tossing gold coins from her window at night to pay the debts of
their father.
So you can see the systematic rkpaidefsi through the DELIVERY of young
children want more and more sweet with the
KNOWN to the human body vlavres
IMPLICATIONS AND the role of Sint Nicolaas able
trapziti, you are using to the creation of Satan, the
money to resolve problems . MIPOS the Sint
Nicolaas is not so Holy and only SIN Nicolaas??
Think (SIN = sin)
If the rule to generalize, and poodles no good for
the Saints and funds of the church Varangians
(Varyags, in Old East Slavic), first mentioned by
the Primary Chronicle as exacted tribute from the
Slavic and Finnic tribes in 859. It was the rapid
expansion of the Vikings in Northern Europe; England began to pay danegeld
at 859, and the Curonians Grobin faced an invasion by the Swedes at about
the same imerominia.Symfona the First Time in 862, the Finnic and Slavic
tribes rebelled against the Varangian Rus, driving them overseas back in
Scandinavia, but soon began to collide with each other. The disturbance
caused the tribes to invite back the Varangian Rus "to come and rule", and to
bring peace to the region. Led by Rurik and his brothers and Truvor Sineus,
invited Varangians (called Rus) settled around the city of Holmgård
(Novgorod). In the 9th century, the Rus «operate the Volga trade route, which
connected Northern Russia (Gardariki) with the Middle East (Serkland). Since
the Volga route declined by the end of the century, trade route from the
Varangians to the Greeks who quickly surpassed in popularity. Apart from
Ladoga and Novgorod, Gnezdovo and Gotland were major centers for
Varangian trade. [11] Western historians tend to agree with the first time that
they organized the existing Varangians Slavic settlements in political entity of
Rus in the 880s and gave their name to the land. Many Slavic scholars
opposed to this theory of German influence in Rus »(people) and to propose
alternatives to this part of the history of Eastern Europe, as its author the
Primary Chronicles, is a monk Nestor, he worked at the court Varangians.
In contrast to the intense Scandinavian influence in Normandy and the British
Isles, Varangian culture did not survive largely in the East. Instead, the
Slavicized the Varangian ruling classes of the two powerful city-states of
Novgorod and Kiev in detail by the end of the 10th century. Old Norse was
spoken in a region of Novgorod, however, until the thirteenth century
Rus' and the Byzantine Empire Rus'-Byzantine Wars
Map showing the major Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red)
and the trade route Varangians the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes of
the eighth to eleventh centuries are displayed in orange. The earliest record
of Kievan Rus 'Byzantine' was written before 842, preserved in the Greek Life
of St. George Amastris, speaking in a raid that had extended to Paphlagonia.
[12]
In 839, Emperor Theophilus negotiated with outsiders, whom he called Rhos,
to provide a few mercenaries for his army. It was 860, from Kiev, that the Rus
Askold and directive in the first attack was launched in Istanbul. The result of
this initial ground attack, but Varangians continued their efforts as monoxyla
regularly sailed down the Dnieper to the Black Sea. The invasions Rus »in
the Caspian Sea were recorded by Arab authors in the 870s and 910, 912,
913, 943, and later. Although the Rus had predominantly peaceful trading
relations with the Byzantines, the rulers of Kiev began its relative success of
the 907 naval mission and the failed campaign against Constantinople, 941,
and Sviatoslav I of large-scale invasion of the Balkans in 968 -- 971. These
raids were successful in the sense of forcing the Byzantines to re-arrange
their trading arrangements; Military, Varangians usually defeated by the
superior Byzantine forces, especially the sea and the use of the Byzantine
Greek fire. Many atrocities were reported by (was not entirely impartial)
Greek historians during such raids: the Rus «said to have crucified their
victims and have led to the nails in their minds

Varangian Guard
Varangian Guardsmen, an illumination from the Skylitzis Chronicle
Distrust Basil II of the native Byzantine guardsmen, whose loyalties often
shifted with fatal consequences, as well as the proven loyalty of Varangians,
led him to use them as personal bodyguards. This new force became known
as the Varangian Guard (Greek: Order of Varangians, the Order ton
Varángōn) over the years, new recruits from Sweden, Denmark, Norway and
kept mostly Scandinavian cast to the organization until the end of the 11th
century.
So many Scandinavians to recruit guards, a medieval Swedish law of
Västergötland said that no one could inherit while staying in "Greece" the
then-Scandinavian term for the Byzantine Empire. [13] In the eleventh
century, there were two other European courts that recruited Scandinavians:
[14] G. Rus 980-1060 and London 1018-1066 (the Þingalið). [14] Steven
Runciman, in The History of the Crusades, noted that since the emperor
Alexius Comnenus, the Byzantine Varangian Guard was recruited heavily
Anglo and "others at the hands of the Vikings and their cousins the
Normans". As early as 911, Varangians reported as fighting as mercenaries
for the Byzantines. Approximately 700 Varangians granted along with
Dalmatians as marines in Byzantine naval campaigns against the Emirate of
Crete in 902 and the force of 629 returned to Crete under Constantine in the
Porphyrogennetos 949. A unit of 415 Varangians participated in the Italian
campaign of 936. It is also recorded that there were Varangian contingents
among the forces that fought the Arabs in Syria in 955. During this period, the
Varangian mercenaries were included in the major partners (Gr. Great
Society). We are talking about natural Masson. In 988 Basil II requested
military assistance from Vladimir of Kiev to defend the throne. In compliance
with the treaty by his father after the siege of Dorostolon (971), Vladimir sent
6,000 men. In return, Vladimir Kingdom was sister, Anna, in marriage.
Vladimir also agreed to convert to Christianity and bring people to the
Christian faith. In these 989 Varangian, led by Basil II himself, went and
fought in Chrysopoli where itithikan rebel dynamite the Bard Fokas. Who died
on the battlefield, a stroke in full view of his opponent. After the death of their
leader, Phocas troops "turned and fled. The atrocity occurred when the
Varangians pursued fleeing army and "cheerfully hacked them to pieces."
These men formed the core of the Varangian Guard, which saw a great
service in southern Italy in the eleventh century, as the Normans and
Lombards worked to extinguish Byzantine authority there. In 1018, Basil II
received a request from catepan of Italy, Basil Boioannes, aid to suppress the
revolt of the Lombard Melus Bari. The detachment of the Varangian Guard
was sent in the battle of Cannae, the Greeks achieved a decisive victory.
Varangians also participated in the partial reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs
in the 1038 George Maniatis. Here, who fought alongside Normans recently
arrived in Italy looking for adventure and Lombards of Byzantine-held Puglia.
A prominent member of the guard this time was Harald Hardrada, later King
of Norway. However, when Maniatis ostracized by the Lombards publicly
humiliated their leader, Arduin, the Lombards and Normans desert and
Varangians their successors. Not long after, the catepan Michael Doukeianos
Varangians power was stationed in Bari. On March 16, 1041 were called up
to fight the Normans near Venosa and many drowned in the subsequent
retreat across Ofanto. In September Exaugustus Boioannes sent to Italy with
only a small force to replace the Varangians Doukeiano. On September 3,
1041 were defeated in battle by the Normans. Many of the latter were sent
from Constantinople to Varangian units. In 1047 John Raphael was sent to
Bari with a contingent of Varangians, but Bariots refused to accept his troops
and spent his term in Otranto. Twenty years later, in 1067, the last Byzantine
catepan in southern Italy, Mabrica, arrived by Varangian auxiliaries and took
Brindisi and Taranto. During the disastrous Battle of Manzikert 1071, almost
all of the imperial army was limited to very few around. [15] Above from
Scandinavia for the first 100 years, the guard began to see increased
inclusion of Anglo-Saxons after the successful invasion of England by the
Normans. In 1088 a large number of Anglo-Saxons and Danes emigrated to
the Byzantine Empire through the Mediterranean. [5] A contains more than
5,000 of them arriving in 235 ships. Those who do not enter imperial service
settled on the Black Sea coast, but those who did became so vital to
Varangians that the Guard was commonly called Englinbarrangoi (Anglo-
Varangians) from that point. In this capacity, which fought in Sicily against the
Normans under Robert Guiscard, who unsuccessfully tried to invade the
lower Balkans as well. Writing for the unit as it was in 1080, the chronicler
and Princess Anna Komnene refers to these "ax flying barbarians" as
"Thule", possibly a reference to the British Isles. [16]
The army of Varangians having relied primarily as a weapon hatchets,
although they were often skilled swordsmen or archers as well. Michael
writes that all Pselos Varangians exception did not use the weapon called a
sword. [17] Some sources, such as Anna of Trebizond Alexiad, described as
attached. That was not the wildfire which was an incendiary weapon used by
the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines usually used in naval battles to great
effect that could continue burning even on water. Provide a technological
advantage, and was responsible for many important Byzantine military
victories, especially the salvation of Constantinople by two Arab sieges that
would ensure the survival of the empire. The impression that the Greek fire
on the European Crusaders was such that the name was applied to any kind
of incendiary weapons, [1], including those used by the Arabs, Chinese and
Mongols. These, however, was not different mixtures and the Byzantine
formula, which was a closely guarded state secret, the composition of which
has been lost. As a result, the components are a hotly debated topic, with
suggestions including tion naphtha, lime, sulfur and nitrate. What set the
Byzantine use of incendiary mixtures, except it was under any pressure to
work the traps liquid on the enemy. Although the term "wildfire" is generally in
English and most other languages of the Crusades, in the original Byzantine
sources called by various names such as "sea fire" (Greek: fire Thalassios),
"Roman fire" (fire sesterce ) "fire of war" (war fire), "liquid fire" (ygron fire) or
"processed fire (fire manufacturer). The guard was stationed primarily around
Constantinople, and may have barracked the palace complex Bucoleon . The
front is also accompanied troops on the ground, and Byzantine chroniclers
(as well as several notable Western European and Arab chroniclers) often
note their bravery, battlefield especially in comparison with the local
barbarian peoples. It was vital for the Byzantine victory under Emperor John
II Komnenos in the Battle of Veria in 1122. Varangians hacked their way
through the enemy circle the wagons Pecheneg, collapsing the Pecheneg
position and causing a general defeat in their camp. It was important for the
defense of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. On the role of
gatekeeper, then, consists of English and Danish, said that "fighting was very
violent and there was hand to hand fight with axes and swords, the
perpetrators placed on the walls and prisoners taken by the both sides. " [5]
The Varangian guard still works at least as late as mid-fourteenth century,
and people identified as Varangians had to be found in Constantinople
around 1400. [18] dromons (from the Greek roads, streets, ie "runner") was
the major warships of the Byzantine navy from 6 to 12 century AD.
Developed indirectly from the ancient trireme and were usually propelled by
oars and two sails, a device that was used by the Navy in the Mediterranean
for centuries.
Literary sources, and credit accounts reveal that there were at least three
varieties of the road, while the exact relationship of streets to sound
chelandion, a term often used indiscriminately, somewhat unclear. These
were, first, ousiakon which took its name from a company or content of 100
men. This was a two banked galley with the lower level only rowing, rowing
and upper grades or released to fight when necessary. Secondly, the slightly
larger crew pamphylos with between 120 and 160. Third, proper roads, which
had 200 crew: 50 on the lower bank, and 100 in the upper bank in two files,
along with 50 Marines. The dromons had a central tower (Xylokastro - Greek:
"wooden castle) near the central mast, from which the Marines could use
bows and arrows or throw spears and other missiles. Dromons had often
flamethrowers (siphones, and since these vessels are described as
siphōnophoroi dromones) rejected Greek fire catapults capable of hurling 10
kg projectiles up to 250 meters.
Middle English and Old French dromond dromont from the roads and
describe any particularly large medieval ship.

In Russia, Varangian remained a synonym for the Swedes until the late 16th
century. [19] The function and purpose of the Varangian Guard was similar if
not identical with the services provided by the Kievan druzhina, the
Norwegian hird, and the Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon housecarls.
Varangians served as personal bodyguard [20] the emperor, swearing an
oath of loyalty they had ceremonial duties such as stabilizers and acclaimers
and perform certain police, especially in cases of treason and conspiracy. It
was headed by separate officials, the following, who were usually native
Byzantine.
The Varangian Guard was only used in battle during critical moments, or
when the battle was more intense ground of cruelty and brutality that edrate.
[21] Contemporary Byzantine chroniclers note with a mixture of horror and
fascination that the "Scandinavians were frightening both in appearance and
in equipment that was attacked with reckless rage and not cared about the
loss of blood, nor wounds. [21] The name probably refers to berserkergang
from this state of trance is said to have superhuman strength and no sense of
pain from their wounds. Do give them drugs and;
The secret recipes of Asclepius;
Is DELTA FORCE the Americans were too edrate since then and is not a
new discovery;
Was battalions Nefelim who thirsted for blood; Think of the
[21] During the Byzantine Emperor died, Varangians was the only right of
operation to the imperial treasury and taking as much gold and precious
stones, as many who could fly, a process known as the Old Norse
polutasvarf ( «palace pillaging" ). [21] This privilege allowed many
Varangians to return home as wealthy men, which encouraged more
Scandinavians to enlist in the Guard in Miklagarðr (Swedish = Miklagård)
(Istanbul) [21].
Nata! And had access to the central treasury. And anarotiest the Templars
who found the money! The window of the Emperor found. And as they went;
In their underground shops, and one who was a monk and had battalions, the
caves of San Antonios to conceal, to guard the BLACK monks. Now if you
get too close point, the ninja comes out ahead. And all get the proper
importance
The faith of Varangians was an allegory of the Byzantine writers. Writing for
the father of Alexius to take the Imperial throne in 1081 by, Anna Komnene
notes that it was advised to attack Varangians who still guarded the emperor
Nikiforos for Varangians "relationship of trust with the emperors and their
personal, as a family tradition, a kind of sacred trust. "This belief, he noted,"
will remain intact, and will never stream the slighted hint of betrayal. " [22]
Unlike the parent Byzantine front guard mistrusted by the Second Kingdom,
the Varangian guards 'loyalties' was the position of the emperor, not the man
who sat on the throne. This became apparent in 969, when the guards failed
to avenge the death by assassination of Emperor Nikephoros II. An employee
was able to call for the guards while the Emperor was being attacked, but
was dead when they arrived. Immediately knelt before John Tzimiskes,
Nikiforos killer "and hailed as the emperor. "Alive should defend him his last
breath: dead there was no point in revenge. They had a new master now."
[23] While Varangians represented on the novel by Walter Scott Robert
Count of Paris as the fiercest and most loyal element of the Byzantine forces,
this is an exaggeration. However, the exaggeration was begun by Byzantine
writers themselves, who applied a "noble savage" identity Varangians. Many
Byzantine writers referred to them as "flying ax foreigners", peleky phoroi
barbaroi, instead Varangians. [5]
A notable exception to the legendary Varangian loyalty to the throne was in
1071. Following Diogenes Emperor Romanos IV was defeated by Sultan Alp
Arslan, a palace coup before he went back to Istanbul. Stepson, the Caesar
John Doukas, used the Varangian guard to overthrow the absence of the
emperor, empress Eudoxia arrest, and declared his brother, Michael VII, as
emperor. Thus, instead of defending their emperor absent, Varangians used
by the usurpers.
Apart from wild faith, the most recognizable features of the Varangian guard
during the 11th century was their main axes and the tendency for
consumption. There are countless stories of the Varangian guard either
drinking in excess or is drunk. In 1103 during his visit to Constantinople, King
Eric the Good of Denmark "urged members of the Guard to live a life more
calm and not give themselves up to drunkenness." It is not surprising
therefore to find a description of 12th century
Relationships with the Bulgarians and attempts to occupy the City
Stronger, longer, man of the Balkans was the Bulgarian ruler and Vatatzes
rushed to ally with him. The alliance was sealed in the ethos of the era, the
marriage of his son Vatatzi, Theodore, with his daughter Helen Asan. After
signing the agreements, the two allies launched campaigns in Thrace. Both
came to the walls of Constantinople and besieged which together 1235 and
1236 but without success. The operation Venetians and Franks in the
Peloponnese, respectively prevented the fall of Constantinople. He made
clear that the fall of Constantinople latinokratoumenis was only a matter of
time. The Pope excommunicated him in Asan, [3] called the king of Nice to
cease hostilities and called on leaders of the West to assist with the troops
that their fellow Poles. Then the ruler of the Bulgarians renounced his
allegiance to the Vatatzi, perceiving that the ally benefit much more from him.
Sought, indeed, succeeded to win the Latins of Constantinople, hoping to
become master of a settlement or after marriage. Finally, because of
uncertainties [4] the alliance of Bulgarian and Franks did not success.
Leaving joint operations with the Latins, John Asen renewed the treaties and
agreements with Vatatzi. In 1241 the Bulgarian ruler died, leaving the throne
to his son ten years, Kalliman. In this way, the empire of Nice rid of a
dangerous and capable opponent and Vatatzes turned his attention to the
Domain of Epirus. He wanted to clamp the building of Europe before giving
the final blow to the faltering Istanbul.
Operations in the Balkans and final conflict with the Byzantines in the West
Meanwhile, things in the empire of Thessaloniki unfolded as follows:
Theodore Doukas, after the battle of Klokotnitza became a prisoner of John
Asen. Some years later he was arrested to conspire against the latter and
was punished with the punishment of blindness. The throne of Thessaloniki
was occupied by Manuel, brother of Theodore blank and Epirus Michael II
Komnenos Doukas, son of the latter. When John Asan widowed, Theodore
offered him his daughter. So, has finally released. He went secretly in
Thessaloniki which overthrew his brother, Manuel, and raised to the throne
his son, John. Manuel fled first to the Seljuk Konya and then Nice. Vatatzi
promised that if he helped to understand the symvasilefousa will be ruled
under the suzerainty. Indeed, the emperor gave the army and navy and
Manuel sailed to Greece. Landed in Thessaly, Pagasitikos in 1239. Using the
army as a means of pressure and not military operations carried out,
managed to distribute the territories of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. He was
in Thessaly, his brother, Theodore western Macedonia, and John remained in
Thessaloniki.
Two years later, died Manuel and John II Asen, leaving Theodore
(fundamentally UFO yarn behind the John of Thessaloniki) and Michael II of
Epirus dominate the southern Balkans. With the death of Manuel, the
Vatatzes found a suitable pretext to claim the allegiance of the active region.
First steps was to disarm the assets and cunning Theodore. The achieved
with a peaceful and "honest" way: Theodore invited to Nice where he was
welcomed with prices. But when he prepared to return to Macedonia ... was
informed that a prisoner.
In spring 1242, the emperor marched in Thessaloniki with army and navy. It
besieged city, but won an oath of allegiance to the namesake of the
commander and returned hastily to Asia Minor. The reason for the sudden
interruption of business was the emergence of the Mongol hordes that swept
eastern Asia Minor slaves making their Seljuk Turks and the Byzantines of
Trabzon. Faced with the common risk Nice and Seljuk alliance. Luck favored
but once John. The Mongols suddenly left the area, due to internal problems,
leaving intact the state of Nice and it simply a tribute by Vatatzi. This followed
a period of respite and all the surrounding states were attenuated (Konya,
Latin Istanbul, Bulgaria) or subordinate (Thessaloniki) in Vatatzi.
The 1246 found in Thrace, where they inspected the garrison towns, in view
of the end truce with the Franks. Learning that the king of Bulgaria Kaliman,
died leaving the throne to a minor brother, attacked by the Bulgarians. In a
short time annexed to the kingdom of Nicaea throughout the south and
southwestern parts of Bulgaria and Macedonia. Major cities such as Serres,
Veria, Meleniko and Skopje come under Byzantine control, most of them
without a fight. He turned then and Thessaloniki which took in cooperation
with disaffected by the government of the new despot Demetrius, aristocrats
of the city. By symvasilefousa occupied, the Vatatzes consolidated its
position as the sole Byzantine emperor in the minds of the people.
Prosetairistike also the despot of Epirus Nikephoros, successor of Michael II
to the marriage prospect. But Nikiforos failed the 1251 agreement and
invaded the cities of Macedonia fell in Nice. It took another campaign and
many equivocal battles to finally capitulate Nikiforos - the prospect of
marriage and again taking the title of despot as his predecessors, but with
even less land.
Relations with the Western powers
Alliance with the German Emperor Frederick II Choenstaoufen
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in the era of John Vatatzi was Frederick
II Choenstaoufen (1194 - 1250, emperor from 1220). Brought up in Norman
Sicily, where Arabs coexisted, Greek, and Italian-speaking Jews, had
developed a very different perception and attitude of the other rulers of the
West. [5] Defender of the "divine right monarchy, did not share the tendency
of the pontiff for the imposition and domination of ecclesiastical authority over
the policy. It was not long, therefore, come into conflict with the papal
kratos.Apo the other hand, Vatatzes to offset the influence and power of the
pope, whose actions may at any time to direct even a crusade against the
Byzantine country wished to find a valid ally in the West. Common interests
and common religious and political attitudes of the two monarchs have led to
an alliance with John formally vassal of the German emperor. [6] The alliance
was sealed by the marriage of John (his first wife, Irene, died in 1239) the
daughter of Frederick, Constance, in 1245. After this, Pope Innocent IV
excommunicated Frederick and give up the race of the Byzantines. Indicative
of the perceptions of the German monarch is the letter sent to John,
commenting on the policy of the pope. Wrongly believes that Istanbul had
been removed by the Byzantines, the rightful owners, and that was wrong
again they considered schismatic, as the instigator of the schism was the
Pope himself [7].
Although the alliance did not work as they wanted Vatatzes there was quite
profitable for both countries. Friedrich prevented the troops, who at the
request of the pope was preparing to assist Latinos in the City, passing
through its territory in northern Italy, and received by the ally of aid (especially
pedestrians and archers) for businesses in Southern Italy.
Intense diplomatic activity developed between Nice and Holy See, on the
days of John Vatatzi. Having opposite of the powerful Pope Gregory IX
(1227-1241), which followed the eastern policy of his predecessors in urging
Western leaders to strengthen the Latins of Constantinople, the emperor sent
a request by the patriarch of German B for the Association of Churches . Met,
therefore meeting the Nympheo in 1232 but quickly dissolved without
creating an agreement. The Vatatzes had put a condition on non-assistance
mission to the Franks in Constantinople, which the Pope flatly rejected. A
similar effort in the coming years (1234) resulted in exchange of insults. [8]
Although the emperor realized that he could not gain much by negotiation,
continued to hold contacts with the Vatican. The views and aspirations,
however, remained stable, so that nationals (clergy and people) never felt
that affected religious beliefs for the sake of political objectives.

Pope Gregory IX, formidable diplomat and a passionate supporter of the

Latin Empire of Constantinople, was the last fifteen years a high-grade
opponent Vatatzi.
As mentioned above, Pope Gregory had an active role in the termination of
alliance between Bulgaria under John Asen and Nice after excommunicated
the Bulgarian king. Then sent a letter to epiplitiki Vatatzi demanding to stop
the fighting against the City. Typical is the response [9] Emperor: treat the
strain of Roman (Byzantine) as the only one who has rights to the throne of
Constantine the Great. "The unaware that the clergy of that succession (SS
Constantine the Great) in the nepotism crossed gender, and we, therefore we
are the heirs and successors?" It confirms that the Pope will not stop the
fighting without taking his City (as battling and never pafsometha
polemountes per katechousi to Constantinople). In particular threats to
crusade for investigational Franks, replied that "if this is not the same
indignation and makes oplizitai and against us, that when echomen thereby
amynthomen first hand by the help of God, and then through the existing and
yet among us horses and chariots, and number of male combatants and
combatants, who shall oftentimes epolemisan the crusaders. " After this,
relations between Rome and Nice deteriorated further. Indeed, the pope and
prevented an alliance between Nice and Hungary, irritated by the outcome of
the session in Nimfaio But again, the monarch of Nice did not break off
contacts with the papal office. He informed the successor of Gregory I,
Innocent IV (1243-1254), that wants the union of the Churches and resumed
talks with envoys of the pope in Nice. However, it seems that it harbored, in
addition, hopes for an effective result than the late Frankish aid mission in
Istanbul. However, the new pope was more conciliatory and disposed to
sacrifice Constantinople in exchange for allegiance to the Eastern Church. In
another example, the emperor of Constantinople considering going to
compromise on the issue of papal primacy of the See. The reaction, however,
the Orthodox Patriarch on doctrinal issues, prevented the further approach.
Another key reason late effort approach (which, admittedly, was more than
ever) was to strengthen the position of Nice over all neighboring states. He
did not want John to come into conflict with the clergy and the people of the
time there was no any real external cause. Definitive end to the matter raised
by the almost simultaneous death of Innocent IV and Vatatzi.
Confrontation with the Italian maritime republics
In the 13th century the Mediterranean was under the domination and control
of the Italian maritime republics. Especially Venice diinye the golden age of.
He gained enormous benefit from the subjugation of Constantinople to the
crusaders in 1204, of which jealously trying to keep away the other
competitors, particularly in Genoa.
John exploiting the rivalries of the Italian cities (which were coming up
several times, and open conflict), tried to obtain various benefits, especially
economic release them and reduce the trade monopoly, which suffered from
Byzantium during the last decades before the fall. So persistently refused to
renew the privileges his predecessor had given to Venice. [10] In addition,
expelled the Venetians from several coastal cities of Asia Minor, as
Lamsakos. Directed against Venice and moves closer to the Genoa, which
sought in the first years of his reign, though not unsuccessful. However,
make sure to build the fleet to have the practical ability to challenge the
dominance of the Italians in the Aegean. In direct conflict with Venice came
when the latter supported the ruler of Rhodes Leo Gavalas trying to stay
away from the influence of Vatatzi. At the same time, the fleet of Nice came
to Crete to help the rebel Cretans. Eventually, the Venetians repulsed the
Nice from Crete, but Rhodes accepted the suzerainty of John (1233). The
armed confrontation with the Venetians continued as the ringer tighten
around Istanbul. Asia Minor and again the fleet Nice katanafmachithike the
Venetian counterpart, but again, for the sake of the financial health of Nice,
reborn and appeared in the Aegean and Marmara. Relations with Genoa was
more complex. Efforts and cooperation approach succeeded periods of
conflict short range. The final break came in 1247, when the united fleet of
Genoa and the Principality of Achaia attacked Rhodes, when the emperor
was preparing to encircle the city. However, reacted quickly by extracting
large part of his forces to defend this important island has always coveted the
Italian poleis.Spoudaio Vatatzes the work done and on the internal
reorganization of the country at all levels. Following a program of economic
recovery, showed particular interest in the welfare of the citizens and
especially the low and middle social strata. Revitalized agriculture and animal
husbandry, trade has experienced a great boom, while there was very tight in
the face of abuse and wastage occurring in the hand of government. This
could implement a policy of mild taxation without ever observed lack of
financial resources. [11] restricted the import of luxury goods and the staff of
the example urged people to avoid the luxury and opulence for the sake of
frugality. Indicates that rebuked his son and successor when one day he saw
dressed in expensive clothes. [12]

John Vatatzes crowned by the Virgin in yperpyron (gold coin)

The story became the "oaton 'crown offered to the wife. It was a crown made
of pearls, which was funded exclusively from sales of eggs of his estate. [13]
T so wanted to show who can be reached by careful and consistent
management. Indeed, states that he was involved in farming in estates, when
the government allowed the ypotheseis.I reduction of imports followed by
increased exports. Especially after the invasion of the Mongols, the Sultanate
of Iconium Damaged introduced by the Nice food against gold, textiles and
other expensive luxury. Great boom also saw the letters and arts. The
Emperor showed an interest in education and science. Important figures such
as historian George Akropolitis and the monk and scholar Nikiforos
Vlemmydis, acted at the time in Nice. Even with special care of John and his
first wife, founded monasteries, churches, hospitals and other charities.
All are secured with strong guarding the border, reached by a series of
effective measures taken in this direction. Specifically built and / or staffed
strong fortresses along the border and was granted relief and assistance in
border communities. Essentially revived the institution of the Guards, through
the reestablishment of military farms. [14] The defense and border protection
was effective as a few times, even against the restless Anatolian Turkish
tribes living on the edge of vyzantinoseltzoukikis border, and from which the
Small Asia suffered nearly the middle of the 11th century
John C. married twice:
• Peace Laskarina in 1212, daughter of Theodore Laskaris. With her had a
son, his successor, Theodore II Laskaris. The Peace during a game, fell from
her horse and badly injured as a result of being unable to have children ever
since. He died in 1239 after he had retired to monastery named Eugenia.
• The Constance (Constance) in 1245, the daughter of German Emperor
Frederick II Choenstaoufen, which by custom has taken the most "Byzantine"
name Anna. Not a child.
Also entered into a relationship with a woman from the sequence of
Constance-Anne, in the Byzantine sources call "MARKESINI (perhaps the
title of Marquise''''probably bore). The influence of this woman on the
emperor was for a long time. This led to the "MARKESINI" arrogant and
behaving arrogantly. Because of this attitude and western origin, was quick to
pull up the fire of public opinion, and the Law Vlemmydis failed to open
against heavy status. When not prohibited and that on the eve of the escort
of the monastery where he was abbot, the "MARKESINI" called for
exemplary punishment of the scholar monk. The Vatatzes but repentant for
the illicit relationship, denied any such action. Since then, the influence of
"MARKESINI began to wane [15].
John C. Duke Vatatzes died on November 3, 1254 in Nimfaio and buried with
great prices and people's grief in Sosandron monastery, he had built in honor
of the Virgin Mary. Suffered from epilepsy, which over time are becoming
more and more intense. But his kingdom was very successful and the effect
unanimously celebrated by all historical, contemporary or later, something
extremely rare in history. He was very dear to his people several years after
his death was recognized as a saint by the name of Saint John the Merciful
Vatatzes.
Worship as a saint
As Saint John Vatatzes the Merciful, the memory etimato with great
reverence by the peoples of Asia Minor until the early 20th century. The cult
of the saint-emperor remained until modern times, especially in the
metropolis of Ephesus. The 14th century Bishop Pelagonia George wrote his
bionic King of St. John the Merciful in legendary form, and the many miracles
were attributed. The Bishop George probably based and Nicodemus the
Athonite (1749-1809), who commissioned by the Metropolitan of Ephesus
sequence produced in honor of the saint-emperor. The Church does not
officially recognized as a saint John Vatatzi, but the month is the memory of
"John Duke Vatatzi on 4 Noemvriou.Ta achievements can best be assessed
taking into account the historical context in which they acted. The Byzantine
world, after 1204, was in complete decomposition, with parochial and
separatist movements to follow each other. The Italian republics
monopolousan trade in the eastern Mediterranean, while an important
destabilizing factor because pirated engaged in business. The Balkans were
fragmented among Slavs, Byzantines and Franks who fought constantly with
each other. A similar situation prevailed in Asia Minor and the tourkomanikes
tribes constitute a permanent danger for any society organizations (even for
same-sex their Seljuk). The emergence of the Mongols made the situation
even more difficult and complex, but ultimately proved positive for the state of
Nice. Finally, the Latin Empire of Constantinople quickly stopped taking
aggressive initiatives has always been a potential source of even a crusade
which the popes of that period were willing to kyrixoun.I Empire of Nicaea in
1254, year of death of John III. Through in this complex geopolitical and
historical context, John has managed to more than double the holdings of the
State of fronts with long and struggles in Asia Minor, the Balkans and the
Aegean. These events were fueled by a robust and thriving economy, which
was the result of prudent and consistent domestic policy. We share the vision
of Constantinople aristocracy, which like the state of Nice as a simple means
to return to Constantinople. [10] The visual was created friction between the
aristocrats of refugees from the city and the local communities in Asia Minor,
especially during the reign of Theodore A. Previously, similar visual (and
practice) indifference to the provinces by the central government had led to
the alienation of the capital from the provinces, so they turn a blind eye to
turn the fate of Constantinople in 1204. To prevent something similar, the
Emperor and organized the construction territory in healthy stage for
prosperity to spread and the lower social classes (from which derive a large
proportion of soldiers). All this had a direct consequence of the empire of
Nice become a major force in the Balkans and Asia Minor area and achieve a
few years after the death of John, the recapture of Constantinople.
John Vatatzes diatranonontas the national consciousness of "Written in your
letter that in our strain of Greek wisdom reigns ...... that, therefore, our own
genus flourish wisdom and property of diedothisan AND TO other people, this
is true. But what happens to ignorance, if not ignore how and apesiopises,
alongside the Constantinople city and the kingdom in this world bequeathed
to our own genus by Constantine the Great, who has accepted the call from
Jesus and Government modesty and honesty? Is there anyone who ignores
that the legacy of his own succession (SS of M. Constantine) went to our own
race and we are the heir and his successors; requires that you ignore the
privileges. And we have the corresponding requirement can see and to
recognize our law as regards the power our state of Constantinople, which
starts from the years of the Great Constantine and ...... lived a thousand
years to as much as our own kingdom. Hoi founders of the kingdom me by
the families of dukes and Komnenian, not to mention others, originating from
Greek genera. These then, are my fellow for many centuries held power in
Istanbul. And these the Church of Rome and heads of Roman emperors
called them ....... Particular the Holiness assure you and all Christians that it
never will certainly campaigning for and to fight against the conquerors of
Constantinople. AND IT asevousame with the laws of nature and for the
institutions of homeland and TO the graves of our fathers AND WITH THE
churches of God, if not fighting for them with all our strength ...... We have
with us the law of God, who helps wronged and binding TO adikountas .....»
A "Roman King" John Vatatzes left us an extraordinary memorial written
Greek Orthodox self-awareness. Such texts deserve to teach our young
people. Century, the memory of the pious Christians and patriots St John
GDouka Vatatzi.

References
1. ↑ Miliarakis Antoniou, "History of the Kingdom of Nicaea and the Despot of
Epirus (1204-1261), Editions Ionia (Ionian Bank Publications), Athens 1994 p.
418
2. ↑ The rulers of Trebizond and they bore the title of Emperor of the
Romans, but soon, in fact, had come outside competition. Only immediately
after the recapture of Constantinople by the Nice (1261) removed from their
title the word Roman emperor anagorefomenoi only. Of course there was the
Latin "emperor Romania", the only one whose title is recognized by the Pope
and the Western forces
3. ↑ The tsar Kaloioannis (1197-1207) had declared the union with the
Roman Catholic Church in exchange for the title of king (rex) which awarded
him the pope.
4. ↑ in the same year, 1237, an epidemic broke out in the capital city of Asan,
Turnovo, which killed his wife, a son and the Bulgarian Patriarch. Contrite
John Asen, considered as the successive calamities theodikia for breach of
agreements with Vatatzi and rapprochement with the Western Church.
5. ↑ Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, publications Bergadis, 1954,
sel.651
6. ↑ Vasiliev, ibid sel.654
7. ↑ A. Miliarakis, ibid sel.385
8. ↑ History of the Greek Nation, Volume I sel.86
9. ↑ A. Miliarakis, ibid p. 276-279 setting out comprehensive summary of
Vatatzi letter to the Pope.
10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 4, sel.168
11. ↑ O Pachymeres George says that even in wartime taxation remained
unchanged. See ibid Miliarakis in A. p. 415, describing specifically how many
border forts in the East assured the necessary without burdening the public
with exceptional charges.
12. ↑ History of the Greek Nation, Volume I sel.230 and A. Miliarakis ibid p.
415
13. ↑ Encyclopedia of the Hellenic
14. ↑ History of the Greek Nation, Volume I sel.111
15. ↑ Nikiforos Quick, "Roman History" versions Lebanon, 1997, p. 72-73
Bibliography
• Miliarakis Antoniou, "History of the Kingdom of Nicaea and the Despot of
Epirus (1204-1261), Editions Ionia (Ionian Bank Publications), Athens 1994
• "History of the Greek Nation, Volume I '(Middle Byzantine and post
Byzantine period), Publishing of Athens, Athens 1972
• Panagiotis Gonis, "The Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and his
contribution to the reconstruction of the empire of Nice", Military History
magazine, iss 89 January 2004
• Elias Nesseri, "The Rise and Fall of Theodore Komnenos Doukas, Military
History magazine, iss 117, May 2006
• Dictionary of World Biography, Publishing Athens, 1985-1988
• Angold Michael, "A Byzantine Government in Exile", Oxford University
Press 1975.
• Alexander Vasilyev, "History of the Byzantine Empire, Bergadis versions.
Athens 1954.
• Quick Nikiforos, "Roman History" versions Lebanon, Athens 1997.
• Christos Michalopoulos, "The Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204-1261),
publications scarcity, Xanthi 2007. ISBN 978 --
• Encyclopedia Structure, Volume 27, Athens 2006.
Byzantine 'international' words

After all, the rich Greek language we used and is used also as inexhaustible
treasury of words for all western - and not only-languages. A large number of
scientific, literary, technological and societal conditions given in several
languages with Greek words. Even frequently used words in everyday
language of our Western friends reflect the Greek-speaking origin
(catastrophe - catastrophe, phone - telephone) and even names of animals
(elephant - elephant).
In the Middle Ages there were many cultural interactions between Byzantium
and the West. Especially during the early Middle Ages (until the 12th century)
the cultural influence of Byzantine Hellenism in Western Europe was very
strong. Within the framework of this influence, the Christian nations of the
West (and Slavs) as such Greek words borrowed or translated from Greek
into Latin, other words to indicate that the Byzantines. Here i 'mention a few
examples of such loans.
The first related to political and social institutions is widely prevalent and
desperately needed both time and contemporary epochi.I Byzantine Empire
was global political ideology. Following the Roman imperium - that the
framework of Christianity transformed into imperium christianum - it claims to
global political and cultural domination. The Byzantine emperor was
presented as the senior ruler of all the secular kings, Christian and otherwise,
as the protector of all Christendom. These, combined with the fact that the
prosperity coveted many enemies, made it imperative for an international
legal order directed course, the leadership of Byzantium. So very early,
developed the famous complex and Byzantine diplomacy. The word
"diplomacy" as a technical term has Byzantine origins, and so the words
"diploma diplomat. 'Diplomas' called the Byzantines specific credentials of
diplomatic agents. The term "diplomat" was first used in the current meaning
of the voreioitalikes cities during the Renaissance, so we have the first
permanent foreign countries to diplomatic missions. The first permanent
ambassador was from Venice and was permanently established in Istanbul.
Indeed, so far the oldest known bilateral trade treaties - signed financial
content from the 10th century between Byzantium and Venice.
Moreover, the Orthodox Church saw - and distinguished - the charity action.
By sponsoring bishops, emperors and several loyal individuals, foundations
and operated since the 4th century several charitable foundations. During the
course of the thousand year old Byzantine Empire and under the continuous
care of the Church, developed the institution of the hospital, as we know it
today. Package hospitals called "hostels" or "hotels" because it began as a
reception weary pilgrims. The Latin word for hospitality is «hospitalis». In this
and in epirroin the Byzantine name of the hospital, came the word «hospital»
(ospedale in modern Italian).
Remaining in the area of church terminology, the Byzantines for the landfill of
the dead has always used the term "cemetery" because according to
Christian teaching as Christians deceased brothers are provisional only dead,
it will be resurrected on the day of the crisis, namely Second Coming of
Christ. This term originated, and now widespread condition in all western
countries «cemetery» denoting the cemeteries. It is noteworthy that while in
modern Greece, the term "cemetery" is very common in everyday language
the word "cemetery" in English-speaking countries have dominated the term
«cemetery», which displaced almost completely the word «graveyard»!
Moreover, Byzantium, worthy successor of Greco-Roman civilization was
famous for its great cultural and organized public or private higher education.
In the early 5th century founded 'Pandidaktirion, reorganized the 8th century
by Emperor Leo III Isavrou (717-741 AD) and was named "Ecumenical
Teachers. In Latin, the universal term given as «universalis». When the first
universities were founded in Italy (late 11th - early 12th century.) Named and
are universal in that it offered claws scientific, philosophical and theological
knowledge. This created the word «university».
Other words - loans related to the material culture and especially its
gastronomy. The Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD) with the wars against the
German kingdoms of the West, gained much territory the old Roman Empire.
In Italy especially, was founded in exarchate Ravenna. In the past, a
significant number of Greeks settled in the eastern provinces, dealers, artists,
tessellate, sculptors, etc. The Greek presence stimulated the cultural and
artistic production and raised, to some extent the standard of living of the
inhabitants of early medieval Italy. Although exarchate dissolved by the
Lombards in the mid-8th century. The Byzantine cultural influence was
evident until the end of the Middle Ages. Important, indeed, areas in southern
Italy and Sicily remained in Byzantine rule until the end of the 11th century.
The Byzantine cultural influence was manifested in different areas, so it was
felt in daily life and cuisine of medieval Italians. Thus, the Byzantines
manufactured by a sweet honey syrup that said "kiromelon. The Italians
called the «caramella». It is the forerunner of today's caramel (caramel in
English). Also, since antiquity, the Greeks manufactured a kind of elongated
pasta dinners ate the dead, called 'nekrodeipna "in honor of deceased
relatives. The Byzantines - who continued this tradition - called this food
"makaronia (blessed + century) and eating said the eternally blessed ... such
and such. This created the word and its pasta "macaroni» (macaroni)! Of
course the Italians then created many different kinds of spaghetti. Finally, the
Byzantines called the variety of pies "cake" - as the ancients or "cakes",
hence the word «pie». Even in Calabria, Byzantine, Greek and Italian
Prepare a pie salty and open. Basic materials were cheese, onion, olives and
more rare delicacies. The food was the forerunner of today's popular pizza (!)
(Pizza, when a corruption of the word cake)!

Notes

1. ^ Milner-Gulland, R. R.. Atlas of Russia and the Soviet Union.

Phaidon. p. 36. ISBN 0714825492.
http://books.google.com/books?q=
%22known+to+the+Russians+and+Greeks+as+Varangians
%22&btnG=Search+Books.
2. ^ Schultze, Sydney (2000). Culture and Customs of Russia.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 5. ISBN 0313311013.
http://books.google.com/books?client=firefox-a&um=1&q=
%22Varangians+as+the+Russians+call+them
%22&btnG=Search+Books.
3. ^ Duczko, Wladyslaw (2004). Viking Rus. BRILL. pp. 10–11.
ISBN 9004138749. http://books.google.com/books?
id=hEawXSP4AVwC&pg=PA10&dq.
4. ^ Forte, Angelo, Richard Oram, and Frederik Pedersen. Viking
Empires. Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-521-
82992-5. p. 13–14.
5. ^ a b c d Stephen Turnbull, The Walls of Constantinople, AD
324–1453, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X.
6. ^ H.S. Falk & A. Torp, Norwegisch-dänisches etymologisches
Wörterbuch, 1911, pp. 1403–4; J. de Vries, Altnordisches
etymologisches Wörterbuch, 1962, pp. 671–2; S. Blöndal & B.
Benedikz, The Varangians of Byzantium, 1978, p. 4
7. ^ Hellquist 1922:1096, 1172; M. Vasmer, Russisches
etymologisches Wörterbuch, 1953, vol. 1, p. 171.
8. ^ Blöndal & Benedikz, p. 4; D. Parducci, "Gli stranieri
nell’alto medioevo", Mirator 1 (2007)in Italian, English
abstract
9. ^ Falk & Torp, p. 1403; other words with the same second part
are: Old Norse erfingi "heir", armingi "beggar", aumingi
"beggar", bandingi "captive", hamingja "luck", heiðingi "wolf",
lausingi / leysingi "homeless", cf. Falk & Torp, p. 34; Vries, p.
163.
10. ^ S. Bugge, Arkiv för nordisk filologi 2 (1885), p. 225[1]
11. ^ A massive majority (40,000) of all Viking-Age Arabian coins
found in Scandinavia were found in Gotland. In Skåne, Öland
and Uppland together, about 12,000 coins were found. Other
Scandinavian areas have only scattered finds: 1,000 from
Denmark and some 500 from Norway. Byzantine coins have
been found almost exclusively in Gotland, some 400. See
Arkeologi i Norden 2. Författarna och Bokförlaget Natur &
kultur. Stockholm 1999. See also Gardell, Carl Johan:
Gotlands historia i fickformat, 1987. ISBN 91-7810-885-3.
12. ^ The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text Translated
by O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor ISBN 0910956340
13. ^ Jansson 1980:22
14. ^ a b Pritsak 1981:386
15. ^ Battle Honours of the Varangian Guard, by Stephen Lowe
16. ^ Anna Comnena, The Alexiad (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 95.
17. ^ Byzantine Armies 886–1118 by Ian Heath and Angus
McBride, 1979, page 38, "Psellus however claims that every
Varangian without exception was armed with shield and
'Rhomphaia'...a mixture of Byzantine and Scandinavian gear
was in use..."
18. ^ Mark Bartusis The late Byzantine army: arms and society
1204–1453 (Philadelphia 1992), pp. 272–275.
19. ^ As in the Novgorod Chronicle on Pontus de la Gardie's
Swedish troops[2]. In Swedish only
 20. ^ It is neither unusual nor particularly Byzantine that a foreign
unit would gain such access and prestige. Augustus himself had
a personal guard of Germans, the Collegium Custodum
Corporis or Germani Corporis Custodes, to protect himself
from the native Praetorians. This guard was revived by Tiberius
and continued until Nero.
21. ^ a b c d e Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia,
tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun. ISBN 91-88930-32-
7 p. 135
22. ^ Anna Comnena, The Alexiad (London: Penguin, 2003), p. 97.
23. ^ Norwich, John J. (1997). A Short History of Byzantium.
Viking. ISBN 0-679-77269-3..
24. ^ Larsson, Mats G (2002). Götarnas Riken : Upptäcktsfärder
Till Sveriges Enande. Bokförlaget Atlantis AB ISBN
9789174866414 p. 143–144.
25. ^ Runriket Täby-Vallentuna – en handledning, by Rune Edberg
gives the start date 985, but the Rundata project includes also
Iron Age and earlier Viking Age runestones in the style RAK.
26. ^ a b c The dating is provided by the Rundata project in a freely
downloadable database.
27. ^ a b The article 5. Runriket - Risbyle on the site of Stockholm
County Museum, retrieved July 7, 2007.
28. ^ Sagas of the Icelanders, Penguin Group
29. ^ OMACL: The Laxdaela Saga: Chapter 73
30. ^ OMACL: The Laxdaela Saga: Chapter 77
31. ^ OMACL: The Story of Burnt Njal
32. ^ Philip Dixon, Barbarian Europe, Salem House Publishing
(October 1976), 978-0525701606

Trade route from the Varangians to the

Greeks
The Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks)

The Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks)

The route from trade Varangians the Greeks (Russian: Путь «из варяг в
греки», Put iz varyag in Greki, Swedish: Vägen varjagerna från till grekerna,
Greek: Commercial Street Varangians - Greek) was a trade route that
connected Scandinavia Rus and the Byzantine Empire. The course has
allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with
Byzantium, and led some of them to settle in the territories of present-day
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
The route started in the Nordic commercial centers such as Birka, Hedeby,
and Gotland, crossing the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland, followed the
river Neva in Lake Ladoga. Then followed the Volkhov river upstream past
cities Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod, crossed Lake Ilmen, until the Lovat
River. From there, the vessels would be portaged the Dnieper River near
Gnezdovo. A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the
Western Dvina (Daugava) between Lovat and the Dnieper in the region of
Smolensk, and along the river to Kasplya Gnezdovo. Along the Dnieper, the
path crosses several major rapids and came from Kiev, and after entering the
Black Sea following the western coast of Istanbul. Map showing the major
Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red) and the path of trade
Varangians to the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes of the 8th-11th
centuries shown in orange.
The route from the Varangians to the Greeks first mentioned in the first year,
but results have been reported much earlier, in the early ninth century when
the Byzantines made newcomers in their regions, the Varangians. Although
this should be seen as a "Viking" to many, the term for the Byzantines meant
all Scandinavians and their relatives living in Russia today.
The route was established probably in the late eighth and early ninth century,
when explorers searched for Varangian looting, but also slaves and profitable
products. The route gained considerable importance from the tenth to one
third of the eleventh century, while the Volga trade route and trade route from
the Khazars to the Germans.
According to Constantine VII, the Kriviches and other tribes that depend on
Kiev transported hollow-out sailing or monoxyla, which could accommodate
thirty to forty people in areas along rivers. Places named include Smolensk
(Miliniska), Liubech (Telioutza), Chernihiv (Tzernigoga) Vyshhorod
(Vousegrade), Vitechev (Vitetzevi) and Kiev (Kia (a) ba). Some of these cities
have alternative names in Old Norse, and Constantine says some of them:
Novgorod = Nemogarda = Hólmgarðr = 'Island Enclosure », and Nýgarðr ='
New fence '; Kiev = Kœnugarðr = 'Boatyard and Samvat = Sandbakki-ass ='
Sandbank Ridge ». [1] (The Runestone N 62 retains the name Vitaholmr
( "central reserve") for Vitichev.) Subsequently, these yachts are transported
along the Dnieper in Kiev. There were sold in Varangians who re-equipped
and loaded them the goods [2].
On the Dnieper Varangians had to portage their boats around seven Rapids
(no longer exist as a chain of river was founded in 1950-'70), which had to be
alert to Pecheneg nomads. The Rapids started Dnipropetrovsk below where
the river turns south and fell 50 meters to 66 kilometers
Names of the Dnieper rapids, with translations [3], and Constantine's Greek
spelling:
Modern Slavonic Norse
Ne sǔpi, 'Don't Sleep', Essoupi Sof eigi, 'Don't Sleep'
Surskij, 'Severe One'; Lochanskij Ostrovǐnyj pragǔ, 'Island-waterfall',
Ostrovouniprach Holmfors, 'Island-Waterfall', Oulvorsi
Zvonets (kij), 'Clanger' Gellandi, 'Roaring', Gelandri
Nenasytets (kij), 'Insatiable' Nejasytǐ, 'pelican' (which nested there), Neasit
Eyforr, 'ever violent', Sustainable
Volnyj, Volninskij, '[place] of waves' Vlǔnǐnyj pragǔ, 'wave-waterfall',
Voulniprach Bárufors, 'wave-waterfall', Varouforos
Tavolzhanskij Vǐruchi, 'laughing', Veroutzi Hlæjandi, 'laughing (ref. noise of
water)', Leanti
Lishnij, 'superfluous' Naprjazi?, 'Bend, strain?', Naprezi; Na bǔrzǔ?, 'Quick?'
Strukum, '[at the] rapids', Stroukoun
A color copy of the Runestone G 280 which speaks of the death of rapids
Dniepr. Under the Rapids, who had to go through a narrow rocky point called
the Ford of Vrar (Russian: Krariyskaya way), where Varangians attacked
frequently by the Pechenegs. Varangians stopped on the island of St.
George. Then, equipped ships with sails at the mouth of the Dnieper and
continued to surf along the west coast of the Black Sea all the way to Istanbul
(Slavic: Tsargrad, Old Norse: Mikligarðr).
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks was related to other
routes of Eastern Europe, as the Pripyat-Bug waterway leading to Western
Europe and the Volga trade route, which decreased the Volga waterway to
the Caspian Sea. Another branch was along the Dnieper and Usyazh-Buk
River to Lukoml and Polotsk. The trade route from the Varangians to the
Greeks used to transport different kinds of goods. Wine, spices, jewelry,
glass, expensive fabrics, images, and books came from the Byzantine
Empire. Kiev in the trade of bread, handmade products, silver coins, etc.
Volhyn negotiate swirls and other items. Certain types of weapon and
handicrafts sourced from Scandinavia. Offered timber Northern Rus', furs,
honey and wax, while the Baltic tribes traded amber. In the second half of the
eleventh century, the Crusades opened up more lucrative routes from Europe
to the East through the Crusader states of the Middle East. By that time, Rus'
has strengthened its trade relations with Western Europe, and the route from
the Varangians Greeks gradually lost its importance. For relevant military
route, see Muravsky Trail.
• Much of the Swedish best-selling historical novel The Long Ships ( "Red
ORM") describes the adventures of the crew of the ship of Denmark (with a
pilot from Gotland) by this route in the late 10th century.
• Two random music album released in 2007 deals with fantastic travel down
the path of trade, Miklagard heavy metal band Rebellion - The Story of the
Vikings Volume 2 and The Varangian Way folk metal band Turisas ».
• In Stephen R. Lawhead 's novel, Byzantium, the main character, a 9th
century Irish monk has taken by Vikings from Scandia to Istanbul via this
route.
• In the comic Prince Valiant, 932 pages (December 19, 1954) to 988
(January 15, 1956), the eponymous main character and travel company in
two Viking longships from Istanbul to Scandia in this way, when faced
Patzinaks and Polotjans.

References
• http://www.novgorod.ru/read/information/history/clauses/PMZolin
1. ^ Constantine Zuckerman proposed a more obvious etymology, the
Turkish (Khazar) roots "Sam" + "Bat" (literally "upper castle"). See: Sorlin I.
commerciales Vion, peuplement villes et de la Rusia au Xe siècle d'après le
De administrando imperio de Constantin Porphyrogénète. / / Les centers
proto-urbains Russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient / ed. M.
Kazanski, D. Nercessian, C. Zuckerman (Réalités Byzantines 7). - Paris,
2000. -P. 337-355
2. ^ The English translation of De Administrando Imperio.
3. ^ Pg 172-174, "Russian and Slavic Languages," by WJEntwistle and A.
Morison, publ. Faber & Faber, 1949 & 1969.
Greece runestones
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Greece Runestones)
Jump to: navigation, search

A map of main routes to the east

Scandinavians had served as mercenaries in the Roman army for centuries
prior to Viking Age, [8], but during the time when the stones were, there were
several contacts between Scandinavia and Byzantium than ever. [9] Swedish
Viking ships was common on the Black Sea, Aegean Sea, the Sea of
Marmara and the wider Mediterranean. [9] Greece was the home of the
Varangian Guard, the elite troops of the Byzantine emperor, [10] until the
Komnenos dynasty in late 11th century, most members of the Varangian
Guard were Swedes. [11] In late 1195, the emperor Alexios Angelos sent
envoys to Denmark, Norway and Sweden, asking 1000 warriors from each of
the three kingdoms. [12] stationed in Istanbul, which is referred to as the
Scandinavians Miklagarðr (the "Great City"), the Guard attract young
Scandinavians who had type consists of the creation of the late 10th century.
The large number of men who left the Byzantine Empire is shown by the fact
that the medieval Scandinavian laws contained even laws about travel in
Greece, when recorded at the time of the Vikings. [9] The earlier version of
Westrogothic law, which was written under Eskil Magnusson, the lawspeaker
of Västergötland 1219-1225, said that "man can not receive inheritance (in
Sweden) and is resident in Greece." The last version, which was recorded
from 1250 to 1300, adds that "no one can inherit from such person was a
living heir when he went away. Also, the old Norwegian Gulaþingslög
contains a similar law: but if (a man) went to Greece, then whoever is next in
line to inherit must have property. [11]
The Lion of Piraeus with a runic inscription, now in Venice have
approximately 3.000 runestones from the Viking era discovered in
Scandinavia c. 2700 which came into what is now Sweden. [13] As many as
1,277 of them were in the province of Uppland alone. [14] The Viking era
coincided with the Christianization of Scandinavia, and in many
neighborhoods c. 50% of stone inscriptions have traces of Christianity .. 70%
of the inscriptions are clearly Christian, as evidenced by inscribed crosses or
add Christian prayers, while only a few runestones clearly pagan. [15] The
tradition Runestone probably died before 1100, and no later than 1125. [14]
Among the runestones the Viking Age, 9,1-10% states that were in memory
of people who went abroad [16] and runestones reporting Greece are the
largest group. [17] In addition, there is a group of three or four runestones
that celebrate men who were killed in southern Italy, and are probably
members of the Varangian Guard. [18] The only group of stones in numbers
comparable to runestones Greece are those who say England, [5], followed
by c. 26 Ingvar runestones raised after the fatal Ingvar campaign in Persia.
[19] Blöndal & Benedikz (2007) note that most of the runestones Greece is
one of Uppland and concern that was the most common place to start a trip
to Greece and the region from which most of the Rus' . [20] However, as
noted by Jansson (1987), the fact that most of these were runestones in
Uppland and Södermanland not necessarily mean that the number reflects
the composition of the Scandinavian Varangian Guard. These two provinces
are those with the greatest concentration of runic inscriptions. [17] Not all
those who have celebrated the runestones Greece were not necessarily
members of the Varangian Guard, and some may have gone to Greece as
traders died there or passing through on pilgrimage. [11] The fact that a trip
to Greece was associated with high risk evidenced by the fact that the
woman had become a Runestone in memory of herself before departing on a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem: «Ingirún Harðardóttir had runes carved for itself; to
go from East Jerusalem. Fótr carved the runes. "However, the situation
Blöndal and Benedikz (2007) that although there are other reasons for going
to Greece, it is certain that most of the runestones made in memory of
members of the Varangian Guard were killed there. Still, some say
runestones men who have returned to the increase of wealth, [20] and an
inscription on a stone to Ed was a former leader of the guards, Ragnvaldr.
[21]
Purpose
Main article: Runestone

Runic graffiti in Hagia Sophia

The reasons for the delivery Runestone is a topic of discussion, but include
issues heritage, status and respect for the deceased. Several runestones
explicitly celebrate heritage, such as stone and stone Ulunda Hansta, but the
vast majority of runestones say is set in stone and whose memory.
A common view held by scholars such as Erik Moltke and Sven BF Jansson
is that runestones was mainly the result of several missions Viking from
Scandinavia, [22] or to report Jansson (1987):
When large shipments were up, the old trade routes closed, and Viking ships
are now ready each spring for travel to the east and west, then that meant
the end of the sculpture and the establishment of the Rune stones literal
meaning of the term. They call on the monuments of the Viking voyages and
the sensitive reader can catch many of the inscriptions like the Vikings of
adventure and daring feats of noisy. [23]
Sawyer (2000), on the other hand, reacts against the commonly accepted
view that the comments and the overwhelming majority of runestones raised
in memory of people who have not been reported to have died abroad. [22]
argues that few men who went abroad have been honored with monuments
and the reason is that the runestones were mainly due to concerns at home,
such as successions. [24] These concerns will arise when a family was
aware that such would not return from abroad. [25]

The runestones
Below is a presentation of runestones Greece based on information gathered
from the project Rundata, organized by location. Transfers from runic
inscriptions into standardized Old Norse are in the Old East Norse (FR),
Swedish and Danish dialect to facilitate comparison with inscriptions, and the
English translation provided by Rundata give the name of the standard
dialect, Old West Norse (OWN) in the Icelandic and Norwegian dialect.

Transcription and transcription

There is a standard practice to write transcripts of runes in Roman characters
with bold and transcribe the text into a normalized form of the language in
italic type. This practice exists because the two forms of providing a runic text
to be distinguished. [26] By not only shows the original recording, and
transliterating, transcription and translation, students of this analysis in a way
that allows the reader to follow their interpretation of the runes. Each step
presents challenges, but most younger Futhark inscriptions is easy to
interpret [27]. Transcribed, *,:, X 'and + are common word dividers and ÷
represent less common. Parentheses () represent the damaged runes that
can not be determined with certainty, and brackets [] represent sequences
runes lost, but can be determined thanks to the early descriptions of the
students. A short dash - indicates that there is a Rune or elsewhere can not
be determined. A series of three dots ... indicates that runes were supposedly
in place, but have disappeared. The two points separating | | Rune
separating the two Roman letters carved runemasters because often a single
Rune instead of two consecutive them. § § P and Q introduced two
alternative readings of an inscription on multiple words, while § A § § B and C
introduce the different parts of a sign that can appear on different sides of the
Runestone. [28] Brackets Angle, <>, indicate that there is a sequence of
runes that can not be interpreted with certainty. Other specific points are þ
and ð, where the first is the thorn letter, which is a voice dental fricative like th
in English thing. The second letter is eth represents a voiced dental fricative
like th in English to. The sign represents the R yr Rune, and t is the same as
the Icelandic ogonek ǫ. [28]
Nomenclature
A runic inscription appears with unique identifier used in the scientific
literature to refer to the legend, and is required only to give the first two
components. The first part is one or two letters represent the region where
runic inscription appears, eg U of Uppland, Södermanland and so on DR in
Denmark. The second part represents the order in which the inscription
shown in the official national publications (eg Sveriges runinskrifter). U 73
This means that the Runestone was the 73rd runic inscription in Uppland
documented in runinskrifter Sveriges. If the inscription was later documented
by the official publication, are listed according to the publication which was
first described, eg So Fv1954? 20, although this represents Södermanland,
Fv represents the annual publication Fornvännen, 1954 is the year of
issuance of Fornvännen and 20 is the page in the publication. [29] There are
as many and 18 runestones in Uppland related information about the men
who traveled to Greece, most of whom died there.

Runestone U 73
Runestone U 73 (location) likely erected to explain the order of succession by
two men who died as Varangians. [30] It is in the style of PR3 [31], which is
part of the overall style Urnes. The stone, which is made of granite, grayish
measuring 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height and 1,2 m (3 ft 11 in) wide, [32] stands on
a hillside about 100 meters (330 feet) north of the farm Hägerstalund, former
Hansta (Lund). The stone was discovered by Johan Peringskiöld in the
national survey of the historical monuments in the late 17th century. Shares
stone with the same message U 72, a combination which was once a
monument, [32] U 72, but moved to Skansen in 1896. [33] The last stone
states that "these stones" came from Gerðarr Jörundr and in his mind and
Ernmundr Ingimundr. Consequently, U 73 the phrase "sons Inga" and "died in
Greece" refers to Ernmundr and Ingimundr. [32] Ernmundr and Ingimundr
had inherited from their father but left for the Byzantine Empire and died there
as Varangians. Since they had no children took the mother Inga their
inherited property, and when he died, siblings and Gerðarr Jörundr inherited
it. The two brothers then set the two memorials in honor of his nephew, which
is probably due to the nephews who excelled in the South. However, it may
also grateful for the wealth gathered by the nephews overseas. At the same
time the monument was used to how the property had passed from one to
another clan. [32] [34] Sawyer (2000), on the other hand, shows that since
the two signs do not indicate the instructed, the only possible claimant to the
fortune, and what had become the stones can be the church. [35] runemaster
declared Visäte. [31]
Latin transliteration:
«Suni 'ikur eftR» kam gar IRU merki þisun''' 'hon' þeira X in arfi × kiaþar
b'reþr «þir in i kirikium arfi» in brþr þeir × * kamu hnaa: in "
Old Norse transcription:
Þessun mærki æRu gar æftiR syni InguR. Hon kvam þæiRa in arfi, en þæiR
brøðr kvamu hænnaR in arfi, Gærðarr brøðr. ÞæiR dou i Grikkium.
English translation:
"These milestones made in memory of their sons Inga. He came to inherit
from them, but these brothers-Gerðarr and his brothers, came to inherit from
it. Died in Greece." [31]
U 104

Cast copy of runestone U 104

Runestone U 104 (starting position) is in red sandstone measuring 1,35 m (4
ft 5 in) in height and 1,15 m (3 ft 9 in) in width. [36] It was first documented by
Johannes Bureus in 1594 [36]. It was given as one of a couple in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford in 1687 at the request of King James II of
England to King Charles XI of Sweden, asking for two runestones to add to
the collection of the University of Oxford. [37] It is in the Urnes (PR5) style.
Þorsteinn was raised in memory of his father and Sveinn Þórir his brother,
who went to Greece, and finally, in memory of his mother. The stone is
signed by the runemaster Öpir Old Norse which is important for the Misuse of
Rune haglaz (ᚼ), as in the hut for Old Norse út ( "out"). [38] The irregular use
of omega-voice feature is a dialect that has survived and continues to be
characteristic of the modern dialect of Swedish Roslagen, one of the areas
where Öpir was active. [38]
Latin transliteration:
«Þorstin 'lit uk sin faþur Suin FTIR« merki × Kera''''' 'FTIR »þori» (b) roþur
«sin» huaru þiR «hut» til «k - IKA (u) (k)« ybiR sin moþur inkiþuru iftiR''''risti »
Old Norse transcription:
Þorstæinn our gæra mærki æftiR Svæin, faður Sinn, okay æftiR Þori, broður
Sinn, þæiR varu ut til G [r] ikkia, okay æftiR Ingiþoru, Sina moður. ØpiR risti.
English translation:
"Þorsteinn had become a landmark in memory of Sveinn, his father and in
memory of Þórir, his brother. They were abroad in Greece. And in memory of
Ingiþóra, his mother. Œpir carved." [39]

U 112

Side A of runestone U 112

Side B of runestone U 112

Runestone U 112 (position), a large boulder measuring 18 m (59 ft) in the
region is adjacent to a wooded path known Kyrkstigen ( "path church") in Ed.
[28] [40] It is known to scholars Johannes runological first campaign Bureus
»in 1594, and dated to the mid-11th century. [40] [41]
The boulder bearing runic inscriptions on both sides, referred to as U 112 A
and B. [28] The linguistic significance of the inscription is in the use of haglaz
(ᚼ) Rune denote the velar approximant / ɣ / (as in Ragnvaldr ), which would
become common after the close of the Viking Age. The inscription also
includes some dotted runes and ansuz (ᚬ) Rune used the / o / phoneme. [42]
The inscriptions are in style Urnes (PR4), [28] and commissioned by a former
leader of the Varangian Guard Ragnvaldr name in memory of his mother and
his own price. [28] [40] Very few could boast of returning home with the honor
to be the captain of the Varangian Guard. Moreover, the name Ragnvaldr
indicates that belonged to the upper echelons of society, Old Norse, and that
may have a relevant decision of the dynasty. [43] The maternal grandfather
of Ragnvald, Ónæmr, referring to two additional runestones in Uppland, U
328 and U 336. [44] Runestone U 328 states that Ragnvaldr had two aunts,
Gyríðr and Guðlaug. Furthermore, Runestone U 336 Ulf adds that the
Borresta, who took three Danegelds in England, a nephew paternal Ónæm
and thus first cousin of Ragnvald. [44] was probably the same Ragnvaldr
whose death is the brother Hargs runic inscriptions, which will also be
connected to Estrid and wealthy clan Jarlabanke. [45] Considering the
background of Ragnvald, it is not surprising that grew to become an officer in
the Varangian Guard: Rich was a chieftain who brought a lot of ambitious
soldiers in Greece. [46]

Latin transliteration:
Side A: rahnualtr * * * lit rista Runar * * * EFR fastui * moþur sina * * * *
onems to aiþi i * * * kuþ hialbi ant totR * hena *
Side B: Runa rista * * * lit rahnualtr * huar a X griklanti UAS * * * lis forunki *
Old Norse transcription:
Side A: Ragnvaldr our rista Runar æftiR Fastvi, moður Sina, Onæms dottiR, I
Æiði. Guð hialpi and hænnaR.
Side B: Runar rista our Ragnvaldr. VaR a Grikklandi, Vas liðs forungi.
English translation:
Side A: "Ragnvaldr had the runes carved in memory of Fastvé, mother,
daughter of Ónæmr (who) died in Eið. May God help the spirit."
Side B: "Ragnvaldr was carved Runes; (O) was in Greece, was commander
of the sequence." [47]

U 136
Main article: Broby bro Runestones

Runestone U 136
Runestone U 136 (position) is in the PR2 (Ringerike) style [48] and was once
a monument together with U 135. It is a dark grayish stone is 1,73 m (5 ft 8
in), high and 0,85 m (2 ft 9 in) wide. [49] In 1857, the Richard Dybeck noted
that he had discovered in the territory five years earlier. A small part of it
sticking up above the ground and when the landowner was tilling the land
and discovered that he had come back to that point. Some pieces chipped
away by mistake by the owner of the land and the upper parts of some runes
lost. [50]
The stone originally came from a rich lady named Ástríðr in memory of her
husband Eysteinn, and Sawyer (2000) proposes that one of the many stones
in a tug-of-war heritage. [51] is uncertain because Eysteinn went to Greece
and Jerusalem, because the interpretation of the word sœkja (certified as
sotti in the past tense). It means "ask" but it can mean "attack" as on the
stones Up 166 N 184, and "visit" or "travel". [52] Consequently, Eysteinn
recognized as one of the first Swedes to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
[53], but Jesch (2001) notes that judging by the other runic examples, the
"attack" feeling is more likely. [52] The translation of sœkja as "attack" is also
selected by the project Rundata (see below). It is one of the two Jarlabanke
Runestones say that travelers abroad, the U140 is another, less.

Latin transliteration:
× × astriþr la (t) + raisa staina X X X þasa [a] t austain × × sin Buta is suti × ×
iursalir auk UB antaþis i kirkum ×
Old Norse transcription:
Æstriðr our ræisa stæina þessa in Øystæin, Sinn Bonda, es sotti IorsaliR ok
ændaðis upp i Grikkium.
English translation:
"Ástríðr had these stones raised in memory of Eysteinn, farmer, who attacked
Jerusalem and met the end of Greece." [48]

U 140

Runestone U 140
Runestone U 140 is Broby (position), close to Broby Runestones brother and
U 150. The fragment of granite is Ringerike style (Pr 2). [54] It was
discovered by Richard Dybeck among the foundations of a small building.
Dybeck not successfully searched for the other parts. Initially, the fragment
was transferred into a hillside near the road between Hagby and Täby
church, but in 1930, moved next to the road. It is one of the Jarlabanke
Runestones and refers to a man who traveled abroad [55] (compare U 136,
above).
Latin transliteration:
× ... la × b (a) ... ... han: entaþis * kirikium i
Old Norse transcription:
[IAR] laba [NKI] ... Hann ændaðis i Grikkium.
English translation:
"Jarlabanki ... finally met in Greece." [54]
U 201

Runestone U 201
Runestone U 201 (position) are at PR1 (Ringerike) and the formula was the
same as runemaster U 276. [56] The red granite stone wall is in the sacristy
of the church Angarn c. 0,74 m (2 ft 5 in) above the ground, measuring 1,17
m (3 ft 10 in) in height and 1,16 m ( 3 ft 10 in) in width. [57] Johannes Bureus
(1568-1652) referred to the stone, but for unknown reasons, was ignored by
the national survey of the historical monuments of 1667-1684. [57] Two of the
men listed on the stone are names that are otherwise unknown and have
been reconstructed as Gautdjarfr Sunnhvatr and based on information known
by other names Norse. [58]
Latin transliteration:
* Þiagn * UK * kutirfR * UK * sunatr * UK * þurulf * þiR * litu risa * * * THE þina
* iftiR * tuka faþur * * * sin fur * * * ut i krikum * kuþ * ialbi ot ans * ot * uk *
salu
Old Norse transcription:
Þiagn ok GautdiarfR (;) ok Sunnhvatr (;) ok ÞorulfR þæiR letu ræisa stæin
þenna æftiR Toka, faður Sinn. Hann fors ut i Grikkium. Guð hialpi and Hans,
and salu ok.
English translation:
"Þegn and Gautdjarfr (;) and Sunnhvatr (;) and Þórulfr, had this stone raised
in memory of Toki, their father. The lost abroad in Greece. May God help the
spirit, mind and soul ". [56]
U 270

Runestone U 270
Runestone U 270 was discovered in Smedby (locality) near Vallentuna and
illustrated by Johan Hadorph and his assistant for Johan Peringskiöld, in the
national survey of the historical monuments of 1667-84. Richard Dybeck
noted in 1867 that he had seen the Runestone intact three years ago, but
that was used for the construction of the basement in 1866. Dybeck sued the
farmer found guilty and the prosecution was completed by the Royal Swedish
Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities. Documents from the court case
that was standing in the farmhouse and had blown up three times in small
pieces that could be used to construct the basement. Reconstruction of the
Runestone was impossible. The stone was 2,5 m (8 ft 2 in), high and 1,2 m (3
ft 11 in) wide, [59] and referred to the memory of his father who seems to
have traveled to Greece. [60]
Latin transliteration:
[ikiþur-isina ... ...-- * Stiu nuk * * in kiatilu ... faþur * krikfarn sin * K. ..]
Old Norse transcription:
Ingiþor [i] ... ... <stiu> ok to Kætil ..., faður Sinn, Grikkfara (?) ...
English translation:
«Ingiþóra ... ... and memory Ketill-... her father, (a) person in Greece
(?) ..."[ 61]
U 358

Runestone U 358
The Runestone U 358 (position) in the style RAK [62] was first mentioned by
Richard Dybeck who discovered the stone in the foundation of the church
steeple Skepptuna. The parishioners did not allow him to reveal the word
completely, and then hid the stone with a thick layer of soil. It was not until
1942 that was removed from the tower and came back a few steps away.
The stone is light greyish granite. It is 2,05 m (6 ft 9 in), high above the
ground and 0,78 m (2 ft 7 in) wide. [63] The contractor called the Runestone
Folkmarr and a name that is otherwise unknown Viking Age Scandinavia,
although it is known to exist after the Viking Age. He was on the other hand a
common name in West German languages and especially among the Franks.
[63]
Latin transliteration:
fulkmar lit × × × risa stin þina × × iftiR Sun fulkbiarn X X X X X sin sar itaþis ×
uk miþ krkum × kuþ × ialbi × × ans ot uk salu
Old Norse transcription:
Folkmarr our ræisa stæin þenna æftiR Folkbiorn, Sinn Sun SAR ændaðis ok
með Grikkium. Guð hialpi Hans and ok salu.
English translation:
"Folkmarr had this stone raised in memory of Folkbjörn, his son. He also met
between the end of the Greeks. May God help the spirit and soul." [62]
U 374
Runestone U 374
Runestone U 374 Runestone was that once existed in Örby (location). In
1673, during the national survey of historical monuments, Winge said that
Abraham had two runestones standing in Örby. In 1684, Peringskiöld went to
Örby to document and illustrate the stones, but found only one standing (U
373). Instead he discovered the second or third Runestone, U 374, and the
bottom of a stove fire. The use of stone as the fireplace was detrimental to
the legend, and the last time someone wrote about having seen was in 1728.
Peringskiöld Plan is therefore the only documentation of the inscription there.
The amount of stone was 1,5 m (4 ft 11 in) and a width of 0.88 m (2 ft 11 in),
[64] and was attributed to runemaster Asmund Kåresson. [65]
Latin transliteration:
[... Rita litu »: stain þino * iftiR * o-hu ... ... an hon fil o kriklontr kuþ hi-lbi
sal ...]
Old Norse transcription:
... letu retta stæin þenna æftiR ... ... Hann fell a Grikklandi. Guð hi [a] sal LPI
[u].
English translation:
"... This stone was erected in memory of ... ... He fell in Greece. May God
help (the) soul. "[65]
U 431
Runestone U 431
Runestone U 431 (site) was discovered as the U 430, in a field belonging to
the inn where Åshusby stones exploded to prepare the ground for crops in
1889. As the stone lying face-down inscription, was blown up and was
arrested by the fragments discovered the runes. The Runestone was
repaired with concrete and moved to the terrace of the temple of Norrsunda.
The stone is in bluish gray gneiss, and measures 1,95 m (6 ft 5 in) in height
and 0,7 m (2 ft 4 in) in width. [66] The surfaces are unusually good. [66] It is
in Ringerike (PR2) style, and this is attributed to runemaster Asmund
Kåresson. [67] He was raised by his father and mother, Tófa and Hemingr, in
memory of their son, Gunnarr, who died "among the Greeks, and it is very
unusual that the mother is mentioned before the father. [68] Latin
transliteration:

tufa auk hominkr litu Rita IN abtiR sin þino «Sun kunor» in - u Hon (a) ta R (u)
- (r) mir ut krikium «kuþ hons hialbi | | salu | | UK | | kuþs m -- (i) (R)
Old Norse transcription:
Tofa ok HæmingR letu retta stæin þenna æftiR Gunnar, Sinn Sun En ... hann
DAU var [p] r ut Grikkium meðr. Guð hialpi hans salu ok m Guðs [oð] iR.
English translation:
"Tófa and Hemingr had this stone erected in memory of Gunnarr, their son,
died ... and abroad among the Greeks. May God and Mother of God help his
soul." [67
U 446

Runestone U 446
A bit of Runestone U 446 in Droppsta (location) ensures only documents
provided in the national survey of the historical monuments of the 17th
century, during the preparation of the Board of Uppland runinskrifter Sveriges
(1940-1943) scholars searched unsuccessfully for debris of stone. The piece
was what was left of the bottom of a Runestone and seems to have two
pieces of which one was the first part of the inscription and the second last
place. The fragment appears to be c. 1,10 m (3 ft 7 in) high and 1,2 m (3 ft 11
in) commonly used [69] and Urnes style is attributed to either PR3 or PR4.
[70] The isifara runes interpreted as æist-Fari, which means "person in
Estonia", [71], which is known from an inscription in Södermanland, [69], but
is left as deciphered by the project Rundata. [70]
Latin transliteration:
[isifara * auk * ... r * sin * hon tu krikum i]
Old Norse transcription:
<isifara> ok ... Sinn. Hann I do Grikkium.
English translation:
"<isifara> and their .... He died in Greece." [70]

U 518

Runestone U 518
Runestone U 518 (position) is in style RAK [72] and is on the south side of
the pine-clad hillside about 700 m (2300 ft) north-east of the main building of
the Homestead Västra Ledinge. The stone was informed by Richard Dybeck
a number of publications in 1860, and when they had recently been
destroyed and many pieces of which the bottom was still on the ground. In
1942, the stone was welded and put back the original item. The stone
consists of coarse and gray granite. [73]
The Runestone was in memory of three men, two of whom died in Greece,
and third, Freygeirr, died in a discussion site is written as i SiLU × Nur.
Richard Dybeck suggested that it could either refer to the estate of Skällnora
nearby pond or lake Siljan, Sophus Bugge and identified the location as
"north of Saaremaa" (Øysilu either), while Erik Brate is the place to have Salo
in Finland today. [74] The modern view, as presented in Rundata, from a
more recent analysis by Otterbjörk (1961) who believe that refers to a sound
Selaön island in Mälaren. [72]
Latin transliteration:
uk þurkir × × × Suin þu litu risa X X X IN þina × iftiR × urmiR uk × × × urmulf
uk frikiR × × × for etaþis × i SiLU × × nur Ian þiR antriR × ut i krikum × × kuþ
ihlbi - R ( a) ot × salu uk
Old Norse transcription:
Þorgærðr ok Svæinn þau letu ræisa stæin þenna æftiR OrmæiR ok Ormulf ok
FrøygæiR. Hann ændaðis i SiLU nor en þæiR andriR ut i Grikkium. Guð
hialpi [þæi] Ra and ok salu.
English translation:
"Þorgerðr and Sveinn, had this stone raised in memory of Ormgeirr and
Ormulfr and Freygeirr. He met the end of the sound of Silas (Selaön), and the
rest abroad in Greece. May God help spirits and souls." [72]

U 540

Runestone U 540
Runestone U 540 (position) is in Urnes (PR4) style and was runemaster
Asmund Kåresson. [75] is mounted with iron in the northern wall of the
church of Husby-Sjuhundra, but when the stone was first documented by
Johannes Bureus noted in 1638 that was used as a threshold in the atrium of
the church. It was still used as a threshold when Richard Dybeck to visit in
1871, and is positioned so that the entire inscription was visible to create a
duplicate cast. [76] In 1887, the parishioners decided to extract both U 540
and U 541 from the church and with the financial assistance of the Royal
Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities of the stones were
removed and attached outside the northern wall. The stone is made of red
sandstone and is 1,50 m (4 ft 11 in) high and 1,13 m (3 ft 8 in) wide. [77]
Parts of the stone and the inscription have been lost, and is exhausted due to
former use as a threshold. [77]
One theory, proposed by Germanist FA Braun (1910), based on runestones
Runestone U 513, U 540, and 179 So 279, held by lament Ingvar be the
same person by Ingvar the Far-traveled, the son of the Swedish king Emund
the Old. Braun notes that the stones set in Husby, a royal residence, and the
names Eiríkr (Eric) and Hakon was rather rare in Sweden, but is known by
the royal dynasty. Önundr will Anund Gårdske, who grew up in Russia, while
Eiríkr is one of the Pretenders name Eric and Hakon will Håkan red. [78] The
recognition of three men Eiríkr, Håkon and Ingvarr also included in the
reference work Nordiskt runnamnslexikon (2002), which adds that Eiríkr is
also shown in stone and Hillersjö Runestone U 20. It also Håkon as that
sought runestones og 162 and og Fv1970? 310. [79]
Latin transliteration:
auk auk hokun airikr »inkuar Rahn aukk [ILT] þóū hr '- ... ... ...- R '-na uarþ
hon [tau] þ (r) [a] kuþ hons hialbi kriklati' | | salu | | UK | | kuþs muþi (R)
Old Norse transcription:
ÆirikR ok Hakon ok Ingvarr ok Ragnhildr þau ... ... ... ... Hann varð dauðr a
Grikklandi. Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs moðiR.
English translation:
"Eiríkr and Hakon and Ingvarr and Ragnhildr, which ... ... ... ... He died in
Greece. May God and Mother of God help his soul." [75]

U 792

Runestone U 792
Runestone U 792 (position) is in style Fp and this is attributed to runemaster
Balli. [80] The stone is in the gray granite and measures 1,65 m (5 ft 5 in) in
height and 1,19 m (3 ft 11 in) in width. [81] It originally came with a second
Runestone, with one on each side of Eriksgata where the road passed a
Ford, [82] C. 300 meters (980 feet) west of where the farm Ulunda today. [83]
Eriksgata was the path that newly elected Swedish kings have passed when
he toured the country to be accepted by local assemblies. [82] The stone was
first documented: Johannes Bureus the 17th century, and later in the same
century by Johan Peringskiöld, who is considered a valuable stone raised in
memory of petty king, or the first war, in pagan times. When Richard Dybeck
visited the stone in 1863 was significantly reclining, [83] and in 1925, the
stone is reported to have fallen completely down into the stream. It was not
until 1946 that the Swedish National Heritage Board arranged to have re-
erected. [81] was in memory of a man (probably Haursi) his son, Karr, and
his brother-in-law. Haursi had returned from Greece a rich man who left his
son heir to a fortune. [30] [84]
Latin transliteration:
kar lit risa * * * THE þtina * in mursa * * * faþur sin * auk Kabi * * * to sin mah *
fu-hfila * very * aflaþi ut i * Kri [k] um * Arfa * sinum
Old Norse transcription:
Karr let ræisa stæin þenna in Horsa (;), faður Sinn, okay Kabbi (;) / Kampi
(?) / Palace (;) / Gapi (?) In Mag Sinn. For [r] hæfila, fear aflaði ut i Grikkium
sinum Arfa.
English translation:
"Karr had this stone raised in memory of Haursi (;), his father; And Kabbi (;) /
Kampi (?) / Palace (;) / Gapi (;) in memory of his kin-by-marriage. (The )
traveled competently; wealth earned abroad in Greece for the successor. "[80

U 922

Runestone U 922 (position) is in PR4 (Urnes) style [85] and measures 2.85
meters (9 ft 4 in) in height and 1,5 m (4 ft 11 in) in width. [86] It is hidden in
the floor in Uppsala Cathedral, next to the tomb of King Gustav Vasa of
Sweden. Its existence was documented first by Johannes Bureus in 1594,
and 1666, Johannes Schefferus commented on the stone as one of the many
runestones which was seen as pagan and which have thus been used as
building material for cathedral. Schefferus U 922 is considered to be the most
significant of those stones and regrettable that the parties were under the
pillar, and therefore could not be read completely. [87] In 1675, the Olof
Verelius discovered that he had done in memory of the person in Greece,
[88], but even the French traveler Aubrey de la Motraye wrote home in 1712,
it had been informed that he had done in memory of a traveler in Jerusalem.
[89] The last words to say that the inscription was visible was Olof Celsius in
1729, and it seems that it was covered quickly by a new layer of flooring. In
1950, Professor Wessén Elijah and guardian County antiques asked to be
removed for better detail, along with three other runestones, but the request
was rejected by the Royal Council of the construction (KBS) for security
reasons. [90]
Ígulbjörn appears also on a second Runestone in Uppsala Cathedral, U 925,
made by Ígulbjörn in memory of son who died GagR "south" with "South"
may refer to the Byzantine Empire. [91] [92]
Latin transliteration:
uk þorþr ikimuntr »* [uk uikibiarn iarl» * risa litu «* stain" in] ikifast * faþur [*
sturn sin * maþr '] sum' til about «* ionha Sun Shack girkha'' '* * United
Kingdom * igulbiarn * in ybiR [* risti *]
Old Norse transcription:
Ingimundr ok Þorðr, Iarl ok Vigbiorn (;) letu ræisa stæin in Ingifast, faður Sinn,
styrimaðr, amount til ut Girkia, Sunn Iona (;), including in the Igulbiorn. En
ØpiR risti.
English translation:
"Ingimundr and Þórðr (and) Jarl and Vígbjôrn (;) had the stone raised in
memory of Ingifastr, their father, the commander, who traveled abroad in
Greece, (?) Ioni son; And in memory of Ígulbjôrn . Œpir And carved. " [85]

U 956

Runestone U 956
Runestone U 956 (location) was the runemaster Asmund Kåresson in Urnes
(PR3) style. [93] is set to Vedyxa near Uppsala, c. 80 m (260 ft) east of the
intersection of the road to Lövsta and the provincial road between Uppsala
and Funbo. [94] The stone is in the gray granite and has an unusual shape
with two flat sides and an obtuse angle between them. The inscription is 2.27
meters (7 ft 5 in) high, from which the top is 1,37 m (4 ft 6 in) and bottom 0,9
m (2 ft 11 in), and width 0,95 m (3 ft 1 in). [95]
It was first documented by Johannes Haquini Rhezelius (D. 1666), and later
by Johan Peringskiöld (1710), who commented that the label is legible but
the stone was split into two parts. Unlike modern scholars, Peringskiöld is this
stone, like other runestones Greece, the Gothic wars in southeastern Europe
from the 3rd century. [96] Olof Celsius visited the stone three times, most
recently in 1726 together with his nephew Anders Celsius. Olof Celsius noted
Peringskiöld that was wrong and that the stone was intact, but gives the
impression of being split in two, [97] and the same observation was made by
Richard Dybeck 1866. [94]
Latin transliteration:
Lit * Rita »stniltr 'stain buanta sin krikfara uiþbiurn abtiR« þino'''kuþ hos hialbi
| | salu | | UK | | kuþs u muþiR markaþi Sun osmuntr kara
Old Norse transcription:
Stæinhildr our retta stæin þenna æptiR Viðbiorn Grikkfara, Sinn boanda. Guð
hialpi hans salu ok Guðs <u> moðiR. Asmundr Sunn Kara markaði.
English translation:
"Steinhildr had this stone erected in memory of Viðbjôrn, her husband, a man
in Greece. May God and Mother of God help the soul of her son. Ásmundr
Kári» noted. "[93

U 1016

Runestone U 1016
Runestone U 1016 (region) is light gray and coarse granite, and is 1,91 m (6
ft 3 in) high and 1,62 m (5 ft 4 in) wide. [98] The stone is located in a wooded
area of 5 m (16 ft) west of the road to the village Fjuckby, 50 meters (160
feet) from the crossroads, and c. 100 m (330 feet) south-east of the farm
Fjuckby . [98] The first scholar to comment on the stone was Johannes
Bureus, who visited the stone on June 19, 1638. Several other scholars will
visit the stone during the following centuries, as the Rhezelius 1667,
Peringskiöld in 1694, and Olof Celsius in 1726 and 1738. In 1864, the
Richard Dybeck noted that the Runestone was one of several in the area was
raised again during the summer. [98]
Parts of the decoration have been lost due to scaling, which probably
occurred during the 17th century, but the label is intact. [98] The Art of the
Runestone has tentatively been classified PR2 style [99], but Wessén &
Jansson (1953 -1958) observation that ornamention considered unusual and
is different than in most other runestones in the region. Other stones in the
same style is the Vang stone and Alstad stone in Norway, so 280 and U 1146
in Sweden. Style more suitable for wood and metal and it is likely that only a
few runemasters ever tried to apply it in stone. [100]
There were many different interpretations of parts of the inscription, [101], but
the two interpretations appear Rundata (2008): [99]
Latin transliteration:
§ P * liutr: sturimaþr * riti: slick: þinsa: aftir: sunu * Sina: sa hit: Aki: Sims fur
UTI: sturþ (i) * - (n) * Ari kuam *: HN krik *: Ports: haima tu : m-...- ... ... (k) (a)
(r) ... (i) United Kingdom (r) (u) - (a) * ...
§ Q * liutr: sturimaþr * riti: slick: þinsa: aftir: sunu * Sina: sa hit: Aki: Sims fur
UTI: sturþ (i) * - (n) * Ari kuam *: HN krik *: Ports: haima tu : m-...- ... ... (k) (a)
(r) ... (i) United Kingdom (r) (u) - (a) * ...
Old Norse transcription:
§ P Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiR sunu Sina. Sa het Aki, fors UTI
sem of. Styrði [k] nærri, kvam GrikkhafniR Hann, hæima do ... ... hiogg (?)
RU [n] AR (?) ...
§ Q Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiR sunu Sina. Sa het Aki, fors UTI
sem of. Styrði [k] nærri, kvam Hann Grikkia. HæfniR, hæima do ... ... hiogg
(?) RU [n] AR (?) ...
English translation:
§ P "Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons. He lost
abroad was called Aki. (O) steered cargo-ship; came in Greek port; died at
home ... ... cut the runes. .. "
§ Q "Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons. He lost
abroad was called Aki. (O) steered cargo-ship; came to Greece. Hefnir died
at home ... ... cut the runes. .. "[99]
U 1087

Runestone U 1087
Runestone U 1087 (former location) were unusually large and impressive
Runestone [102] in Urnes (PR4) style, but has disappeared. [103] Prior had
lost, had been studied and described by many scholars as Bureus,
Rhezelius, Peringskiöld and, finally, Olof Celsius in 1726. [104]
Peringskiöld commented that the stone was lying back in a hop-garden in the
east of the farm Lövsta, which was later confirmed by the Celius 1726. Stolpe
tried to find it, but noted that in 1869 the landowner was aware of the
Runestone, but that he had indicated that it completely covers the soil, and in
1951, a runologist tried to find the Runestone, but failed. [105] The inscription
was an unusual dotted k-Rune in girkium ( "Greece"), which together with U
922, above [102], but the only difficulty that has arisen in the interpretation of
the runes is Onar following. Rhezelius read as a name, Onarius, which
belonged to a third son and Verelius, Peringskiöld, Dijkman Celsius and the
pronoun is interpreted as meaning annarr the "other" and refers to Ótryggr,
an interpretation supported by Wessén, and Jansson ( 1953-1958), [106] and
Rundata (see below). Latin transliteration:
[fastui * lit * risa stain iftiR * * * karþar auk * utirik Suni * sino * onar uarþ tauþr
girkium i *]
Old Norse transcription:
Fastvi our ræisa stæin Otrygg æftiR Gærðar ok, syni Sina. Annarr varð dauðr
i Grikkium.
English translation:
"Fastvé had the stone raised in memory of Gerðarr and Ótryggr, their sons.
The other (= last) echasan life in Greece." [103] Södermanland There are
seven runestones in Södermanland on trips to Greece.
Two of them seem to mention governors of the Varangian Guard and a
second Baron talks, high-ranking warrior, who fought and died with Greeks

.
Sö Fv1954; 20

Runestone Sö Fv1954; 20
The Runestone So Fv1954? 20 (location) was discovered in 1952
approximately 500 m (1600 ft) west-southwest of Nolinge mansion during
plowing the field, with uninscribed stone. It was part of a twin monument and
were placed about 2-3 m, except in two important aspects of a local road,
which had marked a passage. Both stones have lost their upper parts, and
this amount of Runestone is 1,52 m (5 ft 0 in) (of which 1,33 m (4 ft 4 in) is
above the ground) and 0 , 55 m (1 ft 10 in) wide. [107] It is classified as
carved in style Fp Runestone. [108]
Latin transliteration:
biurn: lit: Risa: stin: i (f) ... ... ... ... r: Austr: i: kirikium: biurn hik
Old Norse transcription:
Biorn our ræisa stæin AEF [tir] ... ... [dauð] r Austr i Grikkium. Biorn hiogg.
English translation:
"Bjørn had the stone raised in memory of ... ... died in the east to Greece.
Bjørn cut." [108

Sö 82

Runestone Sö 82

Runestone So 82 (area) is granite, and measures 1,18 m (3 ft

10 in) and height is 1,30 m (4 ft 3 in) wide. [109] It was formerly
under a wooden ceiling in the church Tumbo, and the top was
hidden under the wall of the atrium. Most of the inscription and
artwork were destroyed, [109], but this still be classified as either
style Fp and PR1 (style Ringerike). [110] The inscription is partly
runes encryption. [109]
The stone had come from Vésteinn memory Freysteinn his
brother, who died in Greece, under Omeljan Pritsak, Freysteinn
was the commander of the convoy. [91] The wolf-beast image in
the center of SO 82 touches the inscription in the name
Freysteinn and has the jaws of the word 'dead' or 'died'. Since a
known kenning in Old Norse poetry to be killed in battle was that
the "wolf fed, the combination of text and images will lead to the
conclusion that Freysteinn had died in battle in Greece. [111]
Although the picture stone monument includes a Christian cross,
the two personal names both refer to the legend in Norse
paganism. Þorsteinn includes as an element of the name of the
god Thor and means "stone of Thor," [112], and include the
word Vésteinn Vé, a temple or shrine, and when used in a
personal name meaning "holy", giving its name means "holy
stone." [113]
Latin transliteration:
[+] UI - (a) n [x (b) -] × iR (i) þrn + RftRh × fraitRn × bruþur × [is]
(R) n × þuþR × kRkum (X) [þulR × × iuk × ULN ]
Old Norse transcription:
Vi [st] æinn <ba-iR> <iþrn> æftiR Frøystæin, broður Sinn, dauðr
[i] Grikkium. Þuli (;) / ÞulR (?) Hiogg <uln>.
English translation:
"Vésteinn ... in memory of Freysteinn, his brother, (who) died in
Greece. Þuli (;) / Þulr (;) cut ..."[ 110]

Sö 85

Runestone Sö 85
Runestone So 85 (location) is a Runestone in KB style [114] that
the measures currently 1,23 m (4 ft 0 in) in height. [115] The
granite stone was discovered in a small stream, but in 1835
destroyed the Runestone. Some pieces submitted to
Munkhammar Mälhammar and where used to build fireplaces.
Seven remaining pieces were brought to Västerby in 1855, to be
protected by a fence, but when a scientific survey conducted in
1897, only four pieces remained. An association of local
antiquarians so arranged that the four remaining parts could be
placed in Västerby. [115]
Latin transliteration:
: Ansuar: auk: ERN ... ... [: Faþur sin: Han: enta] þis: ut i: krikum
(r) uþr: ---... unk a ------ -----
Old Norse transcription:
Andsvarr ok Ærn ... ... faður Sinn. Hann ændaðis ut i Grikkium ...
...
English translation:
"Andsvarr and Ern-... ... their father. Met with the external end in
Greece. ... ..." [114]
Sö 163

Runestone Sö 163
So Runestone 163 (position) is in style Fp [116] and the gray
gneiss [117] measuring 1,22 m (4 ft 0 in) in height and 1 m (3 ft
3 in) in width. [118] The Runestone was first documented in the
national survey of the historical monuments of Peringskiöld
1667-84 and noted that it was near the village of Snesta
between Ryckesta and the highway. In 1820, this stone is
reported to be seriously damaged and mostly hidden in the soil,
because its part of the local road network. George Stephens
said in 1857 that the previous position was on a hill in a small
path near Ryckesta, but had moved in 1830 to the boulevard
and reerected Täckhammar mansion on a wooded hillside about
14 steps from the entrance to the highway. [118]
The man who put the stone is the name of the runes and the
name þruRikr identified as Þrýríkr by Sophus Bugge found the
first part of the name as the key þrýð-that would be derived from
* þrūði-and account for Old English þrýðu ( "power" "strength").
The Old English form is similar to the Old Icelandic þrúð element
( "strength") that appears in many Old Norse words in
connection with the Norse god Thor. This analysis was accepted
by Brate & Wessén but noted that the name contains, instead of
the expected R r, [117], while the body Rundata gives a slightly
different form Þryðríkr [116].
The stone was in memory of two sons, one of which went to
Greece and is divided into gold, "a phrase also appears in
Runestone 165 Thus, below. It may mean either that he was
responsible for allocating payments to members of the
Varangian Guard or took part in the distribution of the spoils.
[119] Düwel suggested that the expression is equivalent to the
eastern route of gjaldi skifti ( "split payment") that appears to
close up 166 stone that talks of payments to Vikings England
(see also U 194, U 241 and U 344). If so, the phrase could
mean that the man who won had to pay. [120]
Latin transliteration:
þruRikr: Blot: a: Suni: Sina: sniala: Trakia: for: ulaifr: i: krikium:
Uli: sifti:
Old Norse transcription:
ÞryðrikR stæin in syni Sina, drængia snialla, for OlæifR / i
GullæifR Grikkium gulli skifti.
English translation:
"Þryðríkr (increase) the stone in memory of his sons are able
brave men. Óleifr / Gulleifr traveled to Greece, divided (on)
gold." [116]

Sö 165

Runestone Sö 165
So Runestone 165 (site) has been designated as provisional in
the style RAK. [121] It is gray granite and is 1,61 m (5 ft 3 in),
high and 0,57 m (1 ft 10 in) wide. [122] The Runestone was first
documented in the national survey of historical monuments
(1667-81) and then reported close to a set number of stones.
Runestone later moved and grew up near 166 in a ditch
southwest of the farm Grinda. [122] came from a mother,
Guðrun, in memory of her son, Heðinn. As Runestone 163 Thus,
this indicates that the person went to Greece and is divided into
gold, which may refer to distribution of payment to members of
the Varangian Guard, the distribution of the spoils [119] or
received payment ( compare So 163, above). [120] The
inscription itself is a poem in fornyrðislag. [119] [122]
Latin transliteration:
kuþrun: raisti: spot: in: hiþin: UAR: Nafi suais: UAR: Han:: i:
krikum skifti iuli: kristr: hialb: ant: kristunia:
Old Norse transcription:
Guðrun ræisti stæin in Heðin, var Nefi Svæins. VaR hann i
Grikkium, gulli skifti. Kristr hialp and kristinna.
English translation:
"Guðrún put the stone in memory of Heðinn? (O) Sveinn was
nephew. He was in Greece, divided (on) gold. May Christ help
Christians minds." [121]

Sö 170

Runestone Sö 170
So Runestone 170 in gray granite rises north of the former road
in Nälberga (position), and the stone is 1,85 m (6 ft 1 in), high
and 0,80 m (2 ft 7 in) wide. [123] style is tentatively given as
RAK and some of the cipher runes are runes in the form of
runes branch. [124] The legend says that a man died with the
Greeks, the area has not been clearly identified, with many tests
of runes encryption. Läffler (1907) suggested that the position
should be read Ithomis which was the name of a city in Thessaly
and a bastion of Messinia, also called Thomi. [125]
Omeljan Pritsak (1981) notes that among those who placed the
memorial, the youngest son Guðvér will rise to become governor
of the Varangian Guard in mid-11th century, as shown in a
second reference Guðvér the Runestone So 217. This stone
was in memory of one of the escort of Guðvér. [41]
Latin transliteration:
: Uistain: agmunr: kuþuiR: þaiR: R. .. (s) þu: spot: in: baulf: faþur
sin þrutaR þiagn han miþ kriki uarþ tu o / þum þa / þumþa
Old Norse transcription:
Vistæinn, Agmundr, GuðveR, þæiR r [æí] stæin sþu in Baulf,
faður Sinn, þrottaR þiagn. Hann með Grikki varð, do a / <þum>
þa / <þumþa>.
English translation:
"Vésteinn, Agmundr (and) Guðvér, put the stone in memory of
Báulfr, their father, a Þegn power. It was the Greeks; then died
with them (?) / At <þum>." [124]

Sö 345

Runestone Sö 345
So Runestone 345 (post) was first documented in the national
survey of the historical monuments in 1667, and was
subsequently used as a threshold for the terrace of the temple
Ytterjärna. It was probably used for this purpose in a long time,
because according to a plan that was a few years later, it was
very worn down. In 1830 a church review noted that in a
damaged condition and thus be worn only a few runes remained
significantly when Hermelin shown later stone, noted that the
stone was cracked into two pieces. In 1896, the runologist Erik
Brate visited the stone and discovered that one of the pieces
had disappeared and that the only remaining part was lying on
the wall of the church. The remaining piece is measured 1,10 m
(3 ft 7 in) and 1,15 m (3 ft 9 in). [126] The stone has since been
rebuilt and grew up in the cemetery.
Latin transliteration:
Part A: ... ... in þinsa X X X as kai (r) ... ... ...- N * ER * e [n-a] ×
þr ut - × kr ...
Part B: ... ... roþur × ...
Part III: ... ... Raisa: ...
Old Norse transcription:
Part A: ... [stæ] in þennsa in GæiR ... ... [Ha] NN eR Aen [d] aðr
ut [i] Gr [ikkium].
Part B: ... [b] roður ...
Part III: ... [our] ræisa ...
English translation (Sections B and C are probably not part of
the monument and not translated [127]):
"... This stone in memory of Geir-... ... He finally met abroad in
Greece." [127]
Östergötland
In Östergötland, two runestones reporting Greece. One, the
remarkable Högby Runestone, describing the deaths of brothers
and sisters in various parts of Europe
Ög 81
Main article: Runestones of Högby

Side A of runestone Ög 81

The Runestone Högby (position) is in Ringerike (PR1) style,

[128] and the red granite stone measures 3,45 m (11,3 ft),
height and 0,65 m (2 ft 2 in) in width. [129] has been put before
the outer wall of the temple with the cross Högby side (A) to the
outside. The church was demolished in 1874, and then the B
side of the inscription was discovered. The stone came back to
the cemetery of the former church. [129]
The Runestone honors Özurr, one of the first Varangians who is
known to have died in the service of the Byzantine emperor, and
is estimated to have died around 1010, [130] or in the late 10th
century. [131] was one of his sons "a good man» Gulli, and
Runestone describes a situation that may be common to
Scandinavian families at the moment: the stone was under the
command of Özur niece, Þorgerðr, in memory of aunt , who
were all dead. [130]
Side B of runestone Ög 81

Þorgerðr probably have the stone that had just learned that
Özurr, the last of her uncle, who died in Greece, and made it
possible to ensure the right of heredity. The inscription on the
back of the stone, on how other uncles died, is fornyrðislag.
[132]
Ásmundr Her uncle probably died in the battle of Fýrisvellir, the
980s, [133] and was probably on the side of King Eric the
victorious. [134] Özurr had entered the service of a more
powerful king and died for the Byzantine emperor. [135] Halfdan
may have died either on Bornholm or holmgang, while Kári
which killed remains uncertain. The most likely interpretation
could be that he died on Od, the old name for the northwestern
Cape Zealand [136], but is also likely to be in Dundee in
Scotland. [137] Bui place of death is not given but Larsson
(2002) comments that it was probably in a way that was not as
glorious as those of brothers. [136]
Latin transliteration:
Side A: þukir * * * THE resþi * þansi eftir * * * asur sen muþur * *
* bruþur sin IAR * * * eataþis Austr * i * krikum *
Side B: * * kuþr Karl kuli * * * kat FIM * syni * feal * o * furi frukn *
* * asmutr treks aitaþis * * * asur Austr * krikum i * uarþ * o hulmi
* halftan * tribin * Kari * uarþ * in UTI *
Side C: auk tauþr * * * bui þurkil rist * * Runar *
Old Norse transcription:
Side A: Þorgærðr (?) Ræisþi stæin þannsi æftiR Assur, Sin Sin
moðurbroður, er ændaðis Austr i Grikkium.
Side B: Goðr karl Gulli syni fæm GAT. Fioll a Fori frøkn drængR
Asmundr, ændaðis Assurr Austr i Grikkium, varð a Holmi
Halfdan drepinn, Kari varð in UDDI (;)
Side C: ok dauðr Boi. Þorkell ræist Runar.
English translation:
Side A: "Þorgerðr (;) raised this stone in memory of Ôzurr,
brother of her mother. Meet at the east end of Greece."
Side B: "A good man Gulli got five sons. The brave brave man
Ásmundr decreased by Fœri? Ôzurr met the end of the east in
Greece; Halfdan died in Holmr (Bornholm?); Kári was (killed) in
Oddr (?)? "
Side C: "als o dead (is) Búi. Þorkell carved the runes." [128]
Ög 94

Runestone Ög 94
Runestone og 94 (class) style Ringerike (PR1), [138] is a red
granite set the former cemetery of the church Harstad. [139] The
stone is 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high and 1.18 m (3 ft 10 in) commonly
used in the base. [140] The name Haðistaðir, which refers to the
inscription refers to modern Haddestad in the region, and also
seems to mention Greece as the place where the deceased
died, and was probably a member of the Varangian Guard.
Additionally, the last part of the inscription indicating the location
of his death is probably a poem in fornyrðislag. [141]
Latin transliteration:
: Askata: auk: kuþmutr: þau: risþu: kuml: þ [i] (t): iftiR: u-auk:
IAR: buki | | i: haþistaþum: a: UAR: bunti: kuþr: taþr: i: ki [ (r)] k
[(i) (u) (m)]
Old Norse transcription:
Asgauta / Askatla ok Guðmundr þau ræisþu kumbl þetta æftiR O
[ddl] August (?), Er byggi i Haðistaðum. Hann var Bondi goðr,
dauðr i Grikkium (;).
English translation:
"Ásgauta / Áskatla and Guðmundr, raised this monument in
memory of Oddlaugr (;), who lived in Haðistaðir. It was a good
farmer; (A) died in Greece (?)"[ 138]
Västergötland
In Västergötland, there are five runestones said eastern routes,
but only one of them mentions Greece. [142]

Vg 178

Runestone Vg 178.
Runestone Vg 178 (position) in PR1 style [143] used to be
outside the church Kölaby the cemetery, about ten meters north-
northwest of the tower. The stone is composed of gneiss scaling
measurement 1,85 m (6 ft 1 in) in height and 1,18 m (3 ft 10 in)
in width. [144]
The oldest comment is on a stone church from the census of
1829, and says that the stone was illegible. Ljungström
documented in 1861 that the fence was a rock with the
inscription facing the cemetery. When Djurklou visited the stone
in 1869, was still in the same place. Djurklou is fitting that it is
unfortunate, because some of the runic band was buried in the
ground that the Governor and honest farmer to select a group of
men and remove the stone from the wall. The next time Djurklou
visited the area, found the stone raised in the cemetery. [144]
Latin transliteration:
: Agmuntr: risþi: stin: þonsi: iftiR: isbiurn: FRIDA: sin: auk: (a) (a)
(a): this: Buta: sin: ian: SAR: UAR: klbins: Sun: SAR: uarþ: tuþr:
i: krikum
Old Norse transcription:
Agmundr ræisti stæin þannsi æftiR Æsbiorn, Sinn frænda, okay
Asa (;) in Sinn Bonda, en sar var Kulbæins Sunn. SAR varð
dauðr i Grikkium.
English translation:
"Agmundr raised this stone in memory of Asbjorn, a relative of;
and ASA (?) In memory of the farmer. And he was the son of
Kolbeinn? Died in Greece." [143]
Småland
There was only a stone Rune Småland referred to Greece (see
Sm 46, below).

Sm 46

Runestone Sm 46
Runestone Sm 46 (post) was in the style RAK [145] and was
2,05 m (6 ft 9 in), high and 0,86 m (2 ft 10 in) wide. [146]
The stone was already in a dilapidated condition when Rogberg
shows the stone in 1763. Rogberg that has been used as a
bridge into a creek and the runes that were worn down so much
that most of them were almost illegible, [147], a statement
contradicted by later representations. Since the Runestone had
gone unnoticed by runologists 17th century, it is likely that it was
used as a bridge. In a newspaper person written in 1792 by
Hilfeling, the bottom of the stone shows for the first time,
although the artist does not seem to have realized that the two
parts belonged together. In 1822, Liljegren came to represent.
One survivor still unsigned draft attributed to Liljegren (see
picture). In 1922, the runologist Kinander learned from a local
farmer that about 40 years earlier, the Runestone was seen built
into a bridge that was part of the country road, and had to sign
up. Someone decided to remove the Runestone to the bridge
and is next to the road. Kinander like to see the stone and
showed much less worn stone in the garden of Eriksstad. [148]
However, according to Kinander was unable to find any
remaining runes on what is supposedly the Runestone. [146]
Latin transliteration:
[... nui krþi: kubl: þesi: iftiR Suin: Sun: sin: im ÷ ou itaþisk * tr
krikum i]
Old Norse transcription:
... vi gærði kumbl that the æftiR Svæin, Sinn Sun, eR ændaðis
Austr i Grikkium.
English translation:
"...- Vé made these monuments in memory of Sveinn, her son,
who met in the east end of Greece. "[145]
Gotland
Only a Runestone mentioning the Byzantine Empire has been
found in Gotland. This may be because of the fact that the few
stones Rune raised on Gotland for the stone image, and the fact
that Gotlanders seen mainly in trade, paying tribute to the
Swedish military for protection. [149]

G 216

G 216

Runestone G 216
1. G 216 (starting position) is 8.5 cm (3,3 in) long, 4.5 cm (1,8 in)
wide and 3,3 cm (1,3 in) thick sharpening stone with a runic
inscription was discovered 1940. It was found by a worker at a
depth 40 cm (16 in), and dug a shaft for a telephone cable in a
field in the Roma Timans. [150] is currently in the museum
fornsal Gotlands the inventory number C 9181. [150] is dated to
the late 11th century, [151] and although the interpretation of the
message is uncertain, scholars have generally accepted
analysis of von Friesen in which honors the travels of two
Gotlanders Greece, Jerusalem, Iceland and the Muslim world
(Serkland). [152]
The legend has created a sense that refers to four distant
countries, the objectives of the adventurous Scandinavian
missions during the Viking era, but stirred some doubts about its
authenticity. However, a thorough geological analysis and
runological dispel any doubts about the authenticity of nature.
The stone had the same patina and other Viking Age stone on
all surfaces and sculptures, and also has the usual r-Rune with
open side stroke, which are often ignored by forgerers.
Moreover, Friesen said that it would be no specialist in Old
Swedish that made counterfeiting and wrote krikiaR well as all
the reference books of the time rightly said that the form grikir.
[153]
Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström (1978) observed that the
personal name that is considered most interesting by scholars is
Ormika, which is also known only from Gutasaga, which was the
name of a free peasant who was baptized by the Norwegian
king Saint Olaf in 1029. [154] The first element ormr ( "snake") is
known from the Old Norse naming tradition, but the second is
the West German diminutive-Fish, and the lack of final-n is
proposing a loan from Anglo-Saxon or Old Frisian, although the
name is unattested in West Germanic. The runologists
appreciate the appearance of the nominal form GrikkiaR
( "Greece"), as is otherwise unattested, while the other forms
where found in a number runestones. The name appears in the
Old Jerusalem Gutnish form iaursaliR while the western-most
dialect of Old Norse, Old Icelandic, has Jórsalir, both
representing a Nordic folk etymological rendering where the first
element is interpreted as JOR element-name (from an older *
meaning eburaz "boar"). The legend also shows the only runic
appearance of the name of Iceland, and there are five other
runic inscriptions in Sweden report that Serkland. [154]
Latin transliteration:
: Ormiga: ulfua-r: krikiaR: iaursaliR (:) islat: serklat
Old Norse transcription:
Ormika, Ulfhva [t] r (?), GrikkiaR, IorsaliR, Island, Særkland.
English translation:
"Ormika, Ulfhvatr (;), Greece, Jerusalem, Iceland, Serkland."
[155]
Can someone explain to me how to do the runes, the Vagarians
or VARBARIANS who have the burial custom of burning their
dead to you are using the ptres THESE like funerary
monuments;
No random stones and stones with smilmenes vertu and keimno
which recounts events. Because the BAZAN there;
Obviously to see them the next versed in the secrets and to
understand the hidden meaning. There was 1. to signage and 2
are obvious. are engraved the symbol of the cross to understand
someone xrei its secrets. 3 The cross symbolizes the existence
of HRT is everywhere, and how to achieve this; Remember the
fradsi "In the beginning was the Word, that is sound,
transportable, median frequency.
Where in that;
From the smallest to the crystalline structure of the mgalyteri
epeiroelachisto Coco sand in the whole rock, the human body,
the whole planet Earth, the galaxy and chse final form of the
whole universe, and back. Runs through the creation of
crystalline structures through
That being subject to mtafora crystalline structure which is
charged m the soul energy which mtaferei the information -
skeptonio. The Vagarians when burned ordinary soldiers were
not ndiferai and where and how much will go psichi, for the
leaders and kings in real change. Must psichi warrior to charge
the stone with the metal's memory to be able to travel the
universe. So did the Egyptian kings Anounaki, the simple people
burned to fire more than the kings were buried in pyramids and
in a gold prosopio as a gold t is the best treatment for the
operation - which ilktrismou mtafrei the skeptonio
INFORMATION. Got; This is the hidden meaning of "in the
beginning was the Word" and "God is everywhere"
Who were these Anounaki; The first commander Nefelim who
invented the financial instrument like dichonias and control of
plythismon and enslaved to slavery and the search for gold
mining. You understand why utilitarian t is so precious. Could
synallags be made with copper, which exists in great quantity,
but the xchasa Huckle is poisonous and deadly for Anounaki,
unforeseeable is not a man ....
Notes
1. ^ U 112, U 374, U 540, βλ. Jesch 2001:99
2. ^ Og 81, og 94, Γι 82, λοιπόν 163, λοιπόν 165, λοιπόν 170, λοιπόν 345,
λοιπόν Fv1954? 20, SM 46, VG 178, U 73, U 104, U 136, U 140, U 201, U
358 , U 431, U 446, U 518, U 792, U 922, U 1016, U 1087, βλ. Jesch
2001:99. Εδώ G 216 περιλαμβάνεται, επίσης, ότι Jesch (2001:99) δεν το
περιλαμβάνουν. Αυτή δεν θεωρεί ότι είναι μνημειώδης (2001:13).
3. ^ U 270 και U 956, βλ. Jesch 2001:100
4. ^ U 1016, βλ. Jesch 2001:100
5. ^ A b Jansson 1980:34
^ U 136, U 140, U 201, U 431, U 1016, Ög 81, Ög 94, Vg 178 and
possibly on Sö 82 (see Rundata 2.5).

1. ^ U 73, U 104, U 112, U 446, U 540, U 922, U 956, and U

1087 (see Rundata 2.5).
2. ^ Harrison & Svensson 2007:37
3. ^ a b c Jansson 1987:43
4. ^ Larsson 2002:145
5. ^ a b c Blöndal & Benedikz 2007:223
6. ^ Brate 1922:64
7. ^ Jesch 2001:12–13
8. ^ a b Jesch 2001:14
9. ^ Harrison & Svensson 2007:192
10. ^ For a low figure of 9.1% see Appendix 9 in Saywer 2000, but
for the higher figure of 10%, see Harrison & Svensson
2007:196.
11. ^ a b Jansson 1987:42
12. ^ Jesch 2001:86–87
13. ^ Jesch 2001:102–104
14. ^ a b Blöndal & Benedikz 2007:224
15. ^ Jansson 1980:20–21
16. ^ a b Sawyer 2000:16
17. ^ Jansson 1987:38, also cited in Sawyer 2000:16
18. ^ Sawyer 2000:119
19. ^ Sawyer 2000:152
20. ^ Antonsen 2002:85
21. ^ Att läsa runor och runinskrifter on the site of the Swedish
National Heritage Board, retrieved May 10, 2008.
22. ^ a b c d e f Rundata
23. ^ Rundata 2.5
24. ^ a b Harrison & Svensson 2007:34
25. ^ a b c Entry U 73 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
26. ^ a b c d Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:96ff
27. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:95
28. ^ Cf. Jesch (2001:99–100)
29. ^ Sawyer 2000:115
30. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:147
31. ^ Jansson 1980:21
32. ^ a b Jansson 1980:22
33. ^ Entry U 104 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
34. ^ a b c Enoksen 1998:131
35. ^ a b Pritsak 1981:376
36. ^ Enoksen 1998:134
37. ^ Enoksen 1998:134; Jansson 1980:20; Harrison & Svensson
2007:31; Pritsak 1981:376
38. ^ a b Pritsak 1981:389
39. ^ Harrison & Svensson 2007:31ff
40. ^ Harrison & Svensson 2007:35
41. ^ Entry U 112 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
42. ^ a b Entry U 136 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
43. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:203
44. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:202
45. ^ Sawyer 2000:97
46. ^ a b Jesch 2001:66
47. ^ Pritsak 1981:382
48. ^ a b Entry U 140 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
49. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:205
50. ^ a b Entry U 201 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
51. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:302
52. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:304
53. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:440
54. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1940–1943:440; Pritsak 1981:380
55. ^ Entry U 270 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
56. ^ a b Entry U 358 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
57. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:108ff
58. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:128
59. ^ a b Entry U 374 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
60. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:221
61. ^ a b Entry U 431 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
62. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:222
63. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:243
64. ^ a b c Entry U 446 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
65. ^ Pritsak 1981:362, 378
66. ^ a b c Entry U 518 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
67. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:376
68. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:378
69. ^ a b Entry U 540 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
70. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:422
71. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1943–1946:423
72. ^ E.g. Braun 1910:99–118, Wessén & Jansson 1943–
1946:426ff, and Pritsak 1981:376, 425, 430ff
73. ^ Nordisk runnamnslexikon
74. ^ a b Entry U 792 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
75. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1949–1951:380
76. ^ a b Jansson 1980:22
77. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1949–1951:379
78. ^ Jesch 2001:100
79. ^ a b Entry U 922 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
80. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:9
81. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:5
82. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:5ff
83. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:7
84. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:8
85. ^ a b Pritsak 1981:378
86. ^ Pritsak 1981:381
87. ^ a b Entry U 956 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
88. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:78ff
89. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:79
90. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:80ff
91. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:78
92. ^ a b c d Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:223
93. ^ a b c Entry U 1016 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
94. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:231
95. ^ For an extensive seven page discussion on various
interpretions, see Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:224–233
96. ^ a b Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:395
97. ^ a b Entry U 1087 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
98. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:392ff
99. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:393
100. ^ Wessén & Jansson 1953–1958:394ff
101. ^ Jansson 1954:19–20
102. ^ a b Entry Sö Fv1954;20 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
103. ^ a b c Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:60
104. ^ a b Entry Sö 82 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
105. ^ Andrén 2003:411-412.
106. ^ Yonge 1884:219, 301.
107. ^ Cleasby & Vigfússon 1878:687.
108. ^ a b Entry Sö 85 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
109. ^ a b Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:62
110. ^ a b c Entry Sö 163 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
111. ^ a b Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:124
112. ^ a b Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:123
113. ^ a b c Pritsak 1981:379
114. ^ a b Jesch 2001:99
115. ^ a b Entry Sö 165 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
116. ^ a b c Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:126
117. ^ Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:130
 118. ^ a b Entry Sö 170 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
119. ^ Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:131
120. ^ Brate & Wessén 1924–1936:335
121. ^ a b Entry Sö 345 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
122. ^ a b Entry Ög 81 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
123. ^ a b Brate 1911–1918:80
124. ^ a b Pritsak 1981:375
125. ^ Rundata
126. ^ Larsson 2002:141
127. ^ Brate 1911–1918:81–82
128. ^ Larsson 2002:142–143
129. ^ Larsson 2002:143–144
130. ^ a b Larsson 2002:144
131. ^ Brate 1911–1918:83
132. ^ a b Entry Ög 94 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
133. ^ Brate 1911–1918:93
134. ^ Brate 1911–1918:94
135. ^ Brate 1911–1918:95
136. ^ Jungner & Svärdström 1940–1971:321
137. ^ a b Entry Vg 178 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
138. ^ a b Jungner & Svärdström 1940–1971:320
139. ^ a b Entry Sm 46 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.
140. ^ a b Kinander 1935–1961:145
141. ^ Kinander 1935–1961:143
142. ^ Kinander 1935–1961:144
143. ^ See the Gutasaga.
144. ^ a b Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström 1978:233
145. ^ Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström 1978:238
146. ^ Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström 1978:236
147. ^ Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström 1978:234
148. ^ a b Jansson, Wessén & Svärdström 1978:235
149. ^ Entry G 216 in Rundata 2.5 for Windows.

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Trade route from the Varangians to the

Greeks

Ships on the Dnieper, by Nicholas Roerich

Nicholas Roerich.
The route from trade Varangians the Greeks (Russian: Путь «из варяг в
греки», Put iz varyag in Greki, Swedish: Vägen varjagerna från till grekerna,
Greek: Commercial Street Varangians - Greek) was a trade route that
connected Scandinavia Rus and the Byzantine Empire. The course has
allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with
Byzantium, and led some of them to settle in the territories of present-day
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
The course started in the Nordic commercial centers such as Birka, Hedeby,
and Gotland, crossing the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland, followed the
river Neva in Lake Ladoga. Then followed the Volkhov river upstream past
cities Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod, crossed Lake Ilmen, until the Lovat
River. From there, the vessels would be portaged the Dnieper River near
Gnezdovo. A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the
Western Dvina (Daugava) between Lovat and the Dnieper in the region of
Smolensk, and along the river to Kasplya Gnezdovo. Along the Dnieper, the
path crosses several major rapids and came from Kiev, and after entering the
Black Sea following the western coast of Istanbul.
Map showing the major Varangian trade routes: the Volga trade route (in red)
and the path of trade Varangians to the Greeks (in purple). Other trade routes
of the 8th-11th centuries shown in orange.
The route from the Varangians to the Greeks first mentioned in the first year,
but results have been reported much earlier, in the early ninth century when
the Byzantines made newcomers in their regions, the Varangians. Although
this should be seen as a "Viking" to many, the term for the Byzantines meant
all Scandinavians and their relatives living in Russia today. The route was
established probably in the late eighth and early ninth century, when
explorers searched for Varangian looting, but also slaves and profitable
products. The route gained considerable importance from the tenth to one
third of the eleventh century, while the Volga trade route and trade route from
the Khazars to the Germans.
According to Constantine VII, the Kriviches and other tribes that depend on
Kiev transported sailboats or canoes, which could accommodate thirty to forty
people in areas along rivers. Places named include Smolensk (Miliniska),
Liubech (Telioutza), Chernihiv (Tzernigoga) Vyshhorod (Vousegrade),
Vitechev (Vitetzevi) and Kiev (Kia (a) ba). Some of these cities have
alternative names in Old Norse, and Constantine says some of them:
Novgorod = Nemogarda = Hólmgarðr = 'Island Enclosure », and Nýgarðr ='
New fence '; Kiev = Kœnugarðr = 'Boatyard and Samvat = Sandbakki-ass ='
Sandbank Ridge ». [1] (The Runestone N 62 retains the name Vitaholmr
( "central reserve") for Vitichev.) Subsequently, these yachts are transported
along the Dnieper in Kiev. There were sold in Varangians who re-equipped
and loaded them the goods. [2] Since the Dnieper Varangians ships had to
go around a river chain founded in 1950-'70 (seven) and no longer alisida
started under the Dnipropetrovsk where the river turns south and fell to 50
meters to 66 kilometers.
Names of the Dnieper rapids, with translations [3], and Constantine's Greek
spelling:
Modern Slavonic Norse
Ne sǔpi, 'Don't Sleep', Essoupi Sof eigi, 'Don't Sleep'
Surskij, 'Severe One'; Lochanskij Ostrovǐnyj pragǔ, 'Island-waterfall',
Ostrovouniprach Holmfors, 'Island-Waterfall', Oulvorsi
Zvonets (kij), 'Clanger' Gellandi, 'Roaring', Gelandri
Nenasytets (kij), 'Insatiable' Nejasytǐ, 'pelican' (which nested there), Neasit
Eyforr, 'ever violent', Sustainable
Volnyj, Volninskij, '[place] of waves' Vlǔnǐnyj pragǔ, 'wave-waterfall',
Voulniprach Bárufors, 'wave-waterfall', Varouforos
Tavolzhanskij Vǐruchi, 'laughing', Veroutzi Hlæjandi, 'laughing (ref. noise of
water)', Leanti
Lishnij, 'superfluous' Naprjazi?, 'Bend, strain?', Naprezi; Na bǔrzǔ?, 'Quick?'
Strukum, '[at the] rapids', Stroukoun

A color copy of the Runestone G 280 which speaks of the death of rapids
Dniepr. Under the Rapids, who had to go through a narrow rocky point called
the Ford of Vrar (Russian: Krariyskaya way), where Varangians attacked
frequently by the Pechenegs. Varangians stopped on the island of St.
George. Then, equipped ships with sails at the mouth of the Dnieper and
continued to surf along the west coast of the Black Sea all the way to Istanbul
(Slavic: Tsargrad, Old Norse: Mikligarðr). The trade route from the
Varangians to the Greeks was related to other routes of Eastern Europe, as
the Pripyat-Bug waterway leading to Western Europe and the Volga trade
route, which decreased the Volga waterway to the Caspian Sea. Another
branch was along the Dnieper and Usyazh-Buk River to Lukoml and Polotsk.
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks used to transport different
kinds of goods. Wine, spices, jewelry, glass, expensive fabrics, images, and
books came from the Byzantine Empire. Kiev in the trade of bread,
handmade products, silver coins, etc. Volhyn negotiate swirls and other
items. Certain types of weapon and handicrafts sourced from Scandinavia.
Offered timber Northern Rus', furs, honey and wax, while the Baltic tribes
traded amber. In the second half of the eleventh century, the Crusades
opened up more lucrative routes from Europe to the East through the
Crusader states of the Middle East. By that time, Rus' has strengthened its
trade relations with Western Europe, and the route from the Varangians
Greeks gradually lost its importance. For relevant military route, see
Muravsky Trail.

Trade procedure

Amber Road • Hærvejen. Incense Route

Kamboja-Dvaravati route. Highway King

Roman-India routes. Royal Road

• Silk Road Spice Route. Tea route

Varangians Greeks • Via Maris

Triangular trade. Volga trade route

Trans-Saharan trade. Salt Route

Hanseatic League. Grand Trunk Road

• Much of the Swedish best-selling historical novel The Long Ships ( "Red
ORM") describes the adventures of the crew of the ship of Denmark (with a
pilot from Gotland) by this route in the late 10th century.
• Two random music album released in 2007 deals with fantastic travel down
the path of trade, Miklagard heavy metal band Rebellion - The Story of the
Vikings Volume 2 and The Varangian Way folk metal band Turisas ».
• In Stephen R. Lawhead 's novel, Byzantium, the main character, a 9th
century Irish monk has taken by Vikings from Scandia to Istanbul via this
route.
• In the comic Prince Valiant, 932 pages (December 19, 1954) to 988
(January 15, 1956), the eponymous main character and travel company in
two Viking longships from Istanbul to Scandia in this way, when faced
Patzinaks and Polotjans.

References
• http://www.novgorod.ru/read/information/history/clauses/PMZolin
1. ^ Constantine Zuckerman proposed a more obvious etymology, the
Turkish (Khazar) roots "Sam" + "Bat" (literally "upper castle"). See: Sorlin I.
commerciales Vion, peuplement villes et de la Rusia au Xe siècle d'après le
De administrando imperio de Constantin Porphyrogénète. / / Les centers
proto-urbains Russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient / ed. M.
Kazanski, D. Nercessian, C. Zuckerman (Réalités Byzantines 7). - Paris,
2000. -P. 337-355
2. ^ The English translation of De Administrando Imperio.
3. ^ Pg 172-174, "Russian and Slavic Languages," by WJEntwistle and A.
Morison, publ. Faber & Faber, 1949 & 1969

Sometimes stones Rune is found in the United States, particularly the

Kensington Runestone in Minnesota and the Heavener Stone in Oklahoma.
There is much debate about the age and validity. The "Kensington
Runestone" is a slab of gray stone, measuring 36 centimeters long, 16 inches
wide and 6 inches thick. It contains runic writing along the face of the stone
and along one edge. The stone was found by a Minnesota farmer named
Olaf Ohman in November 1898 while digging a poplar tree stump on the
south side of a 50-foot high hill. The stone was buried closed about six inches
below the surface, the tree roots wrapped around it. Mr. Ohman and his sons
saw the runic letters, but did not know what it was. Unfortunately, the stone
was not left in place in order to be able to prove their age by the apparent
growth of the tree. The stone was sent to the University of Minnesota and
then in Chicago. Was studied by runic scholars, who interpreted the
inscription to be an account of Norse explorers in the 14th century. Many
authorities who examined the stone have claimed a forgery, while others are
equally certain of its authenticity. It is known king of Sweden Magnus sent
that part of Greenland in 1355. Who never returned. It is likely that these
people were from that party. The stone bears the date 1362. The transcribed
text is generally accepted as:
"Eight Goths and 22 Norwegians on a journey of exploration from Vinland
too far west. We had camp by 2 rocky islands one day trip north from this
stone. We were out fishing one day. After he came home found 10 men red
with blood and dead. AVM [Ave Maria] save us from evil. "
The inscription around the edge of the stone says:
"You have 10 men from the sea to look after our ships 14 days journey from
this island. Year 1362."
The stone is now in the Runestone Museum in Alexandria, Minnesota, near
where the stone was found.
Update: In a 2000 conference in St. Paul, attended by archaeologists from
approximately 20 states and three Canadian Provinces, a geologist and
chemist Minnesota Wisconsin presented what they say is indisputable
evidence that the Runestone inscription is "real" again, probably from on the
1300. Scott Wolter, president of the American petrographic services, is a
licensed geologist Minnesota. Role was to analyze the stone surfaces with
Barry Hanson, a chemist and project manager for nonprofit group archeology,
archeology ITM, and Paul Weiblen, Emeritus Professor of Geophysics at the
University of Minnesota. Weiblen published a 45-page report on the
mineralogy of the stone, and concludes that
the sculptures were considerably higher than
1898, when it was discovered.
Mr. Ohman and the Runestone
Possible Routes to Minnesota Viking from Greenland:
through Hudson Bay and the Nelson and Red Rivers
or through the St Lawrence River and the Great Lakes.
Dr. Richard Nielsen, President Houston, Texas based Nielsen Engineering,
studying linguistics as a hobby. The investigation of the 14th century, the
participation of legal documents known as "Swedish diplomas, language
reveals connecting the writing style and expression for the stone in the
vernacular found in historical legal documents of the period between 1355
and 1375. During the 14th century Many of the educated scribes died of
bubonic plague. Less educated writers introduced in everyday legal
documents during that period. Thomas Reiersgord, author of The Kensington
Rune Stone: its place in history, believes that "10 men red with blood, killed
by Indians, but were victims of bubonic plague, carried in the incubation
period of from Europe, from one or more carriers to the group. In the spiritual
form, the disease spreads and kills rapidly, victims vomit blood, and and
covered with bloody pustules. The "Heavener Runestone" Oklahoma is a
slab about 12 feet high, 10 meters wide and 16 inches thick with runic letters
out the word "Gaomedat". Turning two runes which appear to be different
from the rest The inscription is "Glomedal", or "Valley of Glome. It could also
become 'C. Nomedal". Nomedal is a Norwegian family name. Thanks to the
efforts of Gloria Farley, the area around the stone is now the Sky Rune Stone
State Park. The stone now protected in a building erected around it. The
official theory is that the stone was erected as the threshold ratio between
600 AD and 900 AD
 Old-timers relate that there were many more stones in the area, but most
were destroyed by treasure hunters in the 1930s and 1940s. Neither of the
Heavener Runestones Number Two or three have enough runes to make a
translated message. In 1967, another stone was found near Ponteau,
Oklahoma.

Heavener # 2
The second stone, which measured 30 to 14 inches and 20 inches thick,
shows 12-inch, three-pronged symbol for one strain, the runic "R". Beneath
this surface side was a small sign that later proved to be a "bindrune," or a
combination of two runes. This stone is called "Heavener Runestone Number
Two.

Edge Heavener # 3
On Three Heavener an "X", a "piece of turkey," and an arrow shape: the
runes for "G", "R" and "T", respectively. The letters, 6 to 9 inches tall,
displayed in a triangular pattern on a stone 5 1 / 2 feet long. Neither of the
Heavener Runestones Number Two or three have enough runes to make a
translated message.
Poteau Stone
Stone Poteau, found by students in 1967, is 15 inches long. There are seven
characters in a straight line, l 1 / 2 έως 2 inches high. The Runes shown
simply because the bottom of the grooves were bright layer of stone, the
surface was dark. Tool marks in the grooves showed that the
correspondence had become a punch as the Heavener Runestone. Four of
the runes are copies of the Heavener Runestone, and three appeared to be
variants of others on this. In the field of stone Poteau, Heavener Runestone
the side of Poteau Mountain lies about 10 miles southeast. The original pig
Heavener Runestones Numbers Two and Three fall on a line between them.
There are many more theories about the stones Heavener. In 1967, Alf
Monge, a former U.S. Army cryptographer argued that the runic symbols are
puzzles, indicating date, equivalent to 11 November 1012, the day of Saint
Martin in our calendar. According to Monge, all messages are cryptic runic
North America and those found in Stave Churches in Norway, deciphered as
dates of church holidays. He feels there is evidence that the creator of this
puzzle and others found in North America was Eirik Gnupsson, known as
Henricus, who became bishop of Greenland in 1112. Henricus was believed
to have made many trips to Vinland and farther inland. Monge says Henricus
left seven runic puzzle including Kensington Rune Stone, the Heavener Rune
Stone and the Spirit Pond Rune Stone. This has been discussed in two
books by OG Landsverk: Runic Records of the Norsemen in America, Erik J
Friis Publisher, 1974, and Ancient Scandinavian messages to the American
Stones, Norseman Press, 1969., And Norse Runic Earl Syversen of Signs: a
continuous-forgotten cryptography, Vine Hill Press. Solution to Monge Poteau
inscription is another date, November 11, 1017 AD, just five years later than
the date he said was the Heavener Runestone. The seventh symbol on the
Poteau Runestone is the standard runic alphabets, but it was a runic symbol
for the number 17. The early Norse calendar is based on a cycle of 19 days
or Golden Numbers. Younger Futhark was used for the number of those
days. There are, of course, only 16 staves in the Younger Futhark, so
conceived three new symbols to represent 17, 18 and 19.

Even a stone found in Shawnee, Oklahoma. Five Runes, all of the 24-Rune
Elder Futhark, explains "MEDOK." Medok similar to Madoc, the name of the
Prince of Wales. Ancient records state he came to America in the year 1170
AD, then returned to Wales for ten shiploads of colonists to rise up the
Mississippi River. However, Wales has made use of the third century AD
Norse runes and the name Medok not Madoc. Alf Monge studied the
inscription on the Shawnee Runestone and said it was another Norse
cryptopuzzle, giving the date November 24, 1024 AD
Shawnee Runestone
While agreeing that the Heavener stone bears cryptic message, Dr. Lee
Woodward, a Sallisaw, Oklahoma Secretary of State believes that it is a
monument to Rene Robert Cavelier de La Salle, French explorer, who was
assassinated in 1687. Woodward claims that La Salle was killed in Heavener,
is in East Texas, as often believed. It concludes that the stone was carved by
Gemme Hiens, which is referred to as "German-English linguistic and artistic
genius who was a companion of La Salle from 1684-1687 ... Hiens made
monument in the form of runic enigma, not everyone to easily recognize what
he did. riddle asked to identify one of Grandly Famous' French Man and
dates (C. NOM E (t) DAT (es). Then answered the riddle smart way that
seems very clear to monument La (D 'Salle, 21 Novembre 1643-19 Mars
1687). This is the birth and death dates of La Salle. "theory explained Dr. Lee
Woodward in his book, Secret La Salle Monument and Historical Marker,
Richard Nielsen, an American engineer and Norse scholar, believes that the
runes should be interpreted literally, not the puzzle. He says that the second
and last runes on the Heavener Runestone, which was considered "A" and
"T", were actually versions of "L", and that the seventh Rune on the Poteau
inscription was a double "L" in the form a bindrune, a combination of two
runes using a vertical stroke for a line manager. Nielsen believes that all the
runes on the Heavener, Poteau, and Shawnee inscriptions are from the Elder
Futhark Heavener runes translated into "G LOMEDA L." , "Valley Glome it."
The Poteau runes read "GLOIA LLW (ALU)." Indicates that found that "Gloi,"
is a nickname for "Glome," so are the two stones associated with the same
man. The word "ALU" is a magic formula. This language was used around
600 AD and is the key to the new dating of Oklahoma Runestones. The
stones were made, according to Nielsen, between 600 and 900 essay.
Nielsen on "Early Scandinavian incursions into the Western States", deals
with the Kensington Runestone and the stone Heavener.
 The Spirit runestones Pond found in Maine in 1971. One has a rough map of
the region has the second runic writing on one side. For the third, ten rows of
runes on one side and six on the other. The legend speaks of a sudden storm
and the men are afraid of trying to save their ship from "the foam parts of
Ægir, angry god of the sea". This stone also has been called a farce. I think it
is logical that the Vikings, who were known to have built a settlement in
Newfoundland, could well traveled south to Maine. As mentioned above,
cryptologist Alf Monge believes that
the stone is genuine, but history will
not be taken literally. Claims to be a
runic puzzle of Henricus, 12th
century bishop of Greenland.

THE SPIRIT POND STONES and

the mysterious "events" of
construction

On September 14, 1999, I wrote to JR Phillips, director of the Maine State

Museum, expressing regret in
a statement by Dr. William
Fitzhugh, published in the
summer of 1999 the Museum
newsletter, the fusillade.
Fitzhugh, responsible for the
exhibit Smithsonian "Vikings:
The North American Saga»
opened in late April 2000, was
quoted as saying, "The Spirit
Pond Runestone is important
because it is the reality of
construction is known," which
implies that Stones are Norse
original artwork. One of the
Stones will be "exposed to
other objects of dubious origin,
such as the Kensington Stone."
He asked me to ask Dr. Phillips Dr. Fitzhugh what actually were the "facts of
construction." Describe the documented facts of the discovery, citing sources
for the file to the Museum, which shows that there is no evidence concerning
the construction, and proposed to share information from an extensive
collection of primary source material to help clarify the issue.
No answer, not even a cursory acknowledgment.
Since I have received no response or recognition from Dr. Phillips, on 6
March I called for the immediate Fitzhugh, in a letter to Phillips enclosed
requesting documentation of the "known facts" and ask that the Stones to
give a fair evaluation of authenticity regarding the circumstances of their
discovery, subsequent investigations and linguistic reassessment by a
qualified neutral parties.
Still no reply from either Phillips or Fitzhugh.
I am assembling material for the last 12 years, pending preparation of a
monograph dealing with the discovery, excavations at Spirit Pond, translation
efforts and subsequent developments. I am unaware of any "facts of
construction." If the intention was to charge finding the Stones, Walter Elliott,
the production, Dr. Fitzhugh does not consider the evidence.
• Dr. Einar Haugen (then professor of Scandinavian languages and
linguistics at Harvard), confident that the Stones were a modern farce,
however, reported Bruce Borque to report on the stones dated 5/20/1972, "...
He (Walter Elliott) is open and honest, sincere and humorous, but
educational or intellectual claims. It is highly unlikely that it could either be
arrested or executed a hoax of this kind, although a course can not at this
point rule out the possibility of complicity. "
• Richard card, bank and parent of Bath, Maine, had been informed of the
situation at the beginning of the excitement of Harold Brown, curator of the
Bath Maritime Museum. Card Haugen arranged an interview Walter and gave
stenographer to record the interview.
Dr. Cyrus Gordon of Brandeis, who
supported the authenticity of the
Stones, also interviewed Walter, as
Dr. James Peterson of the University
of Maine, Farmington Archeology
Laboratory. Both felt that it was
highly unlikely that could have made
Walter the Stones. Card interest soon led him to become a kind of
ombudsman Walter Elliott and spent considerable time and effort to seek
views on the importance of the Stones. In fact, had been contact with Dr.
Haugen before the state intervened. In correspondence card, Haugen but
admits that he had little time to devote to the Stones, leaving us to wonder
how seriously we chose to investigate something, at least, would be highly
controversial in the academic field. Card, who was neutral as to the
authenticity of the Stones, never questioned the circumstances of the find or
the integrity of Walter.
Elliott wrote several letters on the stones, and my hardware includes copies
of a substantial part of them. Because the stones found on state property, the
State of Maine soon called Elliott to return to the state. The story, beginning
with Elliott attempts to find someone to tell "what they say" and refusing to
give up custody of the Stones, the reaction and the action of the State of
Maine to acquire the Stones, and "ransom" paid by the parties to return to the
Stones for the state makes a riveting story, but nothing involving Elliott or
provide any suggestion of a possible forgery or hoaxer.
 If the "hijacked" by Lawrence MC Smith and Walter acceptance of that
payment for the conversion of a stone over the state interpreted as an
incentive for forgery, the record shows that Walter received an offer three
times the amount for the sale of Stones, and told me about several others.
In my study of the Stones, I wondered if anyone associated with Lawrence
MC Smith (who gave the land where the Stones found that the State) may
have been involved in a farce. Smith, a noted philanthropist and collector
map, found that the Stones were authentic based cartographic data. This
path of investigation led to a stalemate. Louis J. Bauer, a colleague YOUNG,
ran a title search of all properties on the west and north side of Spirit Pond
back in the early 19th century. I have studied the history of Phippsburg and a
small point, have been mapped and the Spirit Pond area shows the
characteristics originally mapped by Dr. Robert French, a geologist at the
AIA, and added a number of house and shed foundations of what I believe
was the farm McIntire. In all this, I have found no evidence of anyone
associated with the area might have knowledge (even a minimal knowledge
of the use and runic Old Norse vocabulary) for the construction of stone
inscription or have acted in complicity with Walter Elliott. In other words, I find
that nothing has even suggested a candidate for hoaxer, not to provide
documentation of the facts of the construction. In my written discussion of the
Stones, have been diligently as accurately as possible and tried not to make
unfounded statements. As an amateur historian-linguist, I believe this is
necessary. I guess that professionals working with the same standards. The
statement of Dr. Fitzhugh seems to ignore the standards of precision and
rigor of research. Even if the "official" position of the Maine State Museum
and the Smithsonian Institution is one of fraud, I was hoping for at least a fair
trial for the stones. There
have been almost thirty years
have passed since the
assessment of Dr. Haugen.
Evaluation was based on the
assumption that the Stones
were supposed to date 1010
AD, and recognizable
language was impossible for
this date. I fully agreed with
that assessment. I have spent
the last ten years studying
classical Old Norse,
with particular concentration on Norse poetry. More recently I have become
an extension of my studies to include the changes in grammar and syntax
evolved into modern Scandinavian languages. My sleuthing later medieval
documents Diplomarium Norvegicum (now online) are uncovering evidence
that leads me to suspect that stones can be dated from the mid-14th century,
which is consistent with the language of the Stones and the carbon 14 dating
(1,405 + / - 70) from charcoal found in sod houses on the edge of the lake
that were excavated in 1972 - 73. The excavation was carried out by young
under the jurisdiction of the State Parks Department, with John Briggs
representing the state, and Harold Brown, the Bath Maritime Museum.
Although the unfolding data are indirect, is compelling. It is also interesting to
note that the stone map shows clearly the mouth of the Kennebec, although it
is oriented to the north, as in conventional modern maps. It also identifies the
lake as a "hop," a very specific Norse word for a lake that is salt water into
fresh floods and ebb tides, thus describing the possible conditions of the lake
in the late Middle Ages. Perhaps, as custodians of the Stones, the museum
should be more cautious in making claims that have no means definitive.
My request to JR Phillips had a reason to reject the Spirit Pond Stones as
fakes or hoaxes, but leave the door open, perhaps even to encourage
responsible of their study.
THE SPIRIT POND STONES and the mysterious "events" of construction

On September 14, 1999, I wrote to JR Phillips, director of the Maine State

Museum, expressing regret in a statement by Dr. William Fitzhugh, published
in the summer of 1999 the Museum newsletter, the fusillade. Fitzhugh,
responsible for the exhibit Smithsonian "Vikings: The North American Saga»
opened in late April 2000, was quoted as saying, "The Spirit Pond Runestone
is important because it is the reality of construction is known," which implies
that Stones are Norse original artwork. One of the Stones will be "exposed to
other objects of dubious origin, such as the Kensington Stone."
He asked me to ask Dr. Phillips Dr. Fitzhugh what actually were the "facts of
construction." Describe the documented facts of the discovery, citing sources
for the file to the Museum, which shows that there is no evidence concerning
the construction, and proposed to share information from an extensive
collection of primary source material to help clarify the issue.
No answer, not even a cursory acknowledgment.
Since I have received no response or recognition from Dr. Phillips, on 6
March I called for the immediate Fitzhugh, in a letter to Phillips enclosed
requesting documentation of the "known facts" and ask that the Stones to
give a fair evaluation of authenticity regarding the circumstances of their
discovery, subsequent investigations and linguistic reassessment by a
qualified neutral parties.
Still no reply from either Phillips or Fitzhugh.
I am assembling material for the last 12 years, pending preparation of a
monograph dealing with the discovery, excavations at Spirit Pond, translation
efforts and subsequent developments. I am unaware of any "facts of
construction." If the intention was to charge finding the Stones, Walter Elliott,
the production, Dr. Fitzhugh does not consider the evidence.
• Dr. Einar Haugen (then professor of Scandinavian languages and
linguistics at Harvard), confident that the Stones were a modern farce,
however, reported Bruce Borque to report on the stones dated 5/20/1972, "...
He (Walter Elliott) is open and honest, sincere and humorous, but
educational or intellectual claims. It is highly unlikely that it could either be
arrested or executed a hoax of this kind, although a course can not at this
point rule out the possibility of complicity. "
• Richard card, bank and parent of Bath, Maine, had been informed of the
situation at the beginning of the excitement of Harold Brown, curator of the
Bath Maritime Museum. Card Haugen arranged an interview Walter and gave
stenographer to record the interview. Dr. Cyrus Gordon of Brandeis, who
supported the authenticity of the Stones, also interviewed Walter, as Dr.
James Peterson of the University of Maine, Farmington Archeology
Laboratory. Both felt that it was highly unlikely that could have made Walter
the Stones. Card interest soon led him to become a kind of ombudsman
Walter Elliott and spent considerable time and effort to seek views on the
importance of the Stones. In fact, had been contact with Dr. Haugen before
the state intervened. In correspondence card, Haugen but admits that he had
little time to devote to the Stones, leaving us to wonder how seriously we
chose to investigate something, at least, would be highly controversial in the
academic field. Card, who was neutral as to the authenticity of the Stones,
never questioned the circumstances of the find or the integrity of Walter.
Elliott wrote several letters on the stones, and my hardware includes copies
of a substantial part of them. Because the stones found on state property, the
State of Maine soon called Elliott to return to the state. The story, beginning
with Elliott attempts to find someone to tell "what they say" and refusing to
give up custody of the Stones, the reaction and the action of the State of
Maine to acquire the Stones, and "ransom" paid by the parties to return to the
Stones for the state makes a riveting story, but nothing involving Elliott or
provide any suggestion of a possible forgery or hoaxer.
If the "hijacked" by Lawrence MC Smith and Walter acceptance of that
payment for the conversion of a stone over the state interpreted as an
incentive for forgery, the record shows that Walter received an offer three
times the amount for the sale of Stones, and told me about several others.
In my study of the Stones, I wondered if anyone associated with Lawrence
MC Smith (who gave the land where the Stones found that the State) may
have been involved in a farce. Smith, a noted philanthropist and collector
map, found that the Stones were authentic based cartographic data. This
path of investigation led to a stalemate. Louis J. Bauer, a colleague YOUNG,
ran a title search of all properties on the west and north side of Spirit Pond
back in the early 19th century. I have studied the history of Phippsburg and a
small point, have been mapped and the Spirit Pond area shows the
characteristics originally mapped by Dr. Robert French, a geologist at the
AIA, and added a number of house and shed foundations of what I believe
was the farm McIntire. In all this, I have found no evidence of anyone
associated with the area might have knowledge (even a minimal knowledge
of the use and runic Old Norse vocabulary) for the construction of stone
inscription or have acted in complicity with Walter Elliott. In other words, I find
that nothing has even suggested a candidate for hoaxer, not to provide
documentation of the facts of the construction. In my written discussion of the
Stones, have been diligently as accurately as possible and tried not to make
unfounded statements. As an amateur historian-linguist, I believe this is
necessary. I guess that professionals working with the same standards. The
statement of Dr. Fitzhugh seems to ignore the standards of precision and
rigor of research. Even if the "official" position of the Maine State Museum
and the Smithsonian Institution is one of fraud, I was hoping for at least a fair
trial for the stones. There have been almost thirty years have passed since
the assessment of Dr. Haugen. Evaluation was based on the assumption that
the Stones were supposed to date 1010 AD, and recognizable language was
impossible for this date. I fully agreed with that assessment. I have spent the
last ten years studying classical Old Norse, with particular concentration on
Norse poetry. More recently I have become an extension of my studies to
include the changes in grammar and syntax evolved into modern
Scandinavian languages. My sleuthing later medieval documents
Diplomarium Norvegicum (now online) are uncovering evidence that leads
me to suspect that stones can be dated from the mid-14th century, which is
consistent with the language of the Stones and the carbon 14 dating (1,405 +
/ - 70) from charcoal found in sod houses on the edge of the lake that were
excavated in 1972 - 73. The excavation was carried out by young under the
jurisdiction of the State Parks Department, with John Briggs representing the
state, and Harold Brown, the Bath Maritime Museum. Although the unfolding
data are indirect, is compelling. It is also interesting to note that the stone
map shows clearly the mouth of the Kennebec, although it is oriented to the
north, as in conventional modern maps. It also identifies the lake as a "hop,"
a very specific Norse word for a lake that is salt water into fresh floods and
ebb tides, thus describing the possible conditions of the lake in the late
Middle Ages. Perhaps, as custodians of the Stones, the museum should be
more cautious in making claims that have no means definitive.
My request to JR Phillips had a reason to reject the Spirit Pond Stones as
fakes or hoaxes, but leave the door open, perhaps even to encourage
responsible of their study. The Stones deserve a fair assessment of its
authenticity, both as regards the facts of their discovery, the investigation that
followed Haugen, and review data in a specific language-neutral parties. The
Spirit Pond Stones should not be regarded as fraudulent in the upcoming
Viking Report no further investigation.
I find it interesting that only one stone proposed for the exhibit, and the
article does not say what. It appears that all three stones should be included,
or at least the stone map and the large stone inscription, as two equally
important elements of that rally.
The Viking Report presents an ideal opportunity to review the extent of
Norse presence in North America. In light of the excellent book by Kirsten
Seaver The Frozen Echo, the time is ripe to take this opportunity to examine
the evidence while completing the survey. This would put the Smithsonian
Institution at the forefront of the inevitable acceptance of a wider pre-
Columbian Norse contact, and will maintain the current institution with the
unfolding Circumpolar theories of migration of anthropologist Dennis Stanford
of the Smithsonian Institution ..

The Spirit runestones Pond found in Maine in 1971. One has a rough map of
the region has the second runic writing on one side. For the third, ten rows of
runes on one side and six on the other. The legend speaks of a sudden storm
and the men are afraid of trying to save their ship from "the foam parts of
Ægir, angry god of the sea". This stone also has been called a farce. I think it
is logical that the Vikings, who were known to have built a settlement in
Newfoundland, could well traveled south to Maine. As mentioned above,
cryptologist Alf Monge believes that the stone is genuine, but history will not
be taken literally. Claims to be a runic puzzle of Henricus, 12th century
bishop of Greenland
Viking Research & Exploration from 1000 to 1362
Marion went to a cemetery, where the road after two stones found in a local
bog. He says they look like stone by stone heat shield used by the Vikings in
front of the iron furnaces. Complete with holes to peek through to see how
the iron does. The hired man is sick and the back of the oven kitchen reading
the document. The document has a picture of the newly found stone
Kensington Rune. The hired man says to the farmer. "This just seems to
stone thrown in the old good last summer." The farmer looks and says. "We
certainly do. We must dig next spring." As luck would have both the hired
man and farmer who died during winter. The only person still alive to hear
was the conversion of the ten year old son of the farmer. It is now past 70
years, Marion's son hears talk and says on the stone Rune. Some years pass
and dig is the old well. When you get to the bottom is the old wrong right. The
well was dug 30 years too young. A few years go. Now the farm belongs to
the Department of Natural Resources. We will not let him dig. Marion knows
where the well is older. It is about thirty feet of the newest and. Marion
showed me a very old map. He had a pond with what is called "Lake Dead
Man". Time has a stone Rune on an island in the lake. Neither the island and
the stone have been found so far. Also this lake or near a boat was displayed
once after a storm about 100 years ago
Κι αυτή είναι η μια από τις πέτρες που βρεθηκαν εκει

\
Εδώ βλέπτε τους Αγγλους και Βικινγκς σε
ναυπηγειο στη κατασκευη πλοίων

Και στη συνέχεια μια μαρμάρινη επιγραφή τους του 9ου αιώνα
Ακολουθει μια εικονα «Καλεσμένοι από την άλλη πλευρα της γης «

Skylitzis Chronicle VARANGIAN GUARD

Skylitzis Chronicle iLLUMINATION
17ος αιωνας ΡΟΥΝΙΚΗ ΠΕΤΡΑ

Varangians guard

Waringiers Byzantium Vinkhuijzen

Χάρτης χωρών που καταληστευθηκαν από VIKINGS
Βικιγκς μετα τη μαχη μοιραζουν τα λάφυρα
Οι διαδρομς των Βικινγκς και των Ελληνων,
οι Βικινγκς με κόκκινο χρώμα,
οι Ελληνς με Μωβ

Βασίλιος ο Πρώτος
Η ητα των βουλγαρικων στρατευματων
The Chronicle of Ioannis Skylitzis Preslav Attacked

Byzantyne attack Preslav

Assault of Tornikios against Constantinople from the
Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Basil&leo
Bulgarians nominate Peter Deljan as king of Bulgary
from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes
Byzantine army under the leadership of Nikephoros
Uranos putting the Bulgarians to flight from the
Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Byzantines and Arabs in Sicily Ioannis Skylitzes

Castle of Chandax(Herakleion) from the Chronicle of John

Skylitzes
Chronicle by John Skylitzis, which depicts the elevation
of the emperor on a shield by the soldiers
Chludov proclamation
Fighting between Byzantines and Arabs Chronikon of
Ioannis Skylitzes, end of 13th century

Danielis
 Emperor Theophilos Chronicle of John Skylitzes

• Fighting between Byzantines and Arabs Chronikon

of Ioannis Skylitzes, end of 13th century

•
Greekfire-madridskylitzes1

Hippodrome Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Krum gathers his people The Chronikon of Ioannis

Skylitzes
Leo together with the caliph Al Mamun from the
Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Melitene by the Byzantines in 934 from the Chronicle of

John Skylitzes
Michael III supervises a convention of clergy and secular
persons Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Nicephorus sends an epistle to emperor Michael II in

favour of the icons restoration Chronikon of Ioannis
Skylitzes
Officers of the court Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Patriarch Photios sitting on a throne John Skylitzes

Persecution of Russ by the Byzantine army John
Skylitzes

Persecution of monks from the Chronicle of John

Skylitzes
Pupils and philosophers from the chronicle of John
Skylitzes

Romanos III Argyros -severely ill- dies inside the palace

in 1034 In the picture, Romanos in a bath where he dies
from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes
Samuil-skilitsa-trud

Slaves, carrying a noble woman from the Chronicle of

John Skylitzes
The leader of the Bulgarians along with his people
praying for the famine to go away the Chronicle of John
Skylitzes

The mother of the Russian sovereign Svjatoslav, Olga

along with her escort from the Chronicle of John
Skylitzes
The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army
and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John
Skylitzes

Victory of the Byzantines over the Bulgarians from John

Skylitzes

Why this church remembers to me something from spacecraft; Wrong; Here

is the basis of two thrusters in the center and over the bridge and control
room in front. They were the ancients, WE; Did means lived in caves
underground because the radioactive makes a bad health;
And What is the underground city KANTATH;
A song of epic era Kyivan Rus »that has survived in the Ukraine, but still
sung in northern Russia, where it is said STARINA. The Ukrainian origin of
bylyny and continuous presence on the territory of Ukraine can be seen from
the clear signs that have left other forms of oral literature, Ukrainian folk-
legends, carols, songs of marriage, etc., and references bylyny some heroes
in the old Kyivan Rus' time and literary works of 16th-17th century. The
bylyny divided into several circles. The pre-Christian circles, which is richest
in mythological subjects, consisting of bylyny on heroes Mykula
Selianynovych, Sviatohor, and Volha Vseslavych? Are the songs Volha
Vseslavych reflected in stories by The Seer Prince and Princess Olha found
in time. The cycle bylyny Kyiv Prince Volodymyr introduced as the central
character, combining in him the characteristics of princes Volodymyr
Volodymyr the Great and Gladiator. Other heroes of this cycle include Illia
Muromets (Murovets in older sources) from Chernihiv, whose tomb Kyivan
Cave Monastery also visited the 17th century; Dobrynia? And Alosha
(Oleksander) Popovych. There is a strong resemblance to Prince Vladimir
and here we will reveal the secret that his real name not einia Murovets but
Ilia Ilia Muromets, and was the central Murom Russia but from Murovak or
Muroviak, the valley of the Dnieper which administrative belongs in
Chernigov and the time of the 12th and 13th century referred to as
independent from
Widow Danielis from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes

design for church in

Chernigov guberniya |
Source own scan from
... Category:Russian
Revival architecture
Category:Churches in
Ukraine Category ...
Chernigov. Ypothtoume that appeared in Karachaevo Karachoro or south of
the city Karachev. The hopes and old Cossack not specify properties of Ilya
but as bliny lgotan from birth to generation, added EX POST

ILYA MUROVETS….

From the city of Murom,

A tolmiros kalos youth.
He attended the Murom,
He wanted to be in the evening hours in the capital of Kiev.
(NB It is sensible to avoid going on the evening of kntrikis Murom Russia
but from somewhere nearby as the Murovak or Muroviak. Besides the horse
will not withstand such a way, it sounds reasonable)
This led to the famous city of Chernigov.
Near the city of Chernigov
A huge army was collected,
A huge army as black as a raven black.
Nobody walked past there on foot,
Nobody is in the past which led there in the good steed,
Neither bird nor black crow flew past
nor zoo in the past.
The Ilya led to this great army,
He attacked this great army,
which violated the track and bled with his spear, defeated this great army.
This led to the famous city of Chernigov,
The men came out of Chernigov
And opened its doors for the city of Chernigov,
Ilya invited to become commander in Chernigov.
But the Ilya these words are spoken:
"Hail to you, my men Chernigov!
It will become governor of Chernigov.
Point out to me the path is to go straight,
Straight traveled road to the capital Kiev. "
The men spoke of Chernigov:
"Hello resistant daring of our young
Famous Russian Holy bogatyr!
Traveled in a straight road full of fallen trees
The road is full of overgrown grass,
Together we traveled by road straight
where one has gone on foot,
where one has a good horse in the past pass.
The Swamp, the Black Swamp,
With this birch, birch than wrong,
The stream from Smorodina,
The cross, the Cross of Lebanon
Nightingale the robber sits in a damp oak trunk,
Sits Nightingale the robber, the son of Odikhmanty.
Nightingale whistles like a nightingale, *
Screams, evil thief, like a wild animal
And the nightingale whistle,
And the cry of a wild animal
All sank grass and meadows
All blue flowers lose their petals,
All dark woods bend down to earth,
And all the people there are dead.
straight road traveled is five hundred versts,
But the round-about way is a total of thousands. "

Assisted by mountain mountain

from hill to hill
had jumped into small streams and lakes.
This led to the stream Smorodina,
Until that swamp, so that the Black Swamp,
Until that birch, so that crooked birch,
By the cross, so that the famous (the birch) Lebanon
with a cross.
(NOTE Rhun resolutely cross your threshold Vikingks the territory they had
occupied the priochi)
Nightingale, whistled like a nightingale,
The robber, a villain, shouting like a wild animal
(NOTE Rhun slogans to voice imitating animal that someone entered the
area ost not understand the message)
So that entangled all the grasses and pastures,
The blue flowers have lost their petals,
asked the good of the track bogatyr,
That led along the straight-traveled road.
Bogatyr the good track
Jum dark forest bent down to earth.
Bogatyr of good horse tripped at around roots.
The old Cossack Ilya Muromets
He silky whip at a white hand
And beat the track of the possible side
and the Ilya spoke these words:
"You can become food for wolves and wild greens
You do not want to walk or can not move me?
Bitch it stumbles on some roots?
You have not heard the whistle of the nightingale?
We have heard the cry of a wild animal?
We felt the impact a bogatyr; "
Then the OLD Cossack Ilya Muromets
He took the bow of soft and stretched,
Caught in the hands of white string,
Extend the silk chord
zygiase the arrow
Then the shot at Nightingale the robber,
He hit in the right eye the Nightingale of the church,
(Note here the robber referred to as the Temple nightingale ie as belonging
to a battalion, was a Knight who had served in arpages who had seized the
priochi)

Nightingale dropped dead in a wet soil,

Connected to the right
you are using to the famous open field,
(He took the sovereignty of the region into their own hands by killing the
leader of Viking under the law)
He carried nest Nightingale of the past.
The nest of the Nightingale ...
He came to the famous capital of Kiev
And he went to great yard of the famous Prince.
Prince Vladimir had left the Church of God
He had gone to the white stone palace
The room in the hall ...
Prince Vladimir the dispute then the youth:
"Please tell me if you are from, stout good youth
What name would ask the youth
What do the father's honor youth, the courage? "
The old Cossack Ilya Muromets spoke:
"I'm from the famous city of Murom,
From the village of Karacharovo,
I am an old Cossack Ilya Muromets,
Ilya Muromets, son of Ivan! "
Vladimir spoke these words on:
"Hello old Kozakou Ilya Muromets,
He left Murom long
And which way did you walk in the capital of Kiev? "
The Ilya spoke these words:
"Hello our famous head Vladimir of Kiev!
Matins followed Christ in Murom
And I wanted to be on time for the evening
capital of Kiev.
Then my journey was delayed.
I drove along the straight-traveled road,
Along the straight-traveled path has led me in the past
city of Chernigov,
kalpasa past the swamp, past the Black Swamp,
Past that famous stream Smorodina,
Past that famous crooked birch,
Kalpasa past the famous Lebanese cross. "
Vladimir spoke these words on:
"Hello, my shepherdess territorial!
Villager, located in front of my eyes,
Spatial, to mock me before my eyes!
Since a large number of troops assembled
Near the famous city of Chernigov,
Nobody has walked past on foot,
And no one has ignored past a good track,
Not gray beast has scoured the past there
No bird, black crow has flown past.
The cross, the Cross of Lebanon
(He went as Ipotis Templars Battalion)
Sits Nightingale the robber, son of Odikhmanty.
When Nightingale whistles like a nightingale,
When the robber villain screams like a wild animal
Then sank all the grasses and pastures,
The blue flowers lose their petals,
All dark woods bend down to earth,
And all the people there are dead ... "
The Ilya spoke these words to him: "
Vladimir, Prince of Kiev!
The robber that even the nightingale is in your yard,
Right eye of the church has come out,
It is attached to a steel arrow ... "
Subsequently, Vladimir, Prince of Kiev
Getting stood up for nimble feet,
He threw his coat into a ferret shoulder
and tell he put his hat to one ear
He went to the yard
To see the robber. Nightingale
Prince Vladimir the floor and then these words:
"Whistled, nightingale, like a nightingale!
Dog screamed like a wild animal! "
Nightingale the robber, son of Odikhmanty then spoke:
"Prince, do not eat dinner with you today,
Not what I want to hear,
I ate dinner with old Kozakou Ilya Muromets,
I want to hear. "
Vladimir, Prince of the capital Kiev, spoke:
"Hello, old Kozakou Ilya Muromets!
To Nightingale as a nightingale whistle,
For him to scream like a wild animal. "
Nightingale then whistled like a nightingale,
The robber screamed like a wild animal
The domes of the palaces twisted,
It was shattered the windows in the palace
From the nightingale whistle,
And all the people there to die.
Vladimir, Prince of the capital Kiev,
I took cover under his coat.
Then the old Cossack Ilya Muromets
Quickly rose sole benefit of the track,
Nightingale took to the open field
And he cut off his head reckless.
Ilya spoke these words:
"You have enough to whistle like a nightingale,
You screamed quite like a wild animal
You have done enough fathers and mothers crying,
You have done enough young women are widows,
You have done enough young orphans. "
Since then a song of praise is sung in a nightmare
A song of praise is sung to him for ever after.
In the church of Murom, Ilya repeated vow to renounce violence until his
arrival in Kiev. Then rushed halfway to the destination of the track, suddenly
stopped and made a hole in the ground with the hoof.
Live. Water poured from a new source
The Ilya cut a cross from an oak tree growing from the street and planted in
soil next to the hole. The following words carved on the cross: «Ilya
Muromets, the son of a farmer and bogatyr of Holy Russia, passed this place.
Later a chapel was built to the same place and enriched animals with water
from the well
In three jumps, the stallion came Ilya Chernigov. Three Tsars besieging the
city. Despite the outrage of Ilya not resort to armed violence. However, he
felled a giant oak tree from the ground, much higher than that used to make
the cross, and the present and the horse, which trampled everything,
defeated the armies of three emperors. However, since there was a dungeon,
which is three Tsars free.
He found the inhabitants of the cathedral city of Chernigov preparing to die.
The young farmer bogatyr explained what had happened and that was free.
In gratitude Ilya asked to rule over the city, but he refused twice by the words:

"I am leader and I will not rest here. I'm speeding in Kiev to serve Vladimir."
Also refused the gold. The people of Chernigov was told that the shortest
route to Kiev had to chrisimopoiithei 30 years. There was much grass
between the stones
Three of the obstacles on the road made him perfectly impassable: Brynski of
the marshes, which sucked in every passerby The Nightingale the Robber
(Solovey Razboynik), who was waiting for the so-called cross in Levanidov
Smorodina for 30 years, all while hypocritically nightingale whistle as an
intolerable way, and finally of the seven old oaks, was impenetrable house of
the dragon, his wife, three daughters and six great young sons. However, llya
should not be discouraged, and went his way.
Thirty verst before Kiev, Muromets llya went to the marsh Brynski. Quickly
built a bridge over the swamp oak torn from the ground and approached
Smorodina, which sprang out of nowhere, where the cross stood Levanidov.
This is where the cross bogatyrs Vladimir was an oath to each other to be
brothers in spirit. A voice yelled: "Who is the bold person who dares to drive
past my nest;" llya picked some poppies and stop up his ears with them, so
he was able to be heard humming and whistling of Solovei
Speech did not fall down dead from the terrible din, like any other bogatyr
who had never taken the fight against this robber-nightingale. Instead he
urged the frightened horse to continue undeterred. To catch the eye this
miracle of strength, Solovei leaned too far from the nest. The Ilya forgot his
promise of peace and threw a dart in the right eye of the dragon, so he fell
from the nest. The hero seized him, tied the top, put him upside down on the
horse, and went to his house Solovei. This house was seven verst wide and
built on seven old oaks. Each pin of the barriers was carved-head of a knight.

Solovei wife, three daughters and six sons saw the group approaching.
The children thought their father was coming home with another victim, but
the mother could be seen more clearly. To save her husband, sent her
daughters to deal with the farmers to obtain, but in vain. Ilya mowed them
down and kicked them away. Solovei shouted: "Children, ask your mother to
give this magic farmer gifts and to conclude an agreement with him."
 His mother, Akulina Dudenchevna, then sent six sons to Ilya with all that
was stolen. However, they changed into ravens attacked and the hero. Then
Ilya with the whip of the defeated Finally, mother and daughters went to Ilya
themselves with magical gifts. However, he was uncompromising Solovei and
took him to Kiev. She made her family promise to stop robbing and killing.
When he came home to God, asked a priest for forgiveness for violating his
promise to renounce violence temporarily.
From Karacharov, Ilya Kiev reached a half hours, tied up his horse and the
giant Solovei a position in front of the royal stables, and entered the palace.
Was received by King Vladimir, the red sun, and when asked, he told him
who he was, where he came from and how he was bedridden and paralyzed
for 30 years but had recently been cured by three kaliki. Finally, he said he
had decided to serve Holy Russia in the name of Christ for the rest of his life,
not seeking any reward for it. He related how it had taken the shortest route
from Kiev Karacharov to offer the services of King ... Then, the increasingly
suspicious Alyosha Popovich tired of history and interrupted: "How did you
come here?" The court pointed out that the invincible Solovei Razboniek had
cut the shortcut to the north for 30 years. Ilya replied: "What does bogatyr this
is true. Or at least that was true, but I Solovei defeated and brought him here.
That is upside down on my horse. He was not invincible. "All bogatyrs went to
the stables. The robber crocowered. Vladimir Solovei challenged to
demonstrate the power of his voice terrible then and there. Solovei replied:"
No one other than me, this peasant won. I will listen only to him. "Ilya the
then commanded:" Solovei Razboniek, whistle, hiss, and roar with half your
strength. "However, Solovei demanded food and beverages for the first time.
After a huge meal, which whistled, hissed, and roared, but the despair of
everyone he did with all his strength. Ilija ordered him to stop, and when
continued to whistle,
immediately killed with an arrow. Vladimir Ilya and thanked him first bogatyr
Russia. The king had just finished speaking when his wife arrived
unexpectedly Solovei three daughters, six sons and carts full of stolen
valuables. Alyosha Popovich suggested that Vladimir accept the wish of the
family and to take all this wealth to ransom for the body of his father. Ilya
ignored proposal Alyosha, and his own authority ordered the family to turn
straight round with all the stolen goods: Dudenchevna, take the body of your
husband, to bury decently and bring up your children properly. The family
slunk away. Bogatyrs went back to the palace and made fun of Alyosha
Popovich misjudging the new bogatyr
As the central figure in the Russian epic tradition, Ilya Muromets is the
subject of more songs and has a more complete biography than any other
epic bogatyr .. Its presence dates from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
reveals that he was a hero from that moment in Kievan epic. Since the period
of the characteristics of Ilya Muromets as epic hero has undoubtedly
changed. For example, although often referred to as "old Cossack," The
folklorists say that this name appeared in the sixteenth and seventeenth
century. They also note that the adjective "old" does not mention the age but
 rather on the
experience and
seniority. The
importance of Ilya
Muromets Russian
culture is also
evidenced by the
Act, which were
considered relics of
the time be in a
monastery in Kiev
and appeared in
many stories
circulating in the
chapbooks in the
ninth and eighteenth
century. The song
"Muromets Ilya and
Nightingale the
Robber" has been
recorded 132 times and is one of the most popular Russian epics. Singers
can more accurately call it Bylina "The first trip Ilya Muromets", because in
this departure from the Karacharovo village near the city of Murom, performs
the first accomplishments, and for the first time come to Kiev, which is
accepted as bogatyr the court of Prince Vladimir.
The Bylina "Muromets Ilya and Nightingale the Robber" reflects a transition
in the Russian epic tradition, where mythological figures were mixed with
historical data. The glorification of the hero who defeated a monster could not
satisfy the artistic sense of the singers. As a result, a battle with a monster
was losing heroic action, and only one person who fought a real historical
adversary could be bogatyr. Thus, the mythological Nightingale acquire some
human characteristics and a Turkish father the hostile force GIOUGKOUR
TURKISH. Unfortunately for executives of NEW ORDER is the Greek middle
of an element derived from fact that HRT is impossible NE tested is what is
called in Greek pride and not yparchzei in any other languages on the world
the concept. Otanv see someone in need, regardless if it has more of just 10
UAH will provide all of the fellow man because of the need prissotro. As for
him not worry. Funds may all be signs of God but the Greeks are always full,
and that may have to offer in the time. This t is the difference with our
hideous birth
Brief Biography of St. Filaretou Humilevsky of Chernigov Finally, one of the
great Orthodox Fathers and teachers living in the 19th century was a glorified
saint, Filaretou (Humilevsky), archbishop of Chernihiv (feastday which will be
Aug. 22). St Filaretou belonged to the "group of three Holy Philarets" of that
era which included San Filaretou Metropolitan Bishop of Kiev and St.
Filaretou Moscow. Dmitry Hrihorievich Humilevsky Born in 1805 as the son of
a priest, took his surname (in fact, real name the family was "Konobeiv") in
theseminary as a pun on the word "humility" because of short stature and
unassuming nature. Having completed his studies seminar on the greatest
scientific accolades, he was tonsured as a monk "Filaretou" and appointed
Theology and Professor of History. In 1848, San Filaretou moved to Kharkiv
in Ukraine and was dedicated in 1857 as Archbishop and assigned to
Chernihiv where he continued to upgrade its theological and cultural
education and development of the flock. Chernihiv was the that the Holy
Hierarch Filaretou produced the
Orthodox Dogmatic Theology
and the History of the Church of
Rus', and a volume on the
literature. A great practitioner of
the prayer of Jesus and reader
of the Bible, St Filaretou was a
hermit in the best traditions of
Orthodox spirituality Fathers.
Great devotion to study earned
him respect both religious and
secular scholars of his time. And
it came a new name, a very
natural. shocking spirituality and
humility can be seen in the eyes of the images from that survived. covered
the robes of high office of the archbishop with a cross and Virgin hanging
from the shoulders, with many books and papers in his hands, the heart of
San Filaretou-piercing "piety made a great impression on the spiritual flock
across Eastern Europe. No wonder tens of thousands of investment in roads
and streets to pay their last respects to the great pastor during the funeral
and to begin the local veneration, which continues today, culminating in the
official glorification of it as a hierarch -Saint of our Church for October 25,
2009!
2000 - 2012 years
Even the simra Chernigiv still surprises us with hidden secrets of time. This
town m the positive breeze for some invisible is very important to froureiktai
always very good and we should not show. Finding files found in the state
that

In this one the country say the Ukraine, the huge granary of Russia recently
lost never accepted
in priochi of Chernigov, and as you can see next photo, the last Battalions of
the Greek Byzantine army company based.
They stayed there for a long time inactive and slowly converted into

Very properly, KOZAKIKI

Guard exists as simra
 Here we see a
symbol of
Chernigov, who is
none other than the
Greek Ourovoro,
the snake eating its
own tail, symbol of
ancient alchemical,
transformation of
materials from one
form to another. Do
the monks of St.
Antonyi the deep
galleries dedicated
to the forbidden
alchemy looking to
find the
philosopher's stone,
the stone which mtaschimatizei any substance into gold;
Found the gold offered to Ilya Mourovets;
Who knows since the ancient gold mines
near Chernigiv?
What grabbed the gold of the monks even the bandits of the Templars
Region;
That have been hidden until now;

Some of the questions to be answered mnoun today

I close the book with a few paragraphs from dusty manuscripts found in wet
basements monasteries of Athos
"You be the smaller kytara the universal organization
You live on in Gaia is a living organism and is
It consists of your material body or cold light as I say and spirit of God
He at least maintain your body health, not creating problems within the
organization that exists
Your spirit is composed of equal amounts of positive and negative energy
The environment of interaction - criticism is permitted depending on the
circumstances occur or more one or the other.
Whatever you do on the impartial Law of equilibrium of the universe returns
back to you multiplied by 3. Law of L.
Everything is impossibly and receive everything you just have to wills and to
really believe in your thoughts this
The reality is that your eyes see, they return through the optical nerve
erthisma stonv brain who based the program has draw up a response and
ATTACHES shapes and images
The senses are only 5. Five are only active at the moment senses with the
merger and other activated
Stress concentration and dispels leads to ever mgalyteri kytaron and
oxidation of the end in what is called death
The second development is fikti in peace, gentleness, love and kindness.
The universe is not a lot but each m diaforetiks properties
There kypsloeidi in formation like a blister, and We have the opportunity to
travel through these from
one to another
It has crystalline structure
and we in the energy,
photons, to taxidyoum the
less crystalline structure to
apiroelachisto KOKO dust to
the largest, the entire planet,
like photons through
frequency. This is what is
meant by Thos are
everywhere.
In the beginning was why,
that sound - frequency
Moving photons, Réunion, in
the mtafroun skeptonia
which t is the minimum
amount of information stored
If God has diseases and is
the man, otherwise it is
invulnerable.
The structure of the human
body is triple the material,
the energy recorded by
Kirlian photography and
emotional considerations.
These run throughout the
body and give directions to the institutions to function poorly or hyper. It
katalavenetai that chemical medicines do not pose cure, OUT
mtamoschefseis the new institutions, OUT implants, since our thoughts at
any time to burn. But if it was possible to control the thoughts we would have
control over the damage that would xostrakizame death. It wants and El
Samael, the devil, but vice versa;

ANCIENT GOLDMINES streets of gold and VIKINGKS!

Let us take a short stroll from North Africa to the northern Ukraine to see the
streets of gold in the world and realize why the Anounaki Nfelim applied the
patent of gold in the world and seeded with the existing economic system of
the gold rush everywhere, it lays gold as a "valuable" goods and could also
introduce the iron. Do not tell me that the iron is in larger quantities. And the
gold is in a smaller one has the right to lay down the system to mint gold
sovereigns freely as the serve, others are obscure reasons which lie behind
the construction of golden masks loaded with the energy of their souls until
the NIBIRU reintroduced the spacecraft to go back to their homeland, but
these are very small print. Enjoy my friends to pripeteia gold Let's start from
my friends

AFRICA
They are always there. People noticed before. But nobody could remember
who they are - and why? Until recently, nobody even knew how many were
there. Now is everywhere - thousands - no, hundreds of thousands of them!
And history will say is the most important history of mankind. But is that may
not be willing to listen.
This surprising discovery in an area of South Africa, about 150 miles inland,
west of the port of Maputo. It is the remains of a huge metropolis that
measures, conservative estimates, about 1,500 square miles. It is part of an
even larger community that is about 10,000 sq km and appears to have been
constructed - ready - from 160,000 to 200,000 BC! The image is a direct
experience of just a few hundred meters from the landscape taken from
google-earth. The area is fairly remote and the "circles" are often
encountered by farmers who allegedly made by some indigenous peoples in
the past. But, oddly, no one bothered to ask about who could have made
them or how old they were. That changed when a researcher and writer,
Michael Tellinger, collaborated with Mr. Johan Heine, a local fireman and
pilot who had examined these ruins from years of flying over the area. Heine
had the unique advantage to see the number and size of those strange stone
foundations and were aware that their importance was not appreciated.
"When Johan I was first introduced to the ancient stone ruins of southern
Africa, I had no idea of the incredible discoveries that would make the one or
two years that followed. The photographs, artwork and the evidence we have
accumulated points undoubtedly a lost and never-before-seen culture before
all others - not only from a few hundred years or a few thousand years ... but
many thousands of years. These findings are so striking that it should be
easily digested from the main historical and archaeological fraternity, as we
have already experienced. It will require a complete paradigm shift in how we
see human history. "--
The area is important for an impressive thing - gold. "The thousands of
ancient gold mines were discovered in the last 500 years, leading to a
vanished civilization that lived and dug for gold in this part of the world for
thousands of years," says Tellinger. "And if this is actually the cradle of
humanity, we can look at the activities of the oldest civilization on Earth. "
To see the number and scope of these ruins, I propose to use the Google-
earth to begin with the following coordinates:
Carolina - 25 55 '53, 28 "S / 30 16 '13,13" E
Badplaas - 25 47 '33, 45 "S / 30 40 '38,76" E
Waterval - 25 38 '07, 82 "S / 30 21 '18,79" E
Machadodorp - 25 39 '22, 42 "S / 30 17 '03,25" E

Then do a little research flying within the area formed by the rectangle.
Simply Amazing! That some of us laugh is obvious. That story is counterfeit,
and this story is obvious
Is gold plays a role in the dense population that once lived here?
The site is only about 150 miles from an excellent harbor where maritime
trade could help support such a large population. But remember - we are
talking about almost 200,000 years ago!
The individual remains consist mainly of stone circles. Most have been buried
in the sand and are perceived only through satellite or aircraft. Some have
been exhibited in climate change has blown the sand away, exposing the
walls and foundations. "I see myself as a fairly open minded chap, but I must
confess that I took over a year for the pen to fall, and for me to realize that we
are actually dealing with the oldest structures ever built by humans on Earth .
The main reason for this is that we have been taught that nothing is important
than ever from South Africa. that strong cultures all occurred in Sumeria and
Egypt and elsewhere. We are told that to solve the Bantu people from the
north, which is supposed to have begun sometime in the 12th century, it was
part of the world full of collectors, hunters and so-called Bushmen, who made
no significant contributions to technology and culture. "
The area is important for an impressive thing - gold. "The thousands of
ancient gold mines were discovered in the last 500 years, leading to a
vanished civilization that lived and dug for gold in this part of the world for
thousands of years and if this is actually the cradle of humanity, we can look
at the activities of the oldest civilization on Earth. "
Is gold plays a role in the dense population that once lived here? The site is
only about 150 miles from an excellent harbor where maritime trade could
help support such a large population. But remember - we are talking about
almost 200,000 years ago!
"I see myself as a fairly open minded chap, but I must confess that I took
over a year for the pen to fall, and for me to realize that we are actually
dealing with the oldest structures ever built by humans on Earth .
The main reason for this is that we have been taught that nothing is important
than ever from South Africa. That strong cultures all occurred in Sumeria and
Egypt and elsewhere. We are told that to solve the Bantu people from the
north, which is supposed to have begun sometime in 12th AD century, it was
part of the world full of collectors, hunters and so-called Bushmen, who made
no significant contributions to technology and culture. "- Tellinger
When explorers who first encountered these ruins, allegedly was carried out
by cattle corals nomadic tribes such as the Bantu people, and moved south
and settled the earth around the 13th century. There was no previous record
high culture of all ages can build such densly populated community. Little
effort was made to explore the area because the scope of the remains were
not well known.
Over the past 20 years, people like Cyril Hromnik, Richard Wade, Johan
Heine and a handful of others have discovered that these stone structures is
that it seems to be. In fact, they now believed the ruins of ancient temples
and astronomical observatories of lost ancient civilizations stretching back
thousands of years.
These circular ruins spread over a vast area. They can only really be
appreciated by air or via modern satellite images. Many of them have almost
completely eroded or covered by the movement of soil from agriculture and
weather. Some have survived well enough to reveal a large size [see above]
with some original walls standing almost 5 meters high and over a meter wide
in places.
Looking at the entire metropolis, it is clear that this was a well-planned
community developed by a highly evolved civilization. The number of ancient
gold mines suggests the reason for the community to be in this position. We
believe that the road network - some extending one hundred miles - is that
the community and terraced agriculture, closely resembling those found in
Inca settlements in Peru.
But a question begs for an answer - how could this be achieved by humans
200,000 years ago?
Having examined the remains, researchers are anxious to place the lost
civilization in a historical perspective. The rocks were covered with a patina
that seemed very old, but there was insufficient evidence for carbon-14
dating. It was then that a chance discovery revealed the age of the site, and
sent a chill down the spine of archaeologists and historians!
Finding the remains of a great community, with as many as 200,000 people
who live and work together, was a breakthrough in itself. But dating the site
was a problem. Heavy patina on the rock walls proposed structures were
very old, but the science of dating patina is just growing and continues to be
controversial. Carbon-14 dating of things such as waste wood introduces the
possibility that samples could be the recent grass fires are common in the
region.
"Johan Heine discovered Diary of Adam, in 2003, quite an accident. It was
the path to find one of the pilots who crashed his plane on the edge of the
cliff. Next to the crash site Johan noticed a very strange arrangement of large
stones sticking out soil. While rescuing the injured pilot from about 20 meters
down the side of the cliff, Johan walked over to the monoliths and
immediately realized that it was connected to the cardinal points of the earth -
north, south, east and west. There was at least 3 monoliths align with the
sunrise, and on the west side of concerted monoliths was a mysterious hole
in the ground - something was missing.
After weeks and months of measurements and observations, Johan
concluded that it was perfectly in line with the rise and fall of the Sun. This
indicates the Solstices and equinoxes. But the mysterious hole in the ground
remained a great puzzle. One day, while contemplating the reason for the
hole, the local horse track expert, Chris, came from riding. Johan quickly
explained that there was an odd shaped stone that was removed from the
point long ago. Obviously it would be somewhere near the entrance of the
reserve status.
After extensive research, Johan found the anthropomorphic (humanoid form)
stone. It was intact and proudly placed on a plate stuck in it. It was used by
the Blue Swallow Foundation to celebrate the start of the Blue Swallow
Reserve in 1994. The irony is that had removed the most important
archaeological site found so far and mysteriously returned to the reserve - for
slightly different reasons.
The exact location of the log is listed www.makomati.com. The first
calculations of the time of the log were made based on the rise of Orion, a
constellation known for three bright stars, which are the "zone" of the
legendary hunter.
The Earth wobbles on its axis so the stars and constellations change angle
by presenting them in the night sky on a cyclical basis. This rotation, called
precession completes a cycle approximately every 26,000 years. By
determining when they had placed three stars of Orion area level (horizontal)
on the horizon, we can estimate when the three stones on the calendar was
in line with the visible stars.
The first rough calculation was at least 25,000 years ago. However, new and
more precise measurements continued to increase with age. The next
calculation was presented by archaeoastronomer master who wishes to
remain anonymous for fear of ridicule from the academic fraternity.
Calculation was based also on the rise of Orion and suggested an age of at
least 75,000 years. The most recent and most acurate calculation, which was
signed in June 2009, suggests an age of at least 160,000 years, based on
increased Orion - flat on the horizon - and the erosion of dolerite stones
found in the region.
Some pieces of stone marker had stopped and sat on the ground, exposed to
natural erosion. When you put the pieces back together about 3 cm of stone
had been worn away. These calculations helped assess the age of the site by
calculating the rate of erosion of dolerite.
Who did the metropolis? Why?
It seems that people have always valued the gold. Reported even in the
Bible, describing the Garden of Eden our rivers:
Genesis 2:11 - The name of the first [river] is Pishon? Flowing around the
entire area Havilah, where there is gold.
South Africa is known as the largest gold producing country in the world. The
largest gold producing region in the world is Witwatersrand, the same area in
which the ancient metropolis. In fact around Johannesburg, one of the most
famous cities of South Africa, also known as "Egoli" means the city of gold.
It seems very likely that the ancient metropolis, because of its proximity to the
largest supply of gold in the world. But why would ancient people work so
hard to be a gold mine? You can not eat it. It is very common to use the tool-
making. It is really useful for anything other than jewelry and natural beauty
are the same as other metals such as copper or silver. Just because gold
was so important to early homo sapiens;
To investigate the response should look at the period of history in question -
from 160,000 to 200,000 years ago - And learn what was happening on the
planet.
What were people like 160,000 years ago?
Homo sapiens, can trace their ancestors back in time to a point where our
species evolved from other, more primitive, apes. Scientists do not
understand why this new type of man suddenly appeared, or how the change
happened, but we can find the genes behind us a woman known as "Eve".
Mitochondrial Eve (mt-mrca) [: Right tradition of an artist] is the name given
by researchers for the woman who is defined as the matrilineal most recent
common ancestor (MRCA) for all people living today. Passed down from
mother to offspring, all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to any person living from
this one female person. Mitochondrial Eve is the female counterpart of Y-
chromosome Adam, the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, although
they lived at different times.
Mitochondrial Eve is believed to have lived between 150,000 έως 250,000
years BP, probably in East Africa in Tanzania and areas to the immediate
south and west. Scientists speculate that living in a population between 4000
to 5000 perhaps women can produce offspring at a time. If other females had
offspring in the evolutionary changes in their DNA, we have no record of
survival. It seems that we are all descendants of this man a female.
Mitochondrial Eve would be approximately contemporary with people whose
fossils have been found in Ethiopia, near the Omo River in Hertho.
Mitochondrial Eve lived long before the migration from Africa that could
happen around 60,000 to 95,000 years ago.
The region in Africa where one can find the largest amount of mitochondrial
diversity (green) and anthropologists postulated around the oldest part of the
human population began to appear (light brown). The ancient metropolis of
which are in the latter (brown), an area which also corresponds to the
estimated age when genetic changes suddenly happened.
Could this be coincidence?
Ancient Sumerian story describes the ancient metropolis and its inhabitants!
To be honest with you. This next part of the story is difficult to write. It is so
shocking that the average person would not want to believe. If you're like me,
you'll want to give yourself an investigation, then some time for facts to settle
in your mind.
We are often believe that the Egyptians - the Pharoahs and Pyramids - if we
know the story begins. The oldest dynasties going back about 3200 years
from now. This is a long time. But the Sumerian civilization in what is now
Iraq, are very large. Furthermore, we have translated many of the tablets of
history, written in cuneiform in previous scenarios so we know a lot about the
history and legends.
The stamp image depicts the myth of the "great flood" consumed humankind.
Many Sumerian myths is remarkably similar to Genesis. Like Genesis, the
Sumerian legend, Atrahasis, tells the story of the creation of modern humans
- not from love of God - but by beings from another planet needs "slave
workers" to help them gold mine of extra-planetary mission!
I was warned that it is hard to believe, but please continue.
Who did the metropolis? Why?
This history, Atrahasis, from an early version of Babylon about 1700 BC, but
certainly dating back to Sumerian times. It combines the familiar patterns of
Sumerian creation of humanity and the subsequent flooding - as Genesis.
The story begins with the "gods" - creatures from a planet called Nibiru -
digging ditches and gold mining in the expeditionary group. Modern humans
(Homo sapiens) did not exist; Only primitive hominids lived on Earth. There
were two groups of "gods", the category of workers and the ruling class (ie
officers). The gods worker had set up the infrastructure and toiled in the
mines of gold and, after a thousand years, the project was apparently too
much for them.
The gods had to dig the canals had to clear channels, the lifelines of the land,
the gods dug from the river Tigris
And then opened the Euphrates. - (Dalley 9, Atrahasis) After 3600 years of
this work, the gods finally started to complain. They decide to go on strike,
burning tools, and around the main god "house of Enlil" (the church). Vizier of
Enlil, Nusku, Enlil get out of bed and to the entries in the angry mob outside.
Enlil feared. (His face is described as "pale as tamarisk.") The vizier Nusku
advises Enlil invite the other great gods, especially Anu (sky-god) and Enki
(the smart god of fresh water). Anu Enlil advise to ascertain who is the leader
of the uprising. Nusku send out to ask the mob of gods who is their leader.
The crowd replies, "Every one of us gods has declared war!" (Dalley 12,
Atrahasis).
Since the upper-class gods now see that the work of the lower-class gods
"were too hard," decided to sacrifice one of the rebels for the good of all. It
will take a god, kill, and make mankind by mixing their flesh and blood of the
god with clay:
Belit-ili the womb-goddess is present, leave the womb-goddess create
offspring,
And let man bear the load of the gods! (Dalley 14-15, Atrahasis)
After Enki instructs the purification rituals in the first, seventh and fifteenth of
each month, the gods slaughter Geshtu-e, "a god who had intelligence" (the
name means "ear" or "wisdom") and a humanity from the blood and some
clay. After the birth of the goddess mixes the clay, the whole troop of gods
and spit in it. Continue Enki and the womb-goddess to the clay into "the room
of doom" where the matrix - goddesses had assembled.
He [Enki] trod the presence of clay;
He had recited a spell, For Enki, staying in the presence, made her recite.
When she had finished the spell, has pinched fourteen pieces of clay, And
set seven pieces on the right, seven left. Among them put down a mud brick.
(Dalley 16, Atrahasis) The creation of man seem to be described as a kind of
cloning and what we now consider in vitro fertilization. The result was a
hybrid or "evolved human" enhanced intellect which could take the physical
functions of the gods and workers also take care of the needs of all the gods.
We are told in other versions that came the campaign and the gold mined in
large amounts and sent from the planet. The community in South Africa
called «Abzu" and was the prime location of mining activities.
As these events appear to coincide with the dates "mitochondrial Eve» (ie
150.000 έως 250.000 BP) and seems to be the richest gold mining in the
world (Abzu), some researchers think that the Sumerian myths may, in fact,
should be based on historical facts.
According to the texts themselves, after the mining ended, it was decided that
the human population should be lost in a flood that was made by atronomer
the "gods". Obviously, the circular passage of the gods home planet, Nibiru,
was to be close enough to Earth's orbit that gravity will cause the oceans to
rise and flood the soil, thereby ending the hybrid species - homo sapiens .
According to history, one of the "gods" had a particular fondness for human,
Zuisudra, and warned him to build a boat to ride the flood. This eventually
became the basis for the story of Noah in the Book of Genesis.
Is this really happening? The only other explanation is to imagine that the
Sumerian legends, recognizing the life on other planets and human cloning,
was an extraordinary science fiction. This alone would be amazing. But now
we have proof that the city of mines, Abzu, is real and that there were at the
same time as the sudden evolution of hominids to homo sapiens.
PTYOS ISLANDS EGYPT = = What took the Aegean Sea. What Is; The SSR
Atlantes the submergence of Atlantis which was the center of the Aegean
Sea current; Maybe.
The Egyptian had a lot of gold quarries often near the River Nile. Metal and
precious stones, on the other hand found mainly in the desert, where living
conditions were difficult and often precarious security situation [6].
The work in the mines were so often seasonal. Harurre, treasurer of the
god and master of the double cabinet has Maghara summer, according to his
words, is not the time for going to this landmines
That the treasurer of God says to officials who come to this land mine during
the season: "Let us not flinch our faces on that account; Here Hathor will turn
it into profit. I looked at myself, and I was involved (ie fought) with myself;
where I came from Egypt, my face flinched, and it was difficult for me [........].
The highlands are warm in summer, and mountains that mark the skin [. ..].
When dawns the morning, a man is [... ...]. addressed the workers on the
"How fortunate is he who is in this Mine-land!" They said: "There is malachite
this eternal mountain; [...] It is to ask (a) in this season. [...] [...] It is a bad
thing for this summer-season. ""
From the inscription of Harurre (Middle Kingdom)
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part One, § 736
After leaving Maghara began to exploit the mines in Serabit el Khadim
about fifteen miles away. Harurre, at least, he thought his campaign was
successful and prided itself to address workforce
.... The leadership of the army I was kind, and could not-expressed to the
workers. I acted before all the army and recruits, and rejoiced in me ... official
........
From the inscription of Harurre (Middle Kingdom)
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part One, § 738
Even early on, but less frequently than in later years, the miners were
apparently under Ptahhotep slaves --
Good words are harder to find than the emerald, for it is by slaves who
discovered it among the rocks of pegmatite.
Since the requirements of Ptah-hotep, 5th Dynasty
- Convicted criminals and prisoners of war, according to Diodorus Siculus, as
few people prefer to work under often appalling conditions in the mining
areas of Sinai and the deserts of Egypt.

Production quotas set by the officials, who, like the treasurer of the god
Amenemhet, sent by the government to Serabit el Khadim
Serabit el Khadim as shown by Western
Source: Rafael Giveon, The Stones of Sinai Speak
I came to mine the Ka (apparently the supervisor of mine); I exacted the
impost, watched the recovery of malachite impost to [...] [each] 5 men each
day right [.. . ... ...].
From the inscription of Amenemhet (Middle Kingdom)
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part One, § 731
Wherever possible, overland routes to the mining areas were avoided.
Donkey caravans were slow, difficult to supply with provisions, and should be
accompanied by a marked slowdown forces for protection against marauding
Bedouin. Harnakht, official treasury of Amenemhet III, the ships used on his
way to Wadi Maghara in south-west of the Sinai peninsula.
Year 2 under the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nematre
(Amenemhet III), living forever. The chosen before his subjects, who treads
the path of the benefactor, (saying): 'I went over the sea, flying luxuries, from
the Committee of Horus, lord of the palace (Pharaoh). "
Official Fund, Chief Fowler, Harnakht? Beautiful name, Harnetamehu.
The legend of Harnakht (about 1843 BC)
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part One, § 718
Plan of the church in Serabit el Khadim
Source: Rafael Giveon, The Stones of Sinai Speak
The goodwill of the gods was important to the Egyptians, who are often built
temples around the mines. They are sanctuaries of Hathor, the great
patroness of miners, found at Timna in the Negev, the desert of Sinai in
Serabit el Khadim, and other places. Ameni, who led a small expedition of
about thirty men in Wadi Maghara 42nd year of the reign of Amenemhet III
left a legend
....
The treasurer, assistant treasurer of the head, Sesostris - seneb-Sebekkhi,
the beloved Hathor, mistress of malachite country, Soped, lord of the east of
Snefru, lord of the highlands, and the gods and goddesses who are on this
earth . There were about Hathor, all the nice (mine) chambers.
...
From the inscription of Ameni (about 1803 BC)
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part One, § 722f
and Sebek-Hir-hab brought about (ie the Hathor), supply-mesnet tables of
stone, linen ...... and presented to the divine offerings, bulls of [hens] .......
despite the obvious difficulties in transporting live animals to these remote
and arid areas. However, these provisions were apparently not great. An
inscription of monthly supplies to a mine includes 23 large and small cattle, 2
WAD-hens, 30 mnj.t-geese [11] Water was difficult to find. Pharaoh Seti I was
well dug at the foot of the mountain range Bekhen to solve the problem of
water in Wadi Hammamat
God fulfilled my desire. For me, the water broke out of the mountain. The
path was hard for everyone since the gods are now soft and easy in the era
of my reign.
Some villages do not appear to have no local water supply completely, and
water had to be transferred from brackish wells often several kilometers away
[1].
Copper
Copper is probably the first metal to work in Egypt during the Neolithic (6th
millennium BC). Found in ores containing 10 to 12% of copper, which had to
be smelted. Crucibles found at the mine indicate that the art of extracting the
metal included some refining. In the beginning was to work cold and the
necessary heat could not be reached to melt and cast the droplets of copper
produced.
Valley Maghara region was conquered by Djoser and exploitation of the
ore appears to have begun during the third dynasty, though some experts
claim there was never enough copper there to be exploited. There are traces
of copper working in Buhen dating from the 4th and 5th Dynasties. The ore in
the Eastern Desert was given to Egypt during the Middle Kingdom.
The copper mines in the desert of Sinai was the target of the first major
Egyptian incursions abroad and a major reason for the imperial expansion in
South Canaan later. From the 18th dynasty of Egypt controlled this remote
region, thus breaking the monopoly of the city of Arad brought in from local
copper.
Copper was mined generally in terrible conditions. The miners were less
fortunate prisoners from the wars of Egypt, extending enslaved and worked
to death in the mines in western Sinai, Timna and other locations in the
Arabah valley, stretching from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea.
A heap in the desert of Sinai has been estimated to contain 100,000
tonnes of slag, which would mean a yield of about 5,500 tons of copper. The
amount of copper the Egyptians produced annually was about four tonnes of
Firefox during the Bronze Age. This amount is very small compared to the 17
tonnes exported in the eastern Alps during the same period. Therefore,
significant amounts of copper had to be imported from Syria, Cyprus and
other countries in the region. Tin, an essential ingredient for the bronze, was
mined in Egypt and had to be imported from Syria.

Iron
The existing iron ore, were used in ancient Egypt until the Late Period, but
the metal was found at times in dramatic form and available for use from the
4th millennium BC. The Egyptians called biat or bia-n-pet (bjA-np.t), ore
concept of heaven (which seems to support the knowledge about the
composition of celestial bodies that ancient Egyptians could not have) or the
name may from BIA mining area in the eastern desert.
Gold
The Ministry of Finance in Medinet Habu is show eight bags, each bearing
an inscription:
1. Gold of Kush
2. Gold, 1000 deben
3. Gold mountain
4. Gold Water, 1000 deben
5. Gold Edfu
6. Gold of Ombos, 1000 deben
7. Gold Coptos
8. Blue Tefrer [10]
James Henry Breasted Ancient records of Egypt, Part Four, § 30
Gold was one of the first metal to be exploited. The gold of the mountains,
like the scribes of Ramses asked, found mainly in the eastern desert and
Nubia
The subjugation of Nubia
Now in the regions above the Elephantine there dwell Ethiopians next largest,
occupying half of the island, and Egyptians the other half.
Herodotus' Histories Part 2
Historically, the Egyptians considered the first waterfall which is the natural
southern border of their country; But the first time they made raids into Nubia
and the Nubians raided northern neighbors. The Palermo Stone records the
smiting of Troglodytes [1] as the main event during the reign of the coupling
of the first dynasty.
The Old Kingdom
About three centuries after the first recorded major meeting between the
Egyptians and Nubians Snofru recorded as
Hacking up the land of Negro.
Bringing 7,000 prisoners live, and 200,000 large and small animals.
Palermo Stone
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 146
The same year he had built 100-dewatowe forearm vessels of wood and 60
sixteen Meru barges would be used for the raid against the Nubians.
By the sixth dynasty King Merenre seems to have achieved more peaceful
relations with the northern Nubian tribes, who at least understood as a
subordinate in his own words that makes them smell the earth translated
here as does obedience
The next king himself, standing behind the hill country and the leaders of
Madzoi, Irthet, and Wawat, did obeisance and gave great praise.
North inscription to the first waterfall
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 317
During the same period Weni, the second expedition to the quarries of
southern excavated five channels and built seven boats, which the leaders of
Irtjet, Wawat, Yam and Medjay provided timber. Later, in a campaign against
Asian-sand inhabitants, which include the army of Nubians
Tomb of Harkhuf at Assuan
© Oriental Institute, University of Chicago [7]
As the caravan-conductor, Harkhuf took four journeys of exploration to Nubia,
during which he "pacified" by some indigenous tribes, and returned with
"gifts" in great quantity.
Pepi II Pepi sent-nakht, who bore the title of Commander of foreign twice in
Nubia, to subdue and Wawat Irtjet. After slaughtering a large number of
people who looted the country and brought the spoils, consisting mainly of
animals back to Egypt. He also took the two leaders and their children
prisoner and led them down-river in captivity.
Most meetings with the Nubians were probably peaceful and therefore
moderate. But when he died Mekhu leads campaign, his son Sebni set to
retrieve his body to embalm and bury it, carrying with him ointment, honey,
clothing, oil and other gifts for the locals. He returned carrying his father's
corpse and precious wares:
I came to Wawat Uthek and I [sent] the royal Iry escort two members of my
property as [...], bearing incense, clothing, ........, 3 cubits long, a tusk in order
to provide information [my best] was 6 cubits long; a [hide], and that it had
brought my father and all the gifts from these countries.
Signs Sebni
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 369
First Intermediate Period
lived between the first and second cataract, seems to have a closer
relationship with their northern neighbors from the other Lower Nubian tribes
and began serving the Egyptians as mercenaries.
The Egyptian foreign regained caution with the reunification and peace of
the country strong by Mentuhotep I (c. 2066-2040 BC). One relief shows as
the Son of Hathor, Mistress of Denderah, Mentuhotep smiting four enemies,
one of which comes from the Nubians. The tours in Lower Nubia referred to
relieve the treasurer Mentuhotep B 'Kheti near Assuan
Year 41, according to (the majesty of) Nibkhrure, the user came the royal
seal, sole companion, head cashier, Kheti, born of Sitre, triumphant; All ships
Wawat [... ... ... ...]. Edge Kheti, reign of Mentuhotep II (c. 2040-2010 BC)
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 426 Middle
Kingdom: the subjugation of Amenemhet I (1991-1962 approx) renewed
Egyptian intervention in the construction a trading post at Kerma and his
successor Senusret I (c. 1962-1917) conquered Lower Nubia, the
establishment of the rule by building fortresses along the Nile. Great
importance is the one in Buhen.
The Wawat, under a rock carving in Korosko conquered in the 29th year of
the reign of Amenemhet I. This inscription gives credence to the claim
Amenemhet the teachings that had seized the people of Wawat and had
seized the people of Mazoi.
Senusret I subdued the tribes of Kas, Shemyk, Khesaa, Shat, Akherkin
and others in the 18th year of his reign. Ameni, a prince of Beni Hasan,
recorded in the 43rd year of Senusret two incursions into Nubia had
participated in, the end of the first was apparently the conquest of Lower
Nubia.
I followed my lord, when he came up the river to overthrow his enemies in
the four foreign lands. ........... I passed through Ethiopia to the south sailing.
Remove the boundary. I brought the tribute of my lord, praise came in the
sky. During the first interim period the Egyptians were busy fighting among
themselves, and their participation in Nubia fell. The Medjay greatness that
arose, and went in peace. Overthrew his enemies in Kush. After greatness,
came back, sharp face, and not losing my soldiers
From the inscription of Ameni WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part I, p.
166 The tribes must have been cowed enough by then, seeing that the
Egyptians did not lose any of their soldiers. Subsequent Ameni campaign
with a small force of 400 men was very successful. He returned with the
required amount of gold and all the troops returned safely, having suffered no
loss.
The methods the Egyptians used were often based on the threat and
naked power. Assistant Treasurer Amenemhet B ', Sihathor, recorded with
pride that forced the leaders to wash the gold went to overthrow the fear of
the Lord of both Lands and will be the (Abu Simbel) region, brought away its
products.

Kumma
© Oriental Institute, University of Chicago [7] Senusret III had excavated a
channel through the first waterfall that allowed him to move large river forces
quickly. The pushed back across the border from the second waterfall and
built the fortresses of Semna kumma and towards the banks of the Nile. The
regions of Nubia under this section, attached, but never became part of Egypt
proper. The natives, traders and farmers, not beyond Heh (Semna), do not
walk either by ferry, although negotiations with encouraged.
The sixteenth year, month Phamenoth, to greatness, the southern
boundary at Heh. I made my southern limit of .......... my father from Stela
Semna of Senusret III
WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part One, p. 188 The Egyptians
always expressed low opinions were defeated by their enemies with some
reluctance, the Nubians were the exception not brave men are miserable, two
tails and bodies [2 ]; Greatness, I saw myself, not a myth
From Stela Semna of Senusret III WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part
I, p.189 But these "miserable» Nubians remained restless, revolutions have
quelled magazines and the Kingdom of Kush south was often perceived as a
threat. The path of Aamu due to open in the second year of the reign of
Amenemhet III; And major powers have developed over time. To suppress
the rebellion in 19th year, the king left crowds of soldiers, even two thousand.
Still, the Egyptians were installed [11]. Signs of the Nubia became more
frequent, their native neighbors many of their customs, and began to exploit
its geographical position Semna to receive advanced warnings of the Nile
Second Intermediate Period
Kush came ... had stir up the tribes of Wawat, the [islands;] of Khenthennefer,
the land of Punt and Medjaw inscription on his grave Sobeknakht, 17th
dynasty
Hidden Vivian Davies Sobeknakht treasures [8] <These movements were
offset by Sobeknakht who, after raising an army, defeated Kushites.
The New Kingdom: Integration When the evidence becomes more plentiful
again, demonstrates Nubia have agitated as ever. Ahmose, son of Ebana,
fought successfully to Khenthennofer under Ahmose I (1570-1546), and a
few years later accompanied King Djeserkare [4], the justified, when sailed
south to Kush, to enlarge the borders of Egypt. In the early reign of the New
Kingdom seems to exist a special title for the chief administrator of Wawat,
the lower part of Nubia, which was quite stable in Egyptian hands and had
largely been Egyptianized.
I spent many years as mayor of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). I brought the
tribute of the Lord of the Two Lands; I was praised and found no chance
against me.
I reach old age in Wawat, is a favorite of my boss. I went north on the
tribute for the king every year;
I came forward from where justified; There was found a balance against me.
Stela of Harmini, scribe during the reign of Amenhotep I (1546-1527)
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 48
This situation changed with Thutmose I (Akheperkare, R. ca.1527-1515),
who created the title of SA n nsw kS [9], son of King of Kush [6], and Turi
appointed as the first regent. Royal command of the son of the King, the
governor of the southern countries, Thure triumphant. Here, there is brought
to you this [command] of the king, to inform me your majesty has appeared
as the King of Upper and Lower Egypt by Horus the throne of life, not his like
forever. Make my testimonial as follows:
Horus: "Mighty Bull, Matt's favorite;"
Favorite of two goddesses: "Shining in the diadem snake, Great power;"
Golden Horus: "Goodly in years, making Hearts Live?"
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: "Okheperkere?"
Son of Re: "[Thutmose], Living forever and ever." Cause you tributes to be
offered to the gods of Elephantine in the south, as follows: "Performance of
the pleasant ceremonies on behalf of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Okheperkere, who are given life.
Cause you that the oath be established in the name of my greatness, born of
the mother of the king, Seniseneb, which is health.
This is a notice informing it of thee; And the fact that the royal
family is well and thriving .... .... .
Year 1, the third month of the second season (seventh month) the twenty-first
day; On the day of the feast of coronation.

Coronation decree of Thutmose I sent Turi

James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § § 55ff.
On Tombos Stela Turi described the high points of his career in five kings
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Okheperkere Who appointed me to be a son
of the king of [Kush] ........ From the inscription of Turi James Henry Breasted
Ancient Records nd Egypt Part II, § 64 Tombos Stela of Thutmose I, in year 2

Source: Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, extract

In the second year of Thutmose extended Egyptian rule until Tombos, a

short distance from the third cataract. Just as the second cataract and the
soils below it had been secured by the building and Semna kumma, and
unlike his conquests in Asia, the nature of which was very different, and this
rule was covered with construction of a fortress. The lords of the palace have
made a fortress for his army, (called) 'No-Faces-Him-in-One-Nine-arrows-
together; "[5] ..........
From the inscription at Tombos
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 72

The rule Regent extended from the third cascade down to Nekhen. At
Assuan, Turi carved the inscription Year 3, Pakhons 20th greatness passed
this channel to power and authority in his campaign to crush the vile Ethiopia.
Prince Turo
WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt Part II, p. 67
Nubians produce flying, 18th dynasty
Courtesy Jon Bodsworth
There were many such campaigns by crushing, overturn or casting in the
following generations. Whether these are not wars against the Nubians in
Egyptian yoke or police action against the people issue is not always clear.
But sometimes apparent:
....... One came to inform the grandeur of the following: "The wretched
Kush has started to rebel, who was under the sovereignty of the Lord of
hostility for two years, which begins to clap. ....."
From the inscription of Assuan Thutmose II, Year 1
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 121
The Egyptians took revenge on the rebels was wild: that all men were killed
except one of the sons of the head, which is taken as a prisoner in the capital
of Egypt. But mostly Nubians collaboration powered by masters and nobles
had joined the administration.
 Nubia was only sparsely populated, and may have a population of 100,000
during the New Kingdom. Economy based on farming. Taxes levied under
Thutmose III on it and the neighboring Kush, which is always specified as
wretched Kush consisted mainly of gold, slaves, cattle and unspecified
quantities of ivory, ebony and the like.
Year of the reign of Thutmose Nubia Kush gold on gold deben slaves slaves
deben cattle in cattle

31 92
33 20 104
34 254 10; 300 + 64 275
35 34 94 70?;
38 2,844 16 77 100 + 36 296
; ; ; 89 144 101;
; 3144; 114 94 + 21?
; 2374; 89 144 101;

Average per year 2.154 (196 kg) 20 94 142 + (12,0 kg) 64 285
Revenues from Wawat (Nubia) and Kush under Thutmose III
From the annals of Thutmose III

The proceeds from the conquest of territories Kush and Nubia were, like
those from Canaan and part of the Lebanese coast, are imposts. The master
of Djahi, Naharin, Retenu, Hatti and even distant Babylon were perceived by
the Egyptians to pay tribute to Pharaoh, giving him personal gifts.
The viceroy, whose position was hereditary, was even more grateful to the
king than was the nomarchs of Egypt, who generally belonged to the local
nobility and had inherited their positions. His power was apparently mainly
used to patrol the country and tax collection: Bringing the tribute of the
southern countries, consisting of gold, ivory and ebony, [with] the hereditary
prince, count, user of the royal seal, sole companion, catering to the heart of
the king in the Sirens of the Earth, who have access to the king, thanks for
divine ends; partner approach the powerful sovereign, vigilant for lord of the
palace, the son of the King, governor of the southern countries, Nehi. He
says: "I am servant of the Lord be useful, filling the house with gold, paying
tribute to ...., consisting of the impost of the southern countries; []
Commendation of which will come forward in the presence of the Lord of; The
son of the King, governor of the southern countries, Nehi. "
Edge Nehi in cave Ellesiyeh James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of
Egypt Part Two, § 652 after the first campaign in Kush, when he had pilfered
large quantities of gold which is then used to construct the third pillar, Karnak,
Amenhotep III built an impressive temple in Soleb (Khammat)
Amen temple of Amenhotep III in Soleb © Oriental Institute, University of
Chicago [7]
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nibmatre, beloved of Amen-Re? Son
of Re: Amenhotep (III), governor of Thebes. I made other monuments Amon,
as hath have no. Those who built your house in [...] million years of Amon-
Re, lord of Thebes name (): Khammat, August, amber, one resting-place for
my father in all the celebrations. It is finally with fine white sandstone; It is
trimmed with gold throughout; Floor is decorated with silver, all gates are
made of gold. Two great obelisks erected, one on each side ..... James Henry
Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 890 The conquest of Kush
continued. In an inscription at Karnak Hatshepsut had claimed that the
southern boundary is as far as the land of Punt?, But only since the mid-15th
century BC land to the 4th cataract was in Egyptian hands and remained so
until the eclipse of Egypt power. In a scene in the tomb, Hui, an official under
Tutankhamun is received by the king and appointed son of King of Kush The
overseer of the White House; He says: "This is the seal of Pharaoh, LPH,
which confers to thee (the ground) by Nekhen to Napata."

From the tomb of Hui

James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 1022
Napata became the center of power in the southern Egyptian Nubia which
covered a vast area. Under Tutankhamen two regents, Hui Amenhotep and
his brother were at the end of a Sons of the King of Kush, but their
importance may be greater than the simple local officials. In the tomb of Hui
have been shown to have Retenu tribute from the king. In another scene
takes Hui residents Nubia, indigenous leaders in Egyptian clothing, their
children - including a princess in an ox-chariot which, and the local Egyptian
rulers. Findings in the cemetery of Tombos show that the Nubian elite also
appear to have intermarried with Egyptian rulers [10]. They continued to play
a role in running their country, as this indicates an inscription:
The head of Miam, a good ruler. The leaders of Wayet. The children of
leaders of all countries
From the tomb of Hui
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 1037
Throughout the New Kingdom the Egyptians built in Nubia on a large scale
in Buhen, Abu Simbel, Gematen the most important in Napata, where he
founded a center of worship Amen. The ruling class of Nubia, at least,
approved in God and in the eighth century BC was to conquer Egypt in his
name.
As the conduct of Egypt had over the country became stronger, most of the
old wall had been abandoned and only Aniba, Buhen, Semneh-west and the
island of Sai continued to be manned while the south's newest fortified
settlements, Sesebi, Tombos and el-Kenisa between the fourth and fifth
cataracts proclaimed Egyptian power. New and better appointed necropoles
Egyptianized show that several cities must be established as a center of civil
administration and commerce [14].
Abandonment
The decline of Egyptian Nubia began during the 19th Dynasty by reducing
the number of people in lower Nubia, under the next dynasty, cultural and
political situation deteriorated and upper Nubia [13]. When the owners of the
Pharaohs of Egypt proper was precarious, the Egyptians began to retrench,
leaving former possessions in Asia and Nubia for indigenous people. But
while Asia has left few lasting traces in Nubia Egyptian culture continued to
grow and develop its own unique Nubian traditions. The gold Koptos for
example, was mined in the mountains Bekhen. Seti gave these mines in a
small temple that was built and dedicated to Amen, Re, Osiris and a number
of other gods. The workers of gold mining, the "flesh of the gods" for the
church exempt from any other work. In Wadi Hammamat where gold
containing quartz found underground quartz veins were mined by crushing
rocks before the gold could be exported. This requires a large workforce, fed
only with difficulty in these isolated areas. Other Pharaoh tried to follow the
example of Seti by digging wells in different position, with little success.
Another attempt resulted in Seti dry and 120 cubits deep abandoned. Only
the insistence of his son Ramses II, brought success. Agatharchides
Description "dates from the second century BC and is mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus galleries digging ... not straight, but run to the direction of the metal
containing vein, and workers in the dark in these winding tunnels, carrying
torches listed in the forehead ... non nubile children enter these underground
galleries and the lift ... great efforts to solve the pieces of ore and to the
outside. Diodorus Siculus, writing in the first century BC, was born in
Argyrion, Sicily. 40 The story of the volume was a collection of texts taken
from different, sometimes suspect sources. The description of the Egyptian
extraction based on the accounts of Agatharcides, who lived in the 2nd
century BC. The gold-bearing land which is more difficult to burn first with a
warm fire, and where they are crushed ... will continue to operate by hand ;
and soft rock that can produce moderate to attempt to sled from crashing
myriad unfortunate wretches. And of all the activities responsible for a skilled
worker that distinguishes the stone and the items listed on workers; ... The
strongest physical disruption quartz-rock with iron hammers, do not apply
skills to the task, but only power. The boys there who have not yet come to
maturity, which enter through the tunnel in the gallery formed by the removal
of the rock, collect trouble by rock ... bit by bit and to bring to light the place
outside the entrance. Then those who are over thirty years to take this
quarried stone them with iron pestles pound a certain amount of stone mortar
until work down to the size of a vetch.
Consequently, women and older men take them from the rock of this size
and threw the mills some of which stood there in a row, and taking positions
in groups of two or three at the address or handle of each mill to grind it up to
work [it] down ... cohesion of the finest flour.

In the last steps of skilled workers take the stone is ground to powder; ...
You rub [it] on a large board which is slightly inclined, throw water over it all
this time; So the earthly matter, melted away from the action of water runs
down the board, while those containing the gold remains in the wood
because of its weight. And repeating this several times, first of all, rub gently
with their hands and then pressing gently with sponges to remove loose
texture ... what is porous and earthy, until it remains only the pure gold-dust.
Translated from C.H. Oldfather
C.H. Oldfather, Diodorus Siculus, Cambridge, MA: Harvard U. Press, 1967.

Before breaking the stone was heated is weakening and eventually

disbanded with stone hammers in later years with iron chisels. The oval stone
hammers were about twenty centimeters from basalt or diorite and weigh one
to three kilograms. A wooden handle inserted in a deep groove and fastened
to it. Pieces of broken ore with small hammers and ground in mills, similar to
corn mills. The resulting powder was then washed and the metal extracted. In
Nubia two such facilities for the extraction of gold were discovered. The ore is
disseminated in descending surfaces, and the gold washed out the catches
then in some sieve. Greek sources mention the fur of sheep used for this
purpose. Wall reliefs dating from 2300 BC showing stages of refining and
working of gold. The oldest map of a mine in existence - possibly dating to
the Ramesside period - is that a gold mine. It shows parallel mountain ranges
separated by valleys, joined by a winding valley. A water tank is
characterized, such as Stela of SETI I. Opposite these two points from four
openings galleries, including mine shafts occur in the adjacent hill.
Gold also in alluvial placers - the gold water - and naturally formed
deposits underground. Silting of elemental gold gained from washing away
the lighter sand particles in water and then melt the remaining particles of
gold. [2] I speak as follows by placing the troops my gold-washers for my
church. They are appointed to carry in my house [in Abydos provide gold] my
sanctuary.

Dedication inscription of Seti I in the rock temple of Wadi Mia

M. Lichtheim, Egyptian Literature, Volume II, p. 54
Egyptian gold was purely an extent between 17 and 23 ½ carats. Annual
production of gold during times of pharaohs considered to have no more than
a tonne. In comparison, Spain, a major center in Roman times sent 1,400
tonnes of gold in Rome Pisus, king of Italy, who left the country, he went to
Egypt. Similar legends and myths about the original discovery of gold in
ancient literature survived the Hindus (the Vedas) and that of ancient China
and other nations. In fact, the discovery of the element we call gold is lost in
antiquity. The main source of gold in primitive times was undoubtedly stream
placers, although there is significant evidence in some areas of gold (for
example, Egypt and India (Kolar)) that eluvial deposits, auriferous gossans,
and regions near the surface of friable (oxidized) veins were mining. The
eluvial and alluvial placers were worked in the most brutal manner by
panning or the simplest form of sluicing. The auriferous gossans and
exposed parts of brittle veins had just pulled up outside, gophered, trenched,
pitted or along strike to the crudest stone tools-hammers, select Antler, and
bone and wooden shovels. Only rarely have adits, simple lines, and the
attempt to seduce and then only in soft rocks of the zone of oxidation. Fire-
setting probably employed by the ancient Egyptians, Semites, Indians and
others to break the hard quartz veins, though there are only limited data to
support this claim. The size or extent of the deposit made little difference;
Both small and large deposits showed free gold visible in the pan or have
worked, as allowed by the low maintenance cost of slaves, convicts and
prisoners of war assigned by that authority in gold placers and mines.
Gold deposits in primitive TIMES Early reports on geology, mining, metallurgy
and gold appear in ancient Egyptian Code, tombstones, and pictograms and
inscriptions in the tombs of the Pharaohs. The code of Menes (c. 3100 BC),
founder of the first Egyptian dynasty, which declared that "one part of gold is
equal to two and a half parts of silver in value," an indication of the strong
abundance of gold and the relative scarcity of silver at the time. The
inscription in the temple at Edfu, Egypt, depicting a Letter to Seti I (nineteenth
dynasty, c. 1320 BC) from the Sun God says, 'I gave thee gold countries:
given thee what are the amber , lapis lazuli, and malachite. "A reference to
the extensive record mineral exploration and gold mining is carried out by
Seti I in Egypt, Nubia, and Sinai.
The most famous ancient geological map of the famous "La carte mines des
d'or" in the Turin Museum, is a Rameside papyrus fragments depicting the
gold mining area involved about the time of Seti I (c. 1320 BC .). With this,
there are the roads, the houses of the miners, gold mines, quarries,
auriferous mountains, and so on. The exact location indicated on the map is
problematic. Some authors have suggested the mines represented are those
of Kareim or Wadi Wadi Hammamat, on the Qena-Qoseir street (Gardiner,
1914). Ball (1942) and Derry (1951) say that the area represented on the
map is the Wadi Fawakhir in which the El Sid gold mine is located. The
ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian cultures were
extensively used gold, but sources of the precious metal is relatively
uncertain. Placers in the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers were probably the
main source, although the acquisition through trade with the early civilizations
of Arabia, Iran (Elam), the Oxus, Altai Mountains, and India can not excluded.
The ancient civilizations of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and other Indus Valley
also knew and used gold source is probably placers in the upper Indus River
and various tributaries or through trade with the ancient peoples of
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and northern, eastern and southern India. The
references to gold mining and gold are many in the Old Testament Jews. In
fact, gold is the first metal mentioned in Hexateuch, including Genesis, the
narrative of which was probably the first given in written form to the tenth
century BC. Six sources of gold mentioned in the Old Testament (Havilah,
Ophir, Sheba, Midian, Uphaz, and Parvaim)? The exact locations of the six
problematic and has caused much speculation. Some authorities argue that
the six sources Arabian? Other sites have offered much further a field. in
Genesis 2:10-12 (All biblical quotations are from the authorized King James
version of the Bible, edition of 1611, or of the Vulgate in the case of books of
the Maccabees.) It is written: "And a river went out of Eden to water the
garden; and there was parted and became into four heads. The name of the
first is Pison: that is what compasseth all land Havilah, where there is gold;
And the gold of that land is good: there berillium and the onyx stone. "
During the Classical Period of gold "The metals obtained, mines, such as
silver, gold, and so on, from the water."
Theophrastus.
Science in the Classical period was mainly confined to speculation. Pre-
Aristotelians explained the origin of the universe and natural phenomena on
the basis of four key elements - earth, water, air and fire. This theory
probably comes from the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley, was
accepted by the authorities of Babylon natural scientists, and transmitted to
the early Greek philosophers, among whom Empedocles (c. 490-430 BC) is
usually credited with refining the concepts of theory. Aristotle embraced the
four element theory and added another concept, that of ether. During, before
the Hellenistic and Hellenistic times, gold and silver was mined extensively
throughout the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and elsewhere in Western and
Northern Europe and Africa and Asia. Much literature exists in the ancient
mines in these areas, all admirably summarized and composition of Rickard
(1932), Davies (1935), and Healy (1978). Originally shown by the evidence
presented by many of the deposits and landfills in Egypt, Aeizean, Turkey
(Anatolia), Iran, India and neighboring areas that most of the gold came from
alluvial and eluvial placers? Only later, as they approached placers were
exhausted the oxidized zones of gold and quartz sulphide deposits
exploitation first by open cut methods and then by underground workings.
Fire-setting seems to have been employed widely by the Greeks and
Romans to the underground. Pliny in Naturalis Historia, he claimed that
vinegar was better than frozen water and dissolved in hot rock. Because of
the problems of water and ventilation, the depth of mine background was
limited, perhaps to 200 m or less auriferous in most areas. Slaves and
convicts did all the mines. Search knowledge was slow and relied mainly on
visual evidence for the presence of gold to float quartz in rock exposures to
quartz in gossans, surrounding soils and weathered residuum and sediments
of streams and rivers. Many gophering worked in exploration, evidenced by
the multitude of pits and shallow lines in most of the ancient mining areas of
the Aegean, Turkey, Egypt, India (Kolar), and elsewhere. The gold pan
seems to have worked for gossans tests, soils, and alluvium and the victory
of the metal since ancient times. Similarly, the rocker and sluice with riffles,
animal fur, or mats to trap the gold appears to have been in use almost since
the beginning of the extraction of gold. The animal (sheep or goat) fur was
dry and gold was shaken by them in pans for further concentration. When
Ulex (a prickly plant gorse gorse or family) was used, was burned and the
gold washed from the ashes. Some instruments used in the fields boulder-
riffle method of concentration of gold; This method blocks were arranged so
that the water ran along carrying gold, swirled around boulders, depositing
the flakes and dust in the slack-water areas around and between boulders.
After a reasonable period, the water was sluicing off or diverted to allow
clearance. Sections of streams with natural riffles, like slate and shale beds
Folia oriented at right angles to the direction of flow, it also seems to have
been used in some areas deposits. In large enterprises deposits, particularly
where high-level (terrace) gravels were exploited by the Romans, as along
the Sil in northwestern Spain and Yugoslavia in Vrbas, hushing (flowering)
was employed. This method is often necessary reservoirs and channels
several kilometers long to transfer water to the crude monitors. Where was
operated quartz deposits in bedrock, the separation of native gold from the
slag, mainly quartz, a hand choosing, followed by crushing and grinding in
stone mortars, querns, and slow "hour glass" and other types of mills, and
finally by washing in sloping boards or flat stones. These "washeries" can be
seen in pictorial walls and tablets in Egyptian tombs and in dilapidated
condition in some areas of mining in ancient Greece, Egypt, and

Middle East.
Deposits of gold and theories of ORIGIN
In early classical times placers ancient gold mines and was known for many
of the islands, especially Sifnos, Greece mainland, along the southern coast
of the Sea Euxinus (Black Sea), and near the west coast of Asia Minor; Most
were small and just developed from the fifth century BC Search afield,
especially in the mountain. Tmolus (modern Boz Dag), revealed the rich
placers electrum and Pactolus river Hermus (modern Gediz). Legend says
that Pactolus is a river where Midas, the mythical founder of the Phrygian
kingdom, on the advice of Bacchus bathed in its waters to escape from the
fatal school of turning everything he touched into gold. Pactolus came from
large stores of gold deposits won mainly by the Lydian kings, of which Ardys
(about 650 BC) minted at Sardis at the earliest gold coins exist. Over the
years, the Lydian monarchs became the richest princes of age, especially
Croesus who attended Alyattes (605-560 BC) to the throne and whose name
will now link with enormous wealth. Another source of gold described in early
Classical and later classical period located in Thrace and Macedonia, where
anti Dysoron and Mt. Pangaeus provided great wealth for Thracians,
Athenians and Philip of Macedonia, 11, founder of Philippi near Mt.
Pangaeus. It appears that much gold and reached the Aegean in the early
years of classics from Egypt, Armenia (Turkey), Dacia (Romania, Hungary)
and as far as Spain, Siberia, and India.
In Hellenistic times, many of the gold mines of Macedonia and Thrace were
used intensively as were also some of these auriferous in various regions of
Asia Minor. The Ptolemies, the dynasty of the Macedonian Kings who ruled
Egypt (323-30 BC), prospected extensively in Egypt, Nubia (Sudan), and
possibly also in Arabia, gaining significantly from those ancient gold mining
areas. Many of the early Greek writers mention gold and silver, but no
particular reference to geological formations. The Iliad and Odyssey of
Homer (ca. 1000 BC), the traditional epic poet of Greece, referring to gold
and silver in many situations and locations, perhaps the last authentic in
many cases. We also have the Greek myth of Jason and the Golden Fleece.
According to this legend, the Golden Fleece was taken from the ram which
Frixos and Elli escaped from being sacrificed. It was posted in the grove of
Ares in Colchis and recovered by King Aeetes the Argonauts under Jason,
with the help of the sorceress Medea, daughter of the king. In fact, the
Argonauts were early prospectors who sought the source of ancient placers
of the Black Sea. At that time (1200 BC) workers auriferous placers of the
gold recovered from the trapping of metallic particles in the hair sheep placed
in crude sluices. The hair then hung up to dry on nearby trees and were later
shaken to collect the gold. Gold is an issue raised by many of the classical
Greek authors, but again the geological references to precious metals are
mostly vague and non specific. Among those Greek authors could Herodotus
(c. 482-425 BC), author of History of the Persian Wars; Thucydides (c. 460-
400 BC), author of History of the Peloponnesian War; Xenophon (ca. 430-
355 BC), historian, writer and author of several books and tracts, including
De vectigalibus, which has an interest in the issue of mining; Plato (428-347
BC), pupil of Socrates, known for his great philosophical works, of which
Timae s are of most interest to natural scientists; Aristotle (384-322 BC),
pupil of Plato, teacher of Alexander the Great, and author of several famous
philosophical treatises, whose Meteorological particularly relevant to this
framework; and Theophrastus (371-288 BC), of which more details will be
discussed later.
Little interest in gold deposits can be found in the writings of Thucydides,
Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle, although the works of the last two there is
some speculation about the origin of the minerals (gold) veins.
Plato's view of the origin of mineral veins is complex and much less
understood than other aspects of philosophy. In the dialogue Timaeus of a
Pythagorean view of the constitution of matter is given in which the fine
particles of the four key elements considered in geometric features (eg, a
cube land, air an octahedron, water an icosahedron, Mr. etc..) which undergo
changes (mutations) to one another in specific proportions with the resolution
in triangles and re-connect these triangles. The metals were probably consist
of various compounds "fusible" water (liquid), a theory that began with
Thales. Aristotle also embraced the four-element theory of material things in
Meteorological and considered that such information has been changed (or
mutations) in the earth that is triggered by deep penetration of the sun's rays.
As a result exhalations came from the earth, some fiery and dry produced
stones (rocks) and other fluids (liquids), which resulted in metals. One can
see these views on three fundamental concepts: (1) transmutation of
elements (especially the hope of transmuting base metals into gold), a
feature that particularly intrigued philosophers and alchemists for centuries
and now we know that is a fact, which confirmed by the atomic transmutation
of uranium into lead to land; (2) the dry and fiery exhalations, which form the
basis of the theory of magmatic formation of igneous rock and some mineral
deposits; and (3) the fluid exhalations or hydrothermal solutions considered
by many to create more mineral veins.
Herodotus, the father of history, "was born in Asia Minor in Halicarnassus, a
Greek city then under Persian rule. It seems to have traveled broadly
throughout the Persian Empire and Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Libya , Thrace,
Macedonia, Scythians, and the Black Sea. Most of the observations, it
appears to be based on first hand, although some of his statements,
apparently derived from rumors. None of his comments are detailed , and
some give all the information of geological interest. The History of the Persian
wars that describes the major gold deposits near Mt. Pangaeus in Thrace in a
single sentence: "Mt. Pangaeus is a big and tall mountains abound in gold
and silver mines.
Theophrastus, the father of botany, "let us De lapidibus (with stones), a major
highway is a milestone in geological science. Another route to the mine,
unfortunately, is lost.'s Works on the history of plants and causes the plants
are in traditional botanical. Theophrastus was the favorite pupil of Aristotle
and his successor as head of the Lyceum (Promenade) in Athens.
Observations on things rock is strong, given the state of science in latter half
of the fourth century BC mentions gold in several contexts in De lapidibus, an
existing piece that was obviously a much larger project. Many translations of
the chip are the latest in English with an extensive commentary by Caley and
Richards (1956) . Theophrastus mention the sterile rocks of gold and silver
(pyrite and galena) and writes at length about the test case (possibly chert or
cherty sediments) and the ability to test what is now referred to as the
fineness of gold or carat. Of particular interest, however, is the opening
statement of De lapidibus as stated in a translation by Caley and Richards
(1956, p. 45). Of the substances formed in the soil, are some of the water
and around the world. The metals obtained from extraction, such as silver,
gold, and so on, from the water; earth from stones, including the most
valuable species, and also the types of land which is unusual because of the
color, the smoothness of a density, or any quality. "
The idea put forward by Theophrastus that gold is made of water probably
comes directly from Plato's view that gold was some kind of dense congealed
water, an ancient home office with the "father of Greek philosophy," Thales of
Miletus (624 -546 BC), who argued that the fundamental matrix of all matter
in water. Thales was probably lead to this conclusion by observation, and that
of others, that the mineral matter were commonly precipitated in the openings
of the springs. Interpreting in general we have, therefore, the statement of
Theophrastus the first report of hydrothermal origin of gold deposits. The
Roman gold mining extensively in metal parts of the empire, but while
promoting the art and science of metallurgy, made relatively little beyond a
mere description of the science of mineral deposits. Diodorus Siculus (first
century BC), the later Hellenistic historian writing in Bibliotheca Historica in
Rome, says gold mines and placers in many parts of the Roman Empire and
gave lurid accounts of the work of gold and silver mines by slave labor in the
time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. The gold placers of Gaul described, as
are those of the Rhine; Brief accounts are given of the gold deposits in Arabia
and India. Describing the gold deposits in Egypt and neighboring states
(Booth, 1700): "Within the limits of Egypt and neighboring countries of Arabia
and Ethiopia is a place full of rich gold mines, from which, with much cost and
pains of many workers The gold is dug. The soil here is naturally black, but
the body of the land do many white veins, shining white marble, and
Glistering with all sorts of other bright metal; of whom strenuous mining those
appointed supervisors to cause the gold removed from the work of a huge
crowd of people.
Diodorus in this passage and that quoted in Healy (1978, p. 84) is speaking
of gold in quartz stockworks greenstones (amphibolites), or perhaps a black
or slate slabs. The reference to the white marble (calcite) is perhaps only
partially correct. It seems that perhaps quartz, the most common gangue in
veins of gold, supposedly.
Strabo (63 BC-20 AD), another end of Hellenistic historian, traveled
extensively and made many personal observations on the gold deposits
throughout the Roman Empire. In the Geographia, outline the gold placers
and mines of Spain and Portugal (Lusitania, Baetica), Macedonia (Paeonia),
Italy, Arabia, Egypt, the Caucasus, and India. Writing on the gold Caucasus
Strabo remarked: "The mountain torrents said to reduce gold, and the
barbarians (Soanes) catch basins are (sluices) perforated with holes and
rough skin." Report of Strabo is probably the River Stage (This rioni in
Georgia, the draining of the Caucasus), which drained near Colchis,
supposedly one of the objectives of the Argonauts in the legend of Jason.
Describing the gold deposits in Egypt and Nubia Strabo says Agatharchides
of Cnidus ( about 132 BC) freely and gives us a picture of the geological
setting of some of the deposits. In an interpretative translation learn: "There
(in Egypt and Nubia) the rock is black and full of streaks and veins of mineral
materials, with remarkable whiteness luster which exceeds the most brilliant
natural materials. "
Obviously, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus, is speaking of gold in quartz-
stockworks greenstones (amphibolites) or black slabs or slates. The white
rock is probably milky quartz. These interpretations are supported by recent
work in Sudan (Fletcher, 1985? Gaskell, 1985). A number of Roman writers
have left projects of interest to geologists and mineralogists. Lucretius (99-55
BC), author of De rerum natura, a famous philosophical work, describes
many natural phenomena, but says gold and mineral deposits in only a
superficial way. Vitruvius (c. 27 BC), famous Roman military engineer and
architect, also addresses the issue of mineral deposits of gold and only briefly
to De architecture. Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) was the only Roman to
participate in extensive studies of natural history; All the classical writers we
are the only documentation of past projects intrusion of minerals and mineral
deposits authors, and a summary of existing knowledge at the beginning of
our time. The extensive travels as a onetime cavalry officer and later
governor (Admiral) of the Roman fleet under Vespasian, recorded in thirty
seven books of encyclopedic Naturalis Historia. This famous treatise
suddenly terminated by the death of Pliny as a witness for science when he
was suffocated by volcanic gases as he sought to study the cause of the
violent eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.
The Naturalis Historia is a great assemblage of fact, fantasy and imagination
from both written comments and rumors. Where there is observation, the
narrative is accurate and reasonable; Rumors dominated much of the text is
imaginative and sometimes bizarre. 33 addresses the book of natural history
of metal And in this first part is for the gold. after a long debate on the human
greed for gold, the use of gold rings and other gold jewelry, coins, other uses
of gold, and the special properties of gold, Pliny geared to detect and mining
gold. In translation Rackman (1968, p. 53) with the explanation that I read in
parentheses: "Gold in our part of the world-not to mention the Indian gold
obtained from ants or dug from the gold griffins in Scythia achieved by three
ways: by debris basins, for example in the Tagus in Spain, the Po in Italy,
Maritza (Hebrus) in Thrace, Sarabat (Pactolus) of Asia Minor and the Ganges
in India; and there is gold in most ideal situation, such as polished in-depth
than just the current friction. Another method is by sinking lines; or requested
by the fallen debris of the mountains. Each of these methods should be
described. people looking for gold start getting up (search) segullum-which is
the name for the land showing the presence of gold. (Netherlands), is a
pocket of sand, which is washed and the pellet allowed an assessment of the
vein is Early India ( Hindu) manuscripts mention gold in many cases, but only
deals with the simplest generalizations of the origin of various types of
deposits acquired from the precious metal. The Rig-Veda, the first of the
books of the sacred Sanskrit scriptures of Hindus, who composed about 1500
BC, contains several references to gold and silver, but gave only minimal
details about the geology of the metal (Ray, 1904, 1925? Bhagvat, 1933). In
Arthashastra of Chanakya or Kautilya (fourth century BC) there are more
details on gold and silver, but these relate primarily to the mining, metallurgy,
and control of the two metals. Mention is made, however, the appearance of
gold ore in the mountains and the various types of auriferous ores - mixed
yellow (probably pyritic ore?), red, yellow and red (limonitic ore?), and some
with a bluish color for fractures (oxidized copper sulphide ore). The Nodules
(nuggets) and needles of gold outlined also placers. Various types of color of
the gold-mentioned that a blue color, glossy (amber), thorn-apple like (red)
and clean (the color of the pollen of the lotus). The Indian authorities nations
gold mining in large extent of the deposits obtained bedrock and metal
placers from many of the rivers of the Indian peninsula. Extraction of
underlying deposits made in those areas of oxidized auriferous veins and
disseminations in the shearing zones and iron-formations, as indicated by the
famous ancient function in Kolar area in southern India. Some of these
operations probably gold since the early civilization of the Indus Valley 4000-
3000 BC (Ray, 1948). Allchin (1962) has reviewed the evidence of early gold
mining in India and the methods used to capture the precious metal. It is
concluded from archaeological findings and C-14 dating rock deposits in
India were popular long before the Christian era and that large-scale mining
bedrock (mainly oxidized areas, and in some cases in hard rock), in southern
India began with the colonization of the Mauryan Deccan for the end of the
fourth century BC and Kolar Hutti fields appear to be prospected and mined
the first opening of the Christian era. It seems strange that I never Greeks,
Romans, Indians and develop accurate scientific theories about the origin of
gold and other types of deposits, despite the fact that the extraction of gold
from the main deposits (other than the quartz-pebble conglomerates) in all
empires for centuries. It is said that the Roman general, and Roman (mining)
mechanism, in particular, was a very practical man and not given to
speculation and theories; The same can be said for the Greek, but only
partially. Natural phenomena of interest to Greek philosophers, but were
more concerned with speculating about the great events of nature and not in
lower things like veins of gold. Another factor called, revolves on the use of
slaves in Greek, Roman and Indian mining companies. To carry out the
duties of earthy rock (and geology) was considered to be below the elite and
generally viewed as disparaging of any station in life. Therefore, Greek,
Roman, and Indian authors provide little or and no details on observing
geological and geochemical processes. The knowledge of fossil confined to a
small number of species and familiarize them with rocks was practically
negligible. therefore could not have evolved logically no systematic theory for
the origin of (gold veins) and other types of deposits.

And then POWERED north to Moldova and Ukraine, following the traces of
gold mining and digging opening in all the riparian prioches which passed by
a river and that the deposits of gold was their driver. The priochi of Chernigov
and Kiev had significant deposits mtalefmaton to why I stood there and
developed these cities. Rivers were few, gold little, picked up; Who sent
them; But the face that you see below you look like man; I seem to Nefelim
my saurian. Here's what he lives among us, Just think about it for a while.
Ancient Ukraine The first man (archanthropinae) appeared on Ukrainian
territory about one million years ago during the Stone Age. Archanthropinae
probably came from the western regions of South Asia and the Balkans.
Soon to follow the Neanderthal men (about 135-150 thousand years ago) that
was more mentally and physically and had developed relations of the family.
Then, about 35 thousand years, came the Cro-Magnons, the first
representative of Homo sapiens.
The early history of Russia, like those of many countries, is an alloy of
metanastefsis peoples and ancient kingdoms. In fact, the Ukrainian
authorities were just "Ukraine", but a collection of cities that gradually
coalesced into an empire. In the first part of the ninth century, as part of that
great movement that Brough Danes in England and the Norsemen in
Western Europe, Scandinavia is known as the Varangians crossing the Baltic
Sea and landed in Eastern Europe. The Head of Varangians was
semilegendary warrior Rurik, who led 862 people in the city of Novgorod on
the Volkhov River. Whether Rurik took the city by force, or asked to say
whether there had certainly invested the city. From Novgorod, Rurik's
successor Oleg extend the city southwards. In 882, gained control of Kiev, a
Slavic city that had arisen along the Dnepr River around the 5th century. Oleg
achieve rule over Kiev marked the first creation of a unified, dynastic state in
the region. Kiev became the center of the trade route between Scandinavia
and Constantinople, and Rus, as the empire became known, flourished for
the next three centuries, the good will of the gods was important to the
Egyptians, who are often built temples around the mines. They are
sanctuaries of Hathor, the great patroness of miners, found at Timna in the
Negev, the desert of Sinai in Serabit el Khadim, and other places. Ameni,
who led a small expedition of about thirty men in Wadi Maghara 42nd year of
the reign of Amenemhet III, left an inscription The oldest map of a mine in
existence - possibly dating to the Ramesside period - is that a gold mine. It
shows parallel mountain ranges separated by valleys, joined by a winding
valley. A water tank is characterized, such as Stela of Seti I. Opposite these
two points are the openings of four galleries, including mine shafts occur in
the adjacent hill. Gold also in alluvial placers - the gold water - and naturally
formed deposits underground. The basic alluvial gold gained from washing
away the lighter sand particles in water and then melt the remaining particles
of gold.
XRYSORYCHEIA IN AGRICULTURE
Work for the mining sector - and the mining industry, most of the projects,
especially those financed by the International Finance Corporation and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, held in a "business as
usual" manner. It is more transparent, it is more socially responsible, there
are also more environmentally friendly than other foreign investors in their
respective countries. It is unfortunate that, in a field of mining the main
interest of the development of these institutions is to promote the interests of
multinational companies. One of the main arguments that mining will lead to
higher standards due to mining industry - proved completely wrong in the
Kumtor gold mine in Kyrgyzstan. . In the case of Rosia Montana in Romania,
Bankwatch supporting local NGOs in advocacy work to achieve the IFC to
drop the proposed gold mine that is being promoted by Gabriel Resources, a
Canadian company. However, the fact that IFC never involved in negotiations
with a company owned by a convicted drug dealer. And trogontas or digging
comes the appetite, dig more doubles, more next, well we got kids Ukraine!
Dig more next and will dig a little house and said glossy Vikings
Zimbabwe. T was extremely rich in gold. (a) In 1700 BC, the Egyptian
monuments depicted exports of Punt, such as ostrich feathers, leopard skins,
giraffes, lions, cynocephalus monkey, elephant tusks, and gold bars, all
commodities of South East-Africa. Aristea, Agatharcides, and the Old
Testament references, as "The merchants of Sheba ... your merchants; they
occupied in your fairs [markets] ... with all the gems and gold" (xxvii Ezek ..
21 , 22) ... all testify to the enormous gold exploitation of Himyarites, which
has given the known world, with the metal. (b) There is common agreement
that the principles Himyarites imported gold. (c) Aristeas says that the gold
was brought to Rome did not come from Arabia. seems likely that the people
of Saba (the Himyarites) landed on the coast of Sofala, penetrated to the
mines and founded a colony there. believe it is of the opinion that probably
the Himyarites Yemen discovered the first place and built the temples for
worship and stone-worked gold.
The Periplus mentions that the king Himyaritic Kharabit was 35 AD held on
the east coast of Africa indefinite extent. Some authors note a connection
between the name of Sabze, or Sabi River in Rhodesia, and the kingdom of
Saba or Sheba. The Sabaea, or Sabi, a great natural way to the coast to the
people of Rhodesia between Zambesi and Limpopo Rivers.
Rhodesia was the land of Ophir;
The controversial question of whether the land of Monomotapa (Rhodesia)
was the land of Ophir can best be stated by examining Himyaritic profession,
to find the sacred and secular writings that were the merchants of Sheba
who, in addition to is the gold traders around the world, also exports to the
Phoenician centers of Tire and Sidon almost all the huge amount of gold-rich
towns that required, which held Avers story - "tire pile up as fine gold ... The
mud road "(Zacharias). It is admitted that the gold mines of the Ural
Mountains, could not contribute more than one part of the amount of gold
held by the Phoenician Canaanites. Old Roman and Grecian historians are
unanimous in stating that Himyarites gold dealers in the world and that is
purveyed in all the countries then known, but none suggest that the gold
came from Yemen, and all claim that was presented by Himyarites.
* Betuli, Baitulia = sacred stones. Phoenician = Bêthül. These stones were
not just the "home-place of God", but even God himself - Wilmot, p. 41.
In the event, called the Phoenician Canaanites were then in possession of
Monomotapa (Rhodesia) as the gold-producing colony in the country was
never in ancient days occupied with the main goal of winning gold and it is
not a simple colonization and settlement that was likely to need them to have
bought gold from the Himyarites;
The terms "Ophir" and "Tharshish» Bible is essentially generic. There were at
least two points on which the name "Tharshish" applied. "Ophir" was
employed as the title of a country rich in natural resources, as is the current
title "El Dorado. The location where this general heading of Ophir must be
implemented either in India or South Africa, if not assume with Professor
Keane Ophir that was not the gold give land, but the gold Mart, importer and
distributor of precious metal. Almost all the gold came from the south; Not
found in Yemen significantly. "Fortunately, the same period" (Biblical Ophir
period) "consists of the exploits of the man who first explored India, ie.
Alexander the Great. Among his followers were many who will gather news
for the gold-zone in India, provided that the latter was in reality. But gold was
rather independent country, all Indian tribes were almost devoid of gold and
Arrianus, best and most reliable source of our information on the campaigns
of Alexander the Great, as stated emphatically as possible:

"Alexander and his army have refuted most of the stories in this direction,
except for some who have apparently inaccurate statements. It therefore
found that all Indians through whose territories Alexander and his army
marched (and paraded through many of them) are not gold. " Therefore, it is
clear that India can not be the Ophir of antiquity. "
"Hiram of Gold"
Gold, according to the biblical and secular writings, the main export of Ophir.

Africa has always been known in ancient history as the major gold producing
country in the world. Many authorities, such as Bruce, Huet, Quartremere
syndrome and Guillain, and the vast majority of writers later in the Rhodesian
ruins, in examination of the history of gold production in that country to the
requirements of Monomotapa (Rhodesia) to be the Ophir the Bible. Mr.
Wilmot (p. 36, 37) writes: "The African Ophir was internally Sofirla from the
coast in South-East Africa (Monomotapa)." Again, Mr. Wilmot (p. 86-99),
summarizing the arguments of the authorities, he writes. "The preponderance
of the evidence is strongly in favor of the main Ophir of the Bible are from the
coast inland to the country of Sofala Monomotapa!" Mr. Bent, who examined
many of the ruins and visit the ancient gold operation, reaches the same
conclusion.
The presence in Rhodesia from ancient ruins, dating back almost prehistoric
times, some of which are known to have permanent in 1100 BC, and the
astronomical orientation of lines which in some cases to confirm a much
earlier age from that period. The style of architecture are several periods of
occupation, each of which will be calculated, covering many centuries of
years. The internal evidence gained from exploring the ruins indicate that the
main industry of the ancient conquerors were the gold mining. Those monster
buildings were erected for un-payable industry.
The presence in Rhodesia of the ancient gold-operation, covering areas of
several hundred square miles, and more extensive alluvial gold operation and
throw from the ancient. (In very remote times there were, as is known from
Egyptian monuments, a trade from South-East Africa in the Red Sea ... There
are other indications that the gold used to come from East Africa, but so far
we know that is not produced in quantity by any stretch of coast between
Mozambique and Cape Guardafui Thus, there is reason to believe that the
traffic between the Red Sea and the coast south of the Zambesi may have
existed from very remote times of late, there There, of course, no doubt. "-
Professor Bryce, Impressions of South Africa.
The enormous amount of gold from these operations in the past, however, is
undeniable.

ANCIENT CHRYSORYCHEIA, streets of gold and VIKINGKS!

Let us take a short stroll from North Africa to the northern Ukraine to see the
streets of gold in the world and realize why the Anounaki Nfelim applied the
patent of gold in the world and seeded with the existing economic system of
the gold rush everywhere, it lays gold as a "valuable" goods and could also
introduce the iron. Do not tell me that the iron is in larger quantities. And the
gold is in a smaller one has the right to lay down the system to mint gold
sovereigns freely as the serve, others are obscure reasons which lie behind
the construction of golden masks loaded with the energy of their souls until
the NIBIRU reintroduced the spacecraft to go back to their homeland, but
these are very small print. Enjoy my friends to pripeteia gold Let's start from
my friends

AFRICA
They are always there. People noticed before. But nobody could remember
who they are - and why? Until recently, nobody even knew how many were
there. Now is everywhere - thousands - no, hundreds of thousands of them!
And history will say is the most important history of mankind. But is that may
not be willing to listen.
This surprising discovery in an area of South Africa, about 150 miles inland,
west of the port of Maputo. It is the remains of a huge metropolis that
measures, conservative estimates, about 1,500 square miles. It is part of an
even larger community that is about 10,000 sq km and appears to have been
constructed - ready - from 160,000 to 200,000 BC! The image is a direct
experience of just a few hundred meters from the landscape taken from
google-earth. The area is fairly remote and the "circles" are often
encountered by farmers who allegedly made by some indigenous peoples in
the past. But, oddly, no one bothered to ask about who could have made
them or how old they were. That changed when a researcher and writer,
Michael Tellinger, collaborated with Mr. Johan Heine, a local fireman and
pilot who had examined these ruins from years of flying over the area. Heine
had the unique advantage to see the number and size of those strange stone
foundations and were aware that their importance was not appreciated.
"When Johan I was first introduced to the ancient stone ruins of southern
Africa, I had no idea of the incredible discoveries that would make the one or
two years that followed. The photographs, artwork and the evidence we have
accumulated points undoubtedly a lost and never-before-seen culture before
all others - not only from a few hundred years or a few thousand years ... but
many thousands of years. These findings are so striking that it should be
easily digested from the main historical and archaeological fraternity, as we
have already experienced. It will require a complete paradigm shift in how we
see human history. "--
The area is important for an impressive thing - gold. "The thousands of
ancient gold mines were discovered in the last 500 years, leading to a
vanished civilization that lived and dug for gold in this part of the world for
thousands of years," says Tellinger. "And if this is actually the cradle of
humanity, we can look at the activities of the oldest civilization on Earth. "
To see the number and scope of these ruins, I propose to use the Google-
earth to begin with the following coordinates:
Carolina - 25 55 '53, 28 "S / 30 16 '13,13" E
Badplaas - 25 47 '33, 45 "S / 30 40 '38,76" E
Waterval - 25 38 '07, 82 "S / 30 21 '18,79" E
Machadodorp - 25 39 '22, 42 "S / 30 17 '03,25" E

Then do a little research flying within the area formed by the rectangle.
Simply Amazing! That some of us laugh is obvious. That story is counterfeit,
and this story is obvious
Is gold plays a role in the dense population that once lived here?
The site is only about 150 miles from an excellent harbor where maritime
trade could help support such a large population. But remember - we are
talking about almost 200,000 years ago!
The individual remains consist mainly of stone circles. Most have been buried
in the sand and are perceived only through satellite or aircraft. Some have
been exhibited in climate change has blown the sand away, exposing the
walls and foundations. "I see myself as a fairly open minded chap, but I must
confess that I took over a year for the pen to fall, and for me to realize that we
are actually dealing with the oldest structures ever built by humans on Earth .
The main reason for this is that we have been taught that nothing is important
than ever from South Africa. that strong cultures all occurred in Sumeria and
Egypt and elsewhere. We are told that to solve the Bantu people from the
north, which is supposed to have begun sometime in the 12th century, it was
part of the world full of collectors, hunters and so-called Bushmen, who made
no significant contributions to technology and culture. "
The area is important for an impressive thing - gold. "The thousands of
ancient gold mines were discovered in the last 500 years, leading to a
vanished civilization that lived and dug for gold in this part of the world for
thousands of years and if this is actually the cradle of humanity, we can look
at the activities of the oldest civilization on Earth. "
Is gold plays a role in the dense population that once lived here? The site is
only about 150 miles from an excellent harbor where maritime trade could
help support such a large population. But remember - we are talking about
almost 200,000 years ago!
"I see myself as a fairly open minded chap, but I must confess that I took
over a year for the pen to fall, and for me to realize that we are actually
dealing with the oldest structures ever built by humans on Earth .
The main reason for this is that we have been taught that nothing is important
than ever from South Africa. That strong cultures all occurred in Sumeria and
Egypt and elsewhere. We are told that to solve the Bantu people from the
north, which is supposed to have begun sometime in 12th AD century, it was
part of the world full of collectors, hunters and so-called Bushmen, who made
no significant contributions to technology and culture. "- Tellinger
When explorers who first encountered these ruins, allegedly was carried out
by cattle corals nomadic tribes such as the Bantu people, and moved south
and settled the earth around the 13th century. There was no previous record
high culture of all ages can build such densly populated community. Little
effort was made to explore the area because the scope of the remains were
not well known.
Over the past 20 years, people like Cyril Hromnik, Richard Wade, Johan
Heine and a handful of others have discovered that these stone structures is
that it seems to be. In fact, they now believed the ruins of ancient temples
and astronomical observatories of lost ancient civilizations stretching back
thousands of years.
These circular ruins spread over a vast area. They can only really be
appreciated by air or via modern satellite images. Many of them have almost
completely eroded or covered by the movement of soil from agriculture and
weather. Some have survived well enough to reveal a large size [see above]
with some original walls standing almost 5 meters high and over a meter wide
in places.
Looking at the entire metropolis, it is clear that this was a well-planned
community developed by a highly evolved civilization. The number of ancient
gold mines suggests the reason for the community to be in this position. We
believe that the road network - some extending one hundred miles - is that
the community and terraced agriculture, closely resembling those found in
Inca settlements in Peru.
But a question begs for an answer - how could this be achieved by humans
200,000 years ago?
Having examined the remains, researchers are anxious to place the lost
civilization in a historical perspective. The rocks were covered with a patina
that seemed very old, but there was insufficient evidence for carbon-14
dating. It was then that a chance discovery revealed the age of the site, and
sent a chill down the spine of archaeologists and historians!
Finding the remains of a great community, with as many as 200,000 people
who live and work together, was a breakthrough in itself. But dating the site
was a problem. Heavy patina on the rock walls proposed structures were
very old, but the science of dating patina is just growing and continues to be
controversial. Carbon-14 dating of things such as waste wood introduces the
possibility that samples could be the recent grass fires are common in the
region.
"Johan Heine discovered Diary of Adam, in 2003, quite an accident. It was
the path to find one of the pilots who crashed his plane on the edge of the
cliff. Next to the crash site Johan noticed a very strange arrangement of large
stones sticking out soil. While rescuing the injured pilot from about 20 meters
down the side of the cliff, Johan walked over to the monoliths and
immediately realized that it was connected to the cardinal points of the earth -
north, south, east and west. There was at least 3 monoliths align with the
sunrise, and on the west side of concerted monoliths was a mysterious hole
in the ground - something was missing.
After weeks and months of measurements and observations, Johan
concluded that it was perfectly in line with the rise and fall of the Sun. This
indicates the Solstices and equinoxes. But the mysterious hole in the ground
remained a great puzzle. One day, while contemplating the reason for the
hole, the local horse track expert, Chris, came from riding. Johan quickly
explained that there was an odd shaped stone that was removed from the
point long ago. Obviously it would be somewhere near the entrance of the
reserve status.
After extensive research, Johan found the anthropomorphic (humanoid form)
stone. It was intact and proudly placed on a plate stuck in it. It was used by
the Blue Swallow Foundation to celebrate the start of the Blue Swallow
Reserve in 1994. The irony is that had removed the most important
archaeological site found so far and mysteriously returned to the reserve - for
slightly different reasons.
The exact location of the log is listed www.makomati.com. The first
calculations of the time of the log were made based on the rise of Orion, a
constellation known for three bright stars, which are the "zone" of the
legendary hunter.
The Earth wobbles on its axis so the stars and constellations change angle
by presenting them in the night sky on a cyclical basis. This rotation, called
precession completes a cycle approximately every 26,000 years. By
determining when they had placed three stars of Orion area level (horizontal)
on the horizon, we can estimate when the three stones on the calendar was
in line with the visible stars.
The first rough calculation was at least 25,000 years ago. However, new and
more precise measurements continued to increase with age. The next
calculation was presented by archaeoastronomer master who wishes to
remain anonymous for fear of ridicule from the academic fraternity.
Calculation was based also on the rise of Orion and suggested an age of at
least 75,000 years. The most recent and most acurate calculation, which was
signed in June 2009, suggests an age of at least 160,000 years, based on
increased Orion - flat on the horizon - and the erosion of dolerite stones
found in the region.
Some pieces of stone marker had stopped and sat on the ground, exposed to
natural erosion. When you put the pieces back together about 3 cm of stone
had been worn away. These calculations helped assess the age of the site by
calculating the rate of erosion of dolerite.
Who did the metropolis? Why?
It seems that people have always valued the gold. Reported even in the
Bible, describing the Garden of Eden our rivers:
Genesis 2:11 - The name of the first [river] is Pishon? Flowing around the
entire area Havilah, where there is gold.
South Africa is known as the largest gold producing country in the world. The
largest gold producing region in the world is Witwatersrand, the same area in
which the ancient metropolis. In fact around Johannesburg, one of the most
famous cities of South Africa, also known as "Egoli" means the city of gold.
It seems very likely that the ancient metropolis, because of its proximity to the
largest supply of gold in the world. But why would ancient people work so
hard to be a gold mine? You can not eat it. It is very common to use the tool-
making. It is really useful for anything other than jewelry and natural beauty
are the same as other metals such as copper or silver. Just because gold
was so important to early homo sapiens;
To investigate the response should look at the period of history in question -
from 160,000 to 200,000 years ago - And learn what was happening on the
planet.
What were people like 160,000 years ago?
Homo sapiens, can trace their ancestors back in time to a point where our
species evolved from other, more primitive, apes. Scientists do not
understand why this new type of man suddenly appeared, or how the change
happened, but we can find the genes behind us a woman known as "Eve".
Mitochondrial Eve (mt-mrca) [: Right tradition of an artist] is the name given
by researcher
s for the woman who is defined as the matrilineal most recent common
ancestor (MRCA) for all people living today. Passed down from mother to
offspring, all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to any person living from this one
female person. Mitochondrial Eve is the female counterpart of Y-chromosome
Adam, the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, although they lived at
different times.
Mitochondrial Eve is believed to have lived between 150,000 έως 250,000
years BP, probably in East Africa in Tanzania and areas to the immediate
south and west. Scientists speculate that living in a population between 4000
to 5000 perhaps women can produce offspring at a time. If other females had
offspring in the evolutionary changes in their DNA, we have no record of
survival. It seems that we are all descendants of this man a female.
Mitochondrial Eve would be approximately contemporary with people whose
fossils have been found in Ethiopia, near the Omo River in Hertho.
Mitochondrial Eve lived long before the migration from Africa that could
happen around 60,000 to 95,000 years ago.
The region in Africa where one can find the largest amount of mitochondrial
diversity (green) and anthropologists postulated around the oldest part of the
human population began to appear (light brown). The ancient metropolis of
which are in the latter (brown), an area which also corresponds to the
estimated age when genetic changes suddenly happened.
Could this be coincidence?
Ancient Sumerian story describes the ancient metropolis and its inhabitants!
To be honest with you. This next part of the story is difficult to write. It is so
shocking that the average person would not want to believe.

The Old Kingdom

About three centuries after the first recorded major meeting between the
Egyptians and Nubians Snofru recorded as
Hacking up the land of Negro.
Bringing 7,000 prisoners live, and 200,000 large and small animals.
Palermo Stone
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 146
The same year he had built 100-dewatowe forearm vessels of wood and 60
sixteen Meru barges would be used for the raid against the Nubians.
By the sixth dynasty King Merenre seems to have achieved more peaceful
relations with the northern Nubian tribes, who at least understood as a
subordinate in his own words that makes them smell the earth translated
here as does obedience
The next king himself, standing behind the hill country and the leaders of
Madzoi, Irthet, and Wawat, did obeisance and gave great praise.
North inscription to the first waterfall
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 317
During the same period Weni, the second expedition to the quarries of
southern excavated five channels and built seven boats, which the leaders of
Irtjet, Wawat, Yam and Medjay provided timber. Later, in a campaign against
Asian-sand inhabitants, which include the army of Nubians
Tomb of Harkhuf at Assuan
© Oriental Institute, University of Chicago [7]
As the caravan-conductor, Harkhuf took four journeys of exploration to Nubia,
during which he "pacified" by some indigenous tribes, and returned with
"gifts" in great quantity.
Pepi II Pepi sent-nakht, who bore the title of Commander of foreign twice in
Nubia, to subdue and Wawat Irtjet. After slaughtering a large number of
people who looted the country and brought the spoils, consisting mainly of
animals back to Egypt. He also took the two leaders and their children
prisoner and led them down-river in captivity.
Most meetings with the Nubians were probably peaceful and therefore
moderate. But when he died Mekhu leads campaign, his son Sebni set to
retrieve his body to embalm and bury it, carrying with him ointment, honey,
clothing, oil and other gifts for the locals. He returned carrying his father's
corpse and precious wares:
I came to Wawat Uthek and I [sent] the royal Iry escort two members of my
property as [...], bearing incense, clothing, ........, 3 cubits long, a tusk in order
to provide information [my best] was 6 cubits long; a [hide], and that it had
brought my father and all the gifts from these countries.
Signs Sebni
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part I, § 369
First Intermediate Period
lived between the first and second cataract, seems to have a closer
relationship with their northern neighbors from the other Lower Nubian tribes
and began serving the Egyptians as mercenaries.
The Egyptian foreign regained caution with the reunification and peace of
the country strong by Mentuhotep I (c. 2066-2040 BC). One relief shows as
the Son of Hathor, Mistress of Denderah, Mentuhotep smiting four enemies,
one of which comes from the Nubians. The tours in Lower Nubia referred to
relieve the treasurer Mentuhotep B 'Kheti near Assuan
Year 41, according to (the majesty of) Nibkhrure, the user came the royal
seal, sole companion, head cashier, Kheti, born of Sitre, triumphant; All ships
Wawat [... ... ... ...]. Edge Kheti, reign of Mentuhotep II (c. 2040-2010 BC)
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 426 Middle
Kingdom: the subjugation of Amenemhet I (c. 1991-1962) renewed Egyptian
intervention in the construction a trading post at Kerma and his successor
Senusret I (c. 1962-1917) conquered Lower Nubia, the establishment of the
rule by building fortresses along the Nile. Great importance is the one in
Buhen.
The Wawat, under a rock carving in Korosko conquered in the 29th year of
the reign of Amenemhet I. This inscription gives credence to the claim
Amenemhet the teachings that had seized the people of Wawat and had
seized the people of Mazoi.
Senusret I subdued the tribes of Kas, Shemyk, Khesaa, Shat, Akherkin
and others in the 18th year of his reign. Ameni, a prince of Beni Hasan,
recorded in the 43rd year of Senusret two incursions into Nubia had
participated in, the end of the first was apparently the conquest of Lower
Nubia.
I followed my lord, when he came up the river to overthrow his enemies in
the four foreign lands. ........... I passed through Ethiopia to the south sailing.
Remove the boundary. I brought the tribute of my lord, praise came in the
sky. During the first interim period the Egyptians were busy fighting among
themselves, and their participation in Nubia fell. The Medjay greatness that
arose, and went in peace. Overthrew his enemies in Kush. After greatness,
came back, sharp face, and not losing my soldiers
From the inscription of Ameni WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part I, p.
166 The tribes must have been cowed enough by then, seeing that the
Egyptians did not lose any of their soldiers. Subsequent Ameni campaign
with a small force of 400 men was very successful. He returned with the
required amount of gold and all the troops returned safely, having suffered no
loss.
The methods the Egyptians used were often based on the threat and
naked power. Assistant Treasurer Amenemhet B ', Sihathor, recorded with
pride that forced the leaders to wash the gold went to overthrow the fear of
the Lord of both Lands and will be the (Abu Simbel) region, brought away its
products.

Kumma
© Oriental Institute, University of Chicago [7] Senusret III had excavated a
channel through the first waterfall that allowed him to move large river forces
quickly. The pushed back across the border from the second waterfall and
built the fortresses of Semna kumma and towards the banks of the Nile. The
regions of Nubia under this section, attached, but never became part of Egypt
proper. The natives, traders and farmers, not beyond Heh (Semna), do not
walk either by ferry, although negotiations with encouraged.
The sixteenth year, month Phamenoth, to greatness, the southern
boundary at Heh. I made my southern limit of .......... my father from Stela
Semna of Senusret III
WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part One, p. 188 The Egyptians
always expressed low opinions were defeated by their enemies with some
reluctance, the Nubians were the exception not brave men are miserable, two
tails and bodies [2 ]; Greatness, I saw myself, not a myth
From Stela Semna of Senusret III WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt, Part
I, p.189 But these "miserable» Nubians remained restless, revolutions have
quelled magazines and the Kingdom of Kush south was often perceived as a
threat. The path of Aamu due to open in the second year of the reign of
Amenemhet III; And major powers have developed over time. For the
suppression of rebellion in the 19th year of his age, the king left crowds of
soldiers, even two thousand. Still, the Egyptians were installed [11]. Signs of
the Nubia became more frequent, their native neighbors many of their
customs, and began to exploit its geographical position Semna to receive
advanced warnings of the Nile Second Intermediate Period
Further inscriptions marking the peak of the Nile were in Sobekhotep II
(Sekhemre-khutawy), who ruled ca.1745 BCE, but were discontinued after
four years
Height of the Nile the year 3 in the greatness of King Sekhemre-Khutowe,
forever; When the user of the royal seal, the commander of the army,
Renseneb, was commander of the fort: "Mighty-is-Khekure" [3]. Nile record at
Semna
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 752
During this period the kingdom of Kush in the south of Nubia reached a
peak. Burial Mounds and the ruins of the palace at Kerma testify to this. The
Kushites formed a strategic alliance with the Hyksos and took Lower Nubia.
Kush came ... had stir up the tribes of Wawat, the [islands;] of
Khenthennefer, the land of Punt and Medjaw inscription on his grave
Sobeknakht, 17th dynasty
Hidden Vivian Davies Sobeknakht treasures [8] <These movements were
offset by Sobeknakht who, after raising an army, defeated Kushites.
The New Kingdom: Integration When the evidence becomes more plentiful
again, demonstrates Nubia have agitated as ever. Ahmose, son of Ebana,
fought successfully to Khenthennofer under Ahmose I (1570-1546), and a
few years later accompanied King Djeserkare [4], the justified, when sailed
south to Kush, to enlarge the borders of Egypt. In the early reign of the New
Kingdom seems to exist a special title for the chief administrator of Wawat,
the lower part of Nubia, which was quite stable in Egyptian hands and had
largely been Egyptianized.
I spent many years as mayor of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). I brought the
tribute of the Lord of the Two Lands; I was praised and found no chance
against me.
I reach old age in Wawat, is a favorite of my boss. I went north on the
tribute for the king every year;
I came forward from where justified; There was found a balance against me.
Stela of Harmini, scribe during the reign of Amenhotep I (1546-1527)
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 48
This situation changed with Thutmose I (Akheperkare, R. ca.1527-1515),
who created the title of SA n nsw kS [9], son of King of Kush [6], and Turi
appointed as the first regent. Royal command of the son of the King, the
governor of the southern countries, Thure triumphant. Here, there is brought
to you this [command] of the king, to inform me your majesty has appeared
as the King of Upper and Lower Egypt by Horus the throne of life, not his like
forever. Make my testimonial as follows:
Horus: "Mighty Bull, Matt's favorite;"
Favorite of two goddesses: "Shining in the diadem snake, Great power;"
Golden Horus: "Goodly in years, making Hearts Live?"
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: "Okheperkere?"
Son of Re: "[Thutmose], Living forever and ever." Cause you tributes to be
offered to the gods of Elephantine in the south, as follows: "Performance of
the pleasant ceremonies on behalf of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Okheperkere, who are given life.
Cause you that the oath be established in the name of my greatness, born of
the mother of the king, Seniseneb, which is health.
This is a notice informing it of thee; And the fact that the royal
family is well and thriving .... .... .
Year 1, the third month of the second season (seventh month) the twenty-first
day; On the day of the feast of coronation.

Coronation decree of Thutmose I sent Turi

James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § § 55ff.
On Tombos Stela Turi described the high points of his career in five kings
King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Okheperkere Who appointed me to be a son
of the king of [Kush] ........ From the inscription of Turi James Henry Breasted
Ancient Records nd Egypt Part II, § 64 Tombos Stela of Thutmose I, in year 2
Source: Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, extract

In the second year of Thutmose extended Egyptian rule until Tombos, a

short distance from the third cataract. Just as the second cataract and the
soils below it had been secured by the building and Semna kumma, and
unlike his conquests in Asia, the nature of which was very different, and this
rule was covered with construction of a fortress. The lords of the palace have
made a fortress for his army, (called) 'No-Faces-Him-in-One-Nine-arrows-
together; "[5] ..........
From the inscription at Tombos
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 72

The rule Regent extended from the third cascade down to Nekhen. At
Assuan, Turi carved the inscription Year 3, Pakhons 20th greatness passed
this channel to power and authority in his campaign to crush the vile Ethiopia.
Prince Turo
WMFlinders Petrie A History of Egypt Part II, p. 67
Nubians produce flying, 18th dynasty
Courtesy Jon Bodsworth
There were many such campaigns by crushing, overturn or casting in the
following generations. Whether these are not wars against the Nubians in
Egyptian yoke or police action against the people issue is not always clear.
But sometimes apparent:
....... One came to inform the grandeur of the following: "The wretched
Kush has started to rebel, who was under the sovereignty of the Lord of
hostility for two years, which begins to clap. ....."
From the inscription of Assuan Thutmose II, Year 1
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 121
The Egyptians took revenge on the rebels was wild: that all men were killed
except one of the sons of the head, which is taken as a prisoner in the capital
of Egypt. But mostly Nubians collaboration powered by masters and nobles
had joined the administration.

Nubia was only sparsely populated, and may have a population of 100,000
during the New Kingdom. Economy based on farming. Taxes levied under
Thutmose III on it and the neighboring Kush, which is always specified as
wretched Kush consisted mainly of gold, slaves, cattle and unspecified
quantities of ivory, ebony and the like.
Year of the reign of Thutmose Nubia Kush gold on gold deben slaves slaves
deben cattle in cattle

31 92
33 20 104
34 254 10; 300 64 275
35 34 94 70?;
38 2,844 16 77 100 36 296
; ; ; 89 144 101;
; 3144; 114 94 21;
; 2374; 89 144 101;

Average per year 2.154 (196 kg) 20 94 142 (12,0 kg) 64 285
Revenues from Wawat (Nubia) and Kush under Thutmose III
From the annals of Thutmose III

The proceeds from the conquest of territories Kush and Nubia were, like
those from Canaan and part of the Lebanese coast, are imposts. The master
of Djahi, Naharin, Retenu, Hatti and even distant Babylon were perceived by
the Egyptians to pay tribute to Pharaoh, giving him personal gifts.
The viceroy, whose position was hereditary, was even more grateful to the
king than was the nomarchs of Egypt, who generally belonged to the local
nobility and had inherited their positions. His power was apparently mainly
used to patrol the country and tax collection: Bringing the tribute of the
southern countries, consisting of gold, ivory and ebony, [with] the hereditary
prince, count, user of the royal seal, sole companion, catering to the heart of
the king in the Sirens of the Earth, who have access to the king, thanks for
divine ends; partner approach the powerful sovereign, vigilant for lord of the
palace, the son of the King, governor of the southern countries, Nehi. He
says: "I am servant of the Lord be useful, filling the house with gold, paying
tribute to ...., consisting of the impost of the southern countries; []
Commendation of which will come forward in the presence of the Lord of; The
son of the King, governor of the southern countries, Nehi. "
Edge Nehi in cave Ellesiyeh James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of
Egypt Part Two, § 652 after the first campaign in Kush, when he had pilfered
large quantities of gold which is then used to construct the third pillar, Karnak,
Amenhotep III built an impressive temple in Soleb (Khammat)
Amen temple of Amenhotep III in Soleb © Oriental Institute, University of
Chicago [7]
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nibmatre, beloved of Amen-Re? Son
of Re: Amenhotep (III), governor of Thebes. I made other monuments Amon,
as hath have no. Those who built your house in [...] million years of Amon-
Re, lord of Thebes name (): Khammat, August, amber, one resting-place for
my father in all the celebrations. It is finally with fine white sandstone; It is
trimmed with gold throughout; Floor is decorated with silver, all gates are
made of gold. Two great obelisks erected, one on each side ..... James Henry
Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 890 The conquest of Kush
continued. In an inscription at Karnak Hatshepsut had claimed that the
southern boundary is as far as the land of Punt?, But only since the mid-15th
century BC land to the 4th cataract was in Egyptian hands and remained so
until the eclipse of Egypt power. In a scene in the tomb, Hui, an official under
Tutankhamun is received by the king and appointed son of King of Kush The
overseer of the White House; He says: "This is the seal of Pharaoh, LPH,
which confers to thee (the ground) by Nekhen to Napata."

From the tomb of Hui

James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 1022
Napata became the center of power in the southern Egyptian Nubia which
covered a vast area. Under Tutankhamen two regents, Hui Amenhotep and
his brother were at the end of a Sons of the King of Kush, but their
importance may be greater than the simple local officials. In the tomb of Hui
have been shown to have Retenu tribute from the king. In another scene
takes Hui residents Nubia, indigenous leaders in Egyptian clothing, their
children - including a princess in an ox-chariot which, and the local Egyptian
rulers. Findings in the cemetery of Tombos show that the Nubian elite also
appear to have intermarried with Egyptian rulers [10]. They continued to play
a role in running their country, as this indicates an inscription:
The head of Miam, a good ruler. The leaders of Wayet. The children of
leaders of all countries
From the tomb of Hui
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part II, § 1037
Throughout the New Kingdom the Egyptians built in Nubia on a large scale
in Buhen, Abu Simbel, Gematen the most important in Napata, where he
founded a center of worship Amen. The ruling class of Nubia, at least,
approved in God and in the eighth century BC was to conquer Egypt in his
name.
As the conduct of Egypt had over the country became stronger, most of the
old wall had been abandoned and only Aniba, Buhen, Semneh-west and the
island of Sai continued to be manned while the south's newest fortified
settlements, Sesebi, Tombos and el-Kenisa between the fourth and fifth
cataracts proclaimed Egyptian power. New and better appointed necropoles
Egyptianized show that several cities must be established as a center of civil
administration and commerce [14].

Abandonment
The decline of Egyptian Nubia began during the 19th Dynasty by reducing
the number of people in lower Nubia, under the next dynasty, cultural and
political situation deteriorated and upper Nubia [13]. When the owners of the
Pharaohs of Egypt proper was precarious, the Egyptians began to retrench,
leaving former possessions in Asia and Nubia for indigenous people. But
while Asia has left few lasting traces in Nubia Egyptian culture continued to
grow and develop its own unique Nubian traditions. The gold Koptos for
example, was mined in the mountains Bekhen. Seti gave these mines in a
small temple that was built and dedicated to Amen, Re, Osiris and a number
of other gods. The workers of gold mining, the "flesh of the gods" for the
church exempt from any other work. In Wadi Hammamat where gold
containing quartz found underground quartz veins were mined by crushing
rocks before the gold could be exported. This requires a large workforce, fed
only with difficulty in these isolated areas. Other Pharaoh tried to follow the
example of Seti by digging wells in different position, with little success.
Another attempt resulted in Seti dry and 120 cubits deep abandoned. Only
the insistence of his son Ramses II, brought success. Agatharchides
Description "dates from the second century BC and is mentioned by Diodorus
Siculus galleries digging ... not straight, but run to the direction of the metal
containing vein, and workers in the dark in these winding tunnels, carrying
torches listed in the forehead ... non nubile children enter these underground
galleries and the lift ... great efforts to solve the pieces of ore and to the
outside. Diodorus Siculus, writing in the first century BC, was born in
Argyrion, Sicily. 40 The story of the volume was a collection of texts taken
from different, sometimes suspect sources. The description of the Egyptian
extraction based on the accounts of Agatharcides, who lived in the 2nd
century BC. The gold-bearing land which is more difficult to burn first with a
warm fire, and where they are crushed ... will continue to operate by hand ;
and soft rock that can produce moderate to attempt to sled from crashing
myriad unfortunate wretches. And of all the activities responsible for a skilled
worker that distinguishes the stone and the items listed on workers; ... The
strongest physical disruption quartz-rock with iron hammers, do not apply
skills to the task, but only power. The boys there who have not yet come to
maturity, which enter through the tunnel in the gallery formed by the removal
of the rock, collect trouble by rock ... bit by bit and to bring to light the place
outside the entrance. Then those who are over thirty years to take this
quarried stone them with iron pestles pound a certain amount of stone mortar
until work down to the size of a vetch.
Consequently, women and older men take them from the rock of this size
and threw the mills some of which stood there in a row, and taking positions
in groups of two or three at the address or handle of each mill to grind it up to
work [it] down ... cohesion of the finest flour.

In the last steps of skilled workers take the stone is ground to powder; ...
You rub [it] on a large board which is slightly inclined, throw water over it all
this time; So the earthly matter, melted away from the action of water runs
down the board, while those containing the gold remains in the wood
because of its weight. And repeating this several times, first of all, rub gently
with their hands and then pressing gently with sponges to remove loose
texture ... what is porous and earthy, until it remains only the pure gold-dust.
Translated from C.H. Oldfather
C.H. Oldfather, Diodorus Siculus, Cambridge, MA: Harvard U. Press, 1967.
Before breaking the stone was heated is weakening and eventually
disbanded with stone hammers in later years with iron chisels. The oval stone
hammers were about twenty centimeters from basalt or diorite and weigh one
to three kilograms. A wooden handle inserted in a deep groove and fastened
to it. Pieces of broken ore with small hammers and ground in mills, similar to
corn mills. The resulting powder was then washed and the metal extracted. In
Nubia two such facilities for the extraction of gold were discovered. The ore is
disseminated in descending surfaces, and the gold washed out the catches
then in some sieve. Greek sources mention the fur of sheep used for this
purpose. Wall reliefs dating from 2300 BC showing stages of refining and
working of gold. The oldest map of a mine in existence - possibly dating to
the Ramesside period - is that a gold mine. It shows parallel mountain ranges
separated by valleys, joined by a winding valley. A water tank is
characterized, such as Stela of SETI I. Opposite these two points from four
openings galleries, including mine shafts occur in the adjacent hill.
Gold also in alluvial placers - the gold water - and naturally formed
deposits underground. Silting of elemental gold gained from washing away
the lighter sand particles in water and then melt the remaining particles of
gold. [2] I speak as follows by placing the troops my gold-washers for my
church. They are appointed to carry in my house [in Abydos provide gold] my
sanctuary.

Dedication inscription of Seti I in the rock temple of Wadi Mia

M. Lichtheim, Egyptian Literature, Volume II, p. 54
Egyptian gold was purely an extent between 17 and 23 ½ carats. Annual
production of gold during times of pharaohs considered to have no more than
a tonne. In comparison, Spain, a major center in Roman times sent 1,400
tonnes of gold in Rome. This amount is based on the amount of slag left over
in Spanish production centers and the assumption that 3 grams of gold were
extracted from one ton of ore.
Silver
In Egypt in general consequence of gold, silver was the first day of
metalworking rarer and more expensive than gold itself, later, during the New
Kingdom, the price was about half of that gold. If the silver content of gold-
silver alloy was higher than 20% affecting the golden sheen of the metal
called electrum. In 200 BC the Egyptians had learned to purify the gold silver
alloy, which normally lies between 10 and 20% silver, with salt to remove the
silver.
The Gemstone malachite Sinai (sehmet) and turquoise (mafaket) deposits
have attracted miners from the sixth millennium BC. Near El Serabit-Khadim,
a few kilometers inland from the west cost of the Sinai Peninsula, the
turquoise deposits were discovered since the mid-fourth millennium BC and
received by the Egyptians a few centuries later. After turquoise veins
excavated a large gallery in sandstone, the roof supported by pillars and
carved reliefs at the entrance of Pharaoh into the rock. In winter, the rainy
season, water was held at the mine to extract the stones. Mining in the region
ended in 1000 BC about. According to the Natural History of Pliny, 37.17,
emeralds came from the hills near Coptos, a town in Thebaid as was
charchedonia, probably Egyptian Jasper (ibidem 37,30)? Amethyst, beryl,
possibly blue [9] and other precious or semi-precious stones were also mined
and worked. Salts and other mineral salt (sodium chloride) was purchased
from the evaporation of seawater in shallow lagoons on the Mediterranean
coast. There were salt deposits in Western and Eastern Deserts [4].
Natron [5], a natural soda ash (generally netjeri-MDC nTrj transcription-BD
in ancient Egypt or in granular form of bed-transcription MDC), was found in a
deposit of 20 meters below sea level in Wadi al-Natrun [7 ] halfway between
Cairo and Alexandria and south as Natron "at El Kab. mainly used for
cleaning, the mummification and as an offering. [8] Sal ammoniac was said to
have been made from camel dung" in the oasis of Siwah, where there was a
temple of Amen. Alum (jbn.w transcription MDC), a mordant for dying cloth,
found in oases of Kharga and Dakla Western Desert. Galena (lead sulfide)
used in cosmetics, was mined at Gebel Rasas.
________________________________________
[] Source partial map of a gold mine: Petrie A History of Egypt Part 3
[2] Ancient people also seem to have been used for making coat gold
particles, as seems implicit in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts [3]
[4] Pliny the Elder reports: King Ptolemaes salt also discovered near the
Pelusium when encamped there; Causing others to seek and discover that
the scorched land located between Egypt and Arabia, under the sand.
.....
On the shores of Egypt, salt formed by the overflowing of the sea from the
land already prepared for the reception, in my opinion, the emanations of the
River Nile. He has been here, too, the water of certain wells, salt discharged.
Pliny, Natural History, Book XXXI, chapter 39 - (eds. John Bostock, HT Riley)

[5] Pliny referred to the Egyptian nitrum, which is likely potash or soda,
production and uses, to some extent in Natural History.
[7] mentioned in the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid of Unas, PT 35, line 18a): North
Natron, 5 balls (of) St-PT, St-pt (Shetpet) stands for either the Wadi Natrun
same or principal city [8] The list of tenders for the coffin of Henti or Henet,
CG 28006, was found in Ahmmim, containing items such as incense, water,
metal, a psesh-KEF and Upper Egypt Natron Natron, beads (from El Kab): 5
Lower Egypt Natron, bead (of) Shet-pet: 5 after a transcription and German
translation by A. Burkhardt ed. on the Thesaurus Linguae site Aegyptiae,
Altägyptisches Wörterbuch, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der
Wissenschaften => Grabinschriften => Achmim => Felsgra "bernekropole
von El-Hawawisch => einzelne Objekte => sarge im-Cairo Museum => Sarg
der Henti / Henet , CG 28006 => Opferformeln und Opferliste => Opferliste
(auf Seite 4) => 1. register [9] According to ancient Egyptian Materials and
Lucas Industries p.398f., Cyan is unlikely to occur in Egypt, but early and
widespread use has led some to believe that it may be native to the country
after all. [10] unknown location, tentatively identified by P. Montet in Sippar.
[11] James Henry Breasted, Ancient records of Egypt, Part One , § 729 Gold
primitive During the Period (5000 BC - 600 BC)
"And the gold of that land is good." Genesis 2:12
Gold was probably the first metal known to early hominids that, regarding the
outcome as nuggets and spangles in the soils and sand flow, no doubt
attracted by intrinsic beauty, great malleability, and virtual indestructibility. As
tribal development progressed through the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and
Neolithic ages, and as people congregated in civilized centers, the metal
appears to have taken a sacred character, because of the continuing nature
(immortality), originally worn as amulets and probably later fashioned into
religious objects (idols). At the time of the early Indus (Harappa, Mohenjo-
Daro, etc.), Sumerian, and the cultures of Egypt (3000-2000 BC), gold was
not only preserved the sacred character; but had become a symbol of wealth
and social ranking (the royal metal). Homer (ca. 1000 BC), the Iliad and the
Odyssey, the epic of ancient Greece, says gold repeatedly both as a sign of
wealth among the mortals as a symbol of brightness among the immortals.
Early reports of the first discovery of gold is essentially legendary or mythical.
Thus, Cadmus, the Phoenician, is said by some early writers to have
discovered gold; Others say that Thoas, a Taurian king, first found the
precious metal in Pangaeus mountains of Thrace. The Chronicum
alexandrinum (AD 628) attributes the invention of the Mercury (Roman god of
goods and traders), the son of Zeus, or Pisus, king of Italy, who left the
country, he went to Egypt. Similar legends and myths about the original
discovery of gold in ancient literature survived the Hindus (the Vedas) and
that of ancient China and other nations. In fact, the discovery of the element
we call gold is lost in antiquity. The main source of gold in primitive times was
undoubtedly stream placers, although there is significant evidence in some
areas of gold (for example, Egypt and India (Kolar)) that eluvial deposits,
auriferous gossans, and regions near the surface of friable (oxidized) veins
were mining. The eluvial and alluvial placers were worked in the most brutal
manner by panning or the simplest form of sluicing. The auriferous gossans
and exposed parts of brittle veins had just pulled up outside, gophered,
trenched, pitted or along strike to the crudest stone tools-hammers, select
Antler, and bone and wooden shovels. Only rarely have adits, simple lines,
and the attempt to seduce and then only in soft rocks of the zone of
oxidation. Fire-setting probably employed by the ancient Egyptians, Semites,
Indians and others to break the hard quartz veins, though there are only
limited data to support this claim. The size or extent of the deposit made little
difference; Both small and large deposits showed free gold visible in the pan
or have worked, as allowed by the low maintenance cost of slaves, convicts
and prisoners of war assigned by that authority in gold placers and mines.
Gold deposits in primitive TIMES Early reports on geology, mining, metallurgy
and gold appear in ancient Egyptian Code, tombstones, and pictograms and
inscriptions in the tombs of the Pharaohs. The code of Menes (c. 3100 BC),
founder of the first Egyptian dynasty, which declared that "one part of gold is
equal to two and a half parts of silver in value," an indication of the strong
abundance of gold and the relative scarcity of silver at the time. The
inscription in the temple at Edfu, Egypt, depicting a Letter to Seti I (nineteenth
dynasty, c. 1320 BC) from the Sun God says, 'I gave thee gold countries:
given thee what are the amber , lapis lazuli, and malachite. "A reference to
the extensive record mineral exploration and gold mining is carried out by
Seti I in Egypt, Nubia, and Sinai.
The most famous ancient geological map of the famous "La carte mines des
d'or" in the Turin Museum, is a Rameside papyrus fragments depicting the
gold mining area involved about the time of Seti I (c. 1320 BC .). With this,
there are the roads, the houses of the miners, gold mines, quarries,
auriferous mountains, and so on. The exact location indicated on the map is
problematic. Some authors have suggested the mines represented are those
of Kareim or Wadi Wadi Hammamat, on the Qena-Qoseir street (Gardiner,
1914). Ball (1942) and Derry (1951) say that the area represented on the
map is the Wadi Fawakhir in which the El Sid gold mine is located. The
ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian cultures were
extensively used gold, but sources of the precious metal is relatively
uncertain. Placers in the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers were probably the
main source, although the acquisition through trade with the early civilizations
of Arabia, Iran (Elam), the Oxus, Altai Mountains, and India can not excluded.
The ancient civilizations of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and other Indus Valley
also knew and used gold source is probably placers in the upper Indus River
and various tributaries or through trade with the ancient peoples of
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and northern, eastern and southern India. The
references to gold mining and gold are many in the Old Testament Jews. In
fact, gold is the first metal mentioned in Hexateuch, including Genesis, the
narrative of which was probably the first given in written form to the tenth
century BC. Six sources of gold mentioned in the Old Testament (Havilah,
Ophir, Sheba, Midian, Uphaz, and Parvaim)? The exact locations of the six
problematic and has caused much speculation. Some authorities argue that
the six sources Arabian? Other sites have offered much further a field. in
Genesis 2:10-12 (All biblical quotations are from the authorized King James
version of the Bible, edition of 1611, or of the Vulgate in the case of books of
the Maccabees.) It is written: "And a river went out of Eden to water the
garden; and there was parted and became into four heads. The name of the
first is Pison: that is what compasseth all land Havilah, where there is gold;
And the gold of that land is good: there berillium and the onyx stone. "
During the Classical Period of gold "The metals obtained, mines, such as
silver, gold, and so on, from the water."
Theophrastus.
Science in the Classical period was mainly confined to speculation. Pre-
Aristotelians explained the origin of the universe and natural phenomena on
the basis of four key elements - earth, water, air and fire. This theory
probably comes from the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley, was
accepted by the authorities of Babylon natural scientists, and transmitted to
the early Greek philosophers, among whom Empedocles (c. 490-430 BC) is
usually credited with refining the concepts of theory. Aristotle embraced the
four element theory and added another concept, that of ether. During, before
the Hellenistic and Hellenistic times, gold and silver was mined extensively
throughout the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and elsewhere in Western and
Northern Europe and Africa and Asia. Much literature exists in the ancient
mines in these areas, all admirably summarized and composition of Rickard
(1932), Davies (1935), and Healy (1978). Originally shown by the evidence
presented by many of the deposits and landfills in Egypt, Aeizean, Turkey
(Anatolia), Iran, India and neighboring areas that most of the gold came from
alluvial and eluvial placers? Only later, as they approached placers were
exhausted the oxidized zones of gold and quartz sulphide deposits
exploitation first by open cut methods and then by underground workings.
Fire-setting seems to have been employed widely by the Greeks and
Romans to the underground. Pliny in Naturalis Historia, he claimed that
vinegar was better than frozen water and dissolved in hot rock. Because of
the problems of water and ventilation, the depth of mine background was
limited, perhaps to 200 m or less auriferous in most areas. Slaves and
convicts did all the mines. Search knowledge was slow and relied mainly on
visual evidence for the presence of gold to float quartz in rock exposures to
quartz in gossans, surrounding soils and weathered residuum and sediments
of streams and rivers. Many gophering worked in exploration, evidenced by
the multitude of pits and shallow lines in most of the ancient mining areas of
the Aegean, Turkey, Egypt, India (Kolar), and elsewhere. The gold pan
seems to have worked for gossans tests, soils, and alluvium and the victory
of the metal since ancient times. Similarly, the rocker and sluice with riffles,
animal fur, or mats to trap the gold appears to have been in use almost since
the beginning of the extraction of gold. The animal (sheep or goat) fur was
dry and gold was shaken by them in pans for further concentration. When
Ulex (a prickly plant gorse gorse or family) was used, was burned and the
gold washed from the ashes. Some instruments used in the fields boulder-
riffle method of concentration of gold; 1948). Allchin (1962) has reviewed the
evidence of early gold mining in India and the methods used to capture the
precious metal. It is concluded from archaeological findings and C-14 dating
rock deposits in India were popular long before the Christian era and that
large-scale mining bedrock (mainly in the oxidized zone, and in some cases
in hard rock), in southern India Mauryan began with the colonization of the
Deccan by the end of the fourth century BC The Hutti and Kolar fields appear
to be prospected and mined with the first entry of Christian epochis.Fainetai
strange that I never Greeks, Romans, Indians and develop accurate scientific
theories about the origin of gold and other types of deposits, although that the
extraction of gold from the main deposits (other than the quartz-pebble
conglomerates) throughout their empires for many centuries. It has been said
that the Roman general, and Roman (mining) mechanism, in particular, was
a very practical man and not given to speculation and theories; The same
can be said for the Greek, but only partially. Natural phenomena of interest to
Greek philosophers, but were more concerned with speculating about the
great events of nature and not in lower things like veins of gold. Another
factor, they say, revolves on the use of slaves in Greek, Roman and Indian
mining companies. To perform the functions of extracting earth (and geology)
was considered to be below the elite and generally viewed as disparaging of
any station in life. Therefore, Greek, Roman, and Indian authors provide little
or no detail on observing geological and geochemical processes. Their
knowledge of fossil confined to a small number of species and familiarize
them with rocks was practically negligible. Therefore could not have evolved
logically no systematic theory for the origin of the (gold veins) and other types
of deposits.

And then POWERED north to Moldova and Ukraine, following the traces of
gold mining and digging opening in all the riparian prioches which passed by
a river and that the deposits of gold was their driver. The priochi of Chernigov
and Kiev had significant deposits mtalefmaton to why I stood there and
developed these cities. Rivers were few, gold little, picked up; Who sent
them; But the face that you see below you look like man; I seem to Nefelim
my saurian. Here's what he lives among us, Just think about it for a while.
Ancient Ukraine The first man (archanthropinae) appeared on Ukrainian
territory about one million years ago during the Stone Age. Archanthropinae
probably came from the western regions of South Asia and the Balkans.
Soon to follow the Neanderthal men (about 135-150 thousand years ago) that
was more mentally and physically and had developed relations of the family.
Then, about 35 thousand years, came the Cro-Magnons, the first
representative of Homo sapiens.
The early history of Russia, like those of many countries, is an alloy of
metanastefsis peoples and ancient kingdoms. In fact, the Ukrainian
authorities were just "Ukraine", but a collection of cities that gradually
coalesced into an empire. In the first part of the ninth century, as part of that
great movement that Brough Danes in England and the Norsemen in
Western Europe, Scandinavia is known as the Varangians crossing the Baltic
Sea and landed in Eastern Europe. The Head of Varangians was
semilegendary warrior Rurik, who led 862 people in the city of Novgorod on
the Volkhov River. Whether Rurik took the city by force, or asked to say
whether there had certainly invested the city. From Novgorod, Rurik's
successor Oleg extend the city southwards. In 882, gained control of Kiev, a
Slavic city that had arisen along the Dnepr River around the 5th century. Oleg
achieve rule over Kiev marked the first creation of a unified, dynastic state in
the region. Kiev became the center of the trade route between Scandinavia
and Constantinople, and Rus, as the empire became known, flourished for
the next three centuries, the good will of the gods was important to the
Egyptians, who are often built temples around the mines. They are
sanctuaries of Hathor, the great patroness of miners, found at Timna in the
Negev, the desert of Sinai in Serabit el Khadim, and other places. Ameni,
who led a small expedition of about thirty men in Wadi Maghara 42nd year of
the reign of Amenemhet III, left an inscription The oldest map of a mine in
existence - possibly dating to the Ramesside period - is that a gold mine. It
shows parallel mountain ranges separated by valleys, joined by a winding
valley. A water tank is characterized, such as Stela of Seti I. Opposite these
two points are the openings of four galleries, including mine shafts occur in
the adjacent hill. Gold also in alluvial placers - the gold water - and naturally
formed deposits underground. The basic alluvial gold gained from washing
away the lighter sand particles in water and then melt the remaining particles
of gold.
XRYSORYCHEIA IN AGRICULTURE
Work for the mining sector - and the mining industry, most of the projects,
especially those financed by the International Finance Corporation and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, held in a "business as
usual" manner. It is more transparent, it is more socially responsible, there
are also more environmentally friendly than other foreign investors in their
respective countries. It is unfortunate that, in a field of mining the main
interest of the development of these institutions is to promote the interests of
multinational companies. One of the main arguments that mining will lead to
higher standards due to mining industry - proved completely wrong in the
Kumtor gold mine in Kyrgyzstan. . In the case of Rosia Montana in Romania,
Bankwatch supporting local NGOs in advocacy work to achieve the IFC to
drop the proposed gold mine that is being promoted by Gabriel Resources, a
Canadian company. However, the fact that IFC never involved in negotiations
with a company owned by a convicted drug dealer. And trogontas or digging
comes the appetite, dig more doubles, more next, well we got kids Ukraine!
Dig more next and will dig a little house and said glossy Vikings
Zimbabwe. T was extremely rich in gold. (a) In 1700 BC, the Egyptian
monuments depicted exports of Punt, such as ostrich feathers, leopard skins,
giraffes, lions, cynocephalus monkey, elephant tusks, and gold bars, all
commodities of South East-Africa. Aristea, Agatharcides, and the Old
Testament references, as "The merchants of Sheba ... your merchants; they
occupied in your fairs [markets] ... with all the gems and gold" (xxvii Ezek ..
21 , 22) ... all testify to the enormous gold exploitation of Himyarites, which
has given the known world, with the metal. (b) There is common agreement
that the principles Himyarites imported gold. (c) Aristeas says that the gold
was brought to Rome did not come from Arabia. seems likely that the people
of Saba (the Himyarites) landed on the coast of Sofala, penetrated to the
mines and founded a colony there. believe it is of the opinion that probably
the Himyarites Yemen discovered the first place and built the temples for
worship and stone-worked gold.
The Periplus mentions that the king Himyaritic Kharabit was 35 AD held on
the east coast of Africa indefinite extent. Some authors note a connection
between the name of Sabze, or Sabi River in Rhodesia, and the kingdom of
Saba or Sheba. The Sabaea, or Sabi, a great natural way to the coast to the
people of Rhodesia between Zambesi and Limpopo Rivers.
Rhodesia was the land of Ophir;
The controversial question of whether the land of Monomotapa (Rhodesia)
was the land of Ophir can best be stated by examining Himyaritic profession,
to find the sacred and secular writings that were the merchants of Sheba
who, in addition to is the gold traders around the world, also exports to the
Phoenician centers of Tire and Sidon almost all the huge amount of gold-rich
towns that required, which held Avers story - "tire pile up as fine gold ... The
mud road "(Zacharias). It is admitted that the gold mines of the Ural
Mountains, could not contribute more than one part of the amount of gold
held by the Phoenician Canaanites. Old Roman and Grecian historians are
unanimous in stating that Himyarites gold dealers in the world and that is
purveyed in all the countries then known, but none suggest that the gold
came from Yemen, and all claim that was presented by Himyarites.
* Betuli, Baitulia = sacred stones. Phoenician = Bêthül. These stones were
not just the "home-place of God", but even God himself - Wilmot, p. 41.
In the event, called the Phoenician Canaanites were then in possession of
Monomotapa (Rhodesia) as the gold-producing colony in the country was
never in ancient days occupied with the main goal of winning gold and it is
not a simple colonization and settlement that was likely to need them to have
bought gold from the Himyarites;
The terms "Ophir" and "Tharshish» Bible is essentially generic. There were at
least two points on which the name "Tharshish" applied. "Ophir" was
employed as the title of a country rich in natural resources, as is the current
title "El Dorado. The location where this general heading of Ophir must be
implemented either in India or South Africa, if not assume with Professor
Keane Ophir that was not the gold give land, but the gold Mart, importer and
distributor of precious metal. Almost all the gold came from the south; Not
found in Yemen significantly. "Fortunately, the same period" (Biblical Ophir
period) "consists of the exploits of the man who first explored India, ie.
Alexander the Great. Among his followers were many who will gather news
for the gold-zone in India, provided that the latter was in reality. But gold was
rather independent country, all Indian tribes were almost devoid of gold and
Arrianus, best and most reliable source of our information on the campaigns
of Alexander the Great, as stated emphatically as possible:

"Alexander and his army have refuted most of the stories in this direction,
except for some who have apparently inaccurate statements. It therefore
found that all Indians through whose territories Alexander and his army
marched (and paraded through many of them) are not gold. " Therefore, it is
clear that India can not be the Ophir of antiquity. "
"Hiram of Gold"
Gold, according to the biblical and secular writings, the main export of Ophir.

Africa has always been known in ancient history as the major gold producing
country in the world. Many authorities, such as Bruce, Huet, Quartremere
syndrome and Guillain, and the vast majority of writers later in the Rhodesian
ruins, in examination of the history of gold production in that country to the
requirements of Monomotapa (Rhodesia) to be the Ophir the Bible. Mr.
Wilmot (p. 36, 37) writes: "The African Ophir was internally Sofirla from the
coast in South-East Africa (Monomotapa)." Again, Mr. Wilmot (p. 86-99),
summarizing the arguments of the authorities, he writes. "The preponderance
of the evidence is strongly in favor of the main Ophir of the Bible are from the
coast inland to the country of Sofala Monomotapa!" Mr. Bent, who examined
many of the ruins and visit the ancient gold operation, reaches the same
conclusion.
The presence in Rhodesia from ancient ruins, dating back almost prehistoric
times, some of which are known to have permanent in 1100 BC, and the
astronomical orientation of lines which in some cases to confirm a much
earlier age from that period. The style of architecture are several periods of
occupation, each of which will be calculated, covering many centuries of
years. The internal evidence gained from exploring the ruins indicate that the
main industry of the ancient conquerors were the gold mining. Those monster
buildings were erected for un-payable industry.
The presence in Rhodesia of the ancient gold-operation, covering areas of
several hundred square miles, and more extensive alluvial gold operation and
throw from the ancient. (In very remote times there were, as is known from
Egyptian monuments, a trade from South-East Africa in the Red Sea ... There
are other indications that the gold used to come from East Africa, but so far
we know that is not produced in quantity by any stretch of coast between
Mozambique and Cape Guardafui Thus, there is reason to believe that the
traffic between the Red Sea and the coast south of the Zambesi may have
existed from very remote times of late, there There, of course, no doubt. "-
Professor Bryce, Impressions of South Africa.
The enormous amount of gold from these operations in the past, however, is
undeniable. Millions of pounds to the value of gold has certainly come from
those sources. Later calculations hugs sick from the ceiling of this area found
gold in Rhodesia, based on a very partial assessment of the amount of the
reef from the ancient, as well as taking these reefs in only a fraction of the
value per t the present Rhodesian exit the mill-plates show that the ancients
must have come several million pounds sterling worth of gold from the
Rhodesian lion's Monomotapa only. (Mr. Telford Edwards, one of the leading
mining engineers in Rhodesia in 1897 valued the ancient production of gold
from this country to at least £ 75.000 pounds.) The period of ancient working
for gold in Rhodesia has been admitted by the authorities to cover both the
past and then the period during which made references to the biblical Ophir.
These reports, twelve in all, ranging from Genesis to Isaiah, and therefore
cover the whole of Jewish history before the exile.
The Goldfields of Monomotapa was known to the world prior to the time of
Hiram. (Note: the ancient Grecian legends such as trips to gold describe what
may have been traveling around Africa for the gold export center
Monomotapa.)

Hiram voyaged for gold, ivory king Solomon, slaves, monkeys, precious
stones, sandalwood and peacocks every three years. The Bible does not
state how long these trips required to perform. In any event, the gold for
export to expect, and should not be taken and then taken down to the coast
after his arrival. The gold obtained in the single trip (I Kings ix. 28) was four
hundred and twenty talents, or a present value of four million pounds.
(Rawlinson in Phoinike) The Periplus states that Rhapta (also mentioned by
Ptolemy) was a dependency of Sabaea or Yemen, and Dean Vincent Rhapta
imagine that it has ten degrees below the equator (near Quiloa). Yemen
legendary tradition largely associates of South Africa with Ophir and the
Queen of Sheba. For example, Conto, a Portuguese writer, referring to Mount
Fura, in Rhodesia ( "Fura" regarded by some as a corruption of "Ophir"),
where there are very extensive and cyclopean ruins, says that the Kafirs
called fur, and Moors, Afur. This sets Rhodesia, and report the Masouve,
River (Mazoe) and Tete, on the Zambesi.
The slaves brought Hiram to King Solomon came to the same mission with
gold and ivory. It is more likely that gold and slaves came from the same
country and from the same port.
"However, this assumption is the clear wording of the three most reliable and
oldest passages of the Old Testament, ie. Kings ix. 26-28 and x. 11, 22. It
seems incomprehensible that anyone who compares these passages literally
and critical The most capable, thorough and credible arguments are
undoubtedly those advanced in the works of Dr. Schlichter, on the subject of
ancient ruins in Rhodesia, and Dr. Karl Peters, has many more "evidence"
gained from the region San Fura, (the gold mines of Mount Furn was in 1721,
is known to the Portuguese as "Ofura.") which give very few writers on this
subject seems to have visited.
But the most famous ruins of five hundred to a portion of the Rhodesian
Monomotapa, of which (thanks to the discoveries of Messrs. Neal and
Johnson, the only tenants in the grant to explore all the ancient ruins south of
the Zambesi ) recommend this work to give information about some two
hundred ruins, and further evidence can possibly happen in the future to
strengthen the theory advanced by those already well believe that the
Rhodesia Ophir of the Scriptures. Additional evidence can also probably the
one provided by many famous monuments are scattered over the current of
Portugal Monomotapa. However, it is beyond the realm of the authors of this
work to pursue any theories on this issue Ophir, the province is to report all
information in the official data on the actual ruins themselves, and allow these
events to tell their own story.
The proposed subsequent occupation of Monomotapa (Rhodesia), the
Phoenician Canaanites Having referred to the summary of arguments for the
theory of Himyaritic profession Monomotapa, we consider also generally the
case for subsequent occupation of the Phoenician Monomotapa Canaanites.
Over time, natural absorption, the Phoenician Canaanites were not only
masters of the Mediterranean and the North Sea and the Indian Ocean and
the colonies that had been planted along Himyarites negotiated with these
colonies.
The theory is, and seems reasonable, since it can be shown that the
Phoenician Canaanites, who then had become the Prime Minister explorers,
traders, navigators, miners and metalworkers in the world, including occupied
Himyaritic former colonies, the country South East Africa, which included
Monomotapa, or Rhodesia. In possession of Monomotapa, introduced new
features to the building, as shown not only by new Zimbabwes, which
themselves are believed to have been erected in Monomotapa, but
extensions and reconstructions of the original Zimbabwes.
The Great Zimbabwe, the specificity of the building terraces rising in tiers is
completely absent, and the original parts of Zimbabwe is it considered that it
was built in the first period of ancient architecture surviving in Rhodesia. Of
course, in Zimbabwe, there are reconstructions and extensions of the original
building, and reconstruction and extensions of different periods, such periods
of prominent features. But in many parts of Rhodesia and other parts of
Monomotapa were built on the slopes and summits kopjes massive
structures which, if followed generally the first type of Zimbabwe have been
built in three or more high-rise terraced levels Summit the hills around them,
and sometimes full coverage. This "wedding-cake" feature, as named, is
absent in all Zimbabwes built in the first period. However, all these later
Zimbabwes present any evidence of having been erected by the lover, and
giving the church direction "open to the sky," the sacred circle, the conical
towers "high points", the monoliths, and all evidence elements of Phallic
worship. This category of Zimbabwe is represented, among many others,
Dhlo-dhlo, Regina, Meteme, and Khami. There is a great similarity between
these later Zimbabwes and many of the three thousand nauraghes, united or
fortresses, which covers the island of Sardinia. In both the evidence and
Sardinia Rhodesian erections of nature-worship are plentiful. "The Age",
writes Mr. Wilmot, "Sardinia nauraghes goes back to a remote antiquity - the
Bronze Age - a time when the Romans were not known to the Tiber! Geyard
(p. 6) writes:" I have no hesitation in considering the many edifices round of
Sardinia, which is known as the nauraghes, as monuments of the worship of
Baal. " Moreover, some of the principles on this issue, believing that they had
set up the remains ... Phoenician worship is to be found in the ruins of
Sardinia nauraghe, both monoliths and stones, the most unmistakable
emblems representing a religion so vicious and debasing that Palestine be
made the righteous complaints, as it was hurled against the tire and Sidon
and the "highest levels" of Samaria where worshiped Baal. Some of the
arguments advanced in support of the theory of the Phoenician occupation of
Monomotapa can be stated as follows:

The known absorption Phoenician influence and trade in Himyarites the

Southern Ocean and its shores, which occurred during the period in which he
worked from ancient Monomotapa for gold. The construction of the later
Zimbabwes Monomotapa in which, while adhering to the type of the first
period of Zimbabwe was still a trend in architecture peculiar to themselves,
and great similarity in this respect the nauraghes Sardinia. The exact
representation of the form of the worship of phallic symbols, both in Rhodesia
and in Sardinia and other Mediterranean colonies of the Phoenicians, who
were imported from the high authorities to Phoenician. Betylae (sacred
stones), as it is abundant in Rhodesia, have been found in all countries
subject to a Phoenician influence. The discovery in Zimbabwe the bottle of
talcum quern shape ring of rosettes at the top and sides, which rosettes are
believed to represent the sun, and it is common to phallic decoration. This
cylinder, which is considered as undoubtedly Phoenician, is similar to that
found in the temple of Paphos in Cyprus, which was once the leading
Phoenician colony. The rosettes are also similar to those for the sacred cone
of the great Phoenician Temple of the Sun at Emesa, in Syria and also in the
rosettes on the Phoenician tombstones in the British Museum. Also Phallic
emblems clearly Phoenician.
The breakthrough in Zimbabwe, by Mr. Bent,. The old tin-smelting plants in
Cornwall were Phoenician Canaanites, and as the natives of medieval and
Monomotapa in Rhodesia-day, they used thorns for organizing the small
amount of gold taken in the tin streaming works.)
The discovery of the true Phalli.
The presence of cones and tapered struts. Cone (see Dr. Schlichter works to
describe the conical towers) in Zimbabwe is to make a copy of the sacred
cone of the Phoenician temple in Byblos.

The historical record of the trip Phoenician Canaanites under King Necho
about 610 BC directly from the Red Sea to the coast of Southeastern Africa
(Monomotapa). These arguments could easily be expanded after adding, but
has proved adequate to meet one that in any event, there are some
substantial reasons to believe that the Phoenician Canaanites settled once
Rhodesia and processed, vast areas of the gold reefs. All payments
Portuguese records can be made to clarify the mystery enwraps the ruins are
more skilfully summarized in his book, Mr. Wilmot, Monomotapa.

Ancient gold mining activity in Hutti-Muski greenstone belt, arnataka, India:

radiocarbon perspective
producing centers of India has seen ancient and modern mining. The
presence of logs, wood ash, charcoal and pottery in the ancient gold mines of
Kolar, Hutti and UTI suggests the fire was the primary mode of operation of
the ancient gold miners. In the absence of historical records relating to events
of ancient mining in Attica, the wood material found in the ancient mode of
gold were used to reduce episodes of activity. We radiocarbon (14C), dated
log wood from the gold mines UTI, which reveals that the ancient mining
activity here dating back to AD 660-780. The date of the mine UTI with the
published 14C dates earlier than Kolar fields suggest that the ancient gold
mining activity was concomitant to these places and areas Hutti exploited
during the first part of the Christian era .. The length of the gold mines in
Karnataka is quite old1 and the ancient gold mines continue to operate as a
beacon for contemporary gold mines. Most of the old operation came to light
Foote2 during the geological cross in Karnataka3. Over 300 ancient function
specified in Hutti-Muski zone schist, Karnataka4. The deepest depth of my
case is 200 meters from the ground Hutti. Some ancient operation were 3000
years old5. Other auriferous road in Hutti-Muski greenstone belt, known as
UTI gold mine area is in Raichur District, Karnataka. UTI Gold Mine located
approximately 22 kilometers northeast of the gold mine Hutti. The geology of
gold deposits described by UTI Biswas6 and Sangurmath7. The main litho-
units are amphibolite, acid volcanics, carbonaceous schist, pegmatite, basic
dykes, quartz veins and gold bearing zones. The Geological Survey of India
(GSI), HGML and Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd (MECL) have been
gold exploration activities UTI auriferous deposits8, whereby the detailed
surface gold mining started in UTI. Evidence of ancient mining activity was
observed during the opencast gold UTI mines8.
UTI N-928 ~ 40 m below the reference level (Fig. 1 b) 1290 ± 60 660 AD-780
AD
Kolar * TF-1199 Superficial Excavations 1290 ± 90 660 AD-860 AD
Kolar * TF-879 Champion reef 50 meters depth of 1500 ± 115 430 AD-660
AD
Hutti * Sample no. Axis 1 Oakley is 80 meters deep 1945 ± 70 40 BC-130 AD

Hutti * Sample no. Axis 2 Oakley is 80 meters deep 1865 ± 70 70 AD-240 AD

* Agrawal and Margabandhu13.

In UTI ancient gold mine. old workings were extended to a depth of 20-25
meters and contained wood, charcoal, ash, ceramics, etc. The geological
cross-section of the open-pit (Figure 1 b) indicate the presence of
amphibolites in the western face, acid volcanic rocks in the east, and the lode
zone. The ancient miners extracted ore from fire-setting process followed by
water cooling the heated rock. This was evident from the presence of visible
gold on the surface of quartz coated charcoal burned in the open pit workings
old observed that in ancient times the main supply of gold was the Egyptian
deserts of Nubia. The Egyptians were known to have been mining gold in the
Nubian sand 6000 years ago, and continued for several centuries10. It
seems that the Rhodesians were inspired by ancient mining activity in
Thessaloniki, and mining activities developed by the 3rd century11. Mining in
Thessaloniki extends from the back centuries before and immediately after
Christian era5. In order to elucidate the function of ancient times in copper
ore mines Ingaldhal, Shankar12 made the 14C dating of wood logs from the
old workings of Ingaldhal copper mines of Thessaloniki, and concluded that
the ancient mining activity was in the period Satavahana ( 2nd century BC to
2nd century AD). Similar studies13 in ancient function of gold Kolar gold
mines revealed the existence of activity at 5 to 7 AD century, while the Hutti
gold mines at the time of the ancient gold mining activity was much earlier
(concerning the principle of
Christian era
ANCIENT MINING IN BULGARIA
. Gold and silver deposits in the southern slope of the Vitosha Mountains and
Verila,

found today near the village Chuipetlovo, Bosnek, Gorna Dikanya, Dolna
Dikanya, Lisets and others. The volume of gold-washed sand and gravel
along the Struma, Klisura, MARTINOVA and others, is several million m3.
Huge is mining for gold production from the eluvial-delivial placers and the
spot gold-silver ore occurrences. For example, ancient quarry under the
Kupena Peak near Smilio is a remarkable dimensions 550x50x10 m. Such is
the scale of production of ore in the area of vill
ages and Gorna Dikanya Dolna Dikanya. Existing evidence suggests that the
main
ore
production occurred during the Roman domination in the Balkans and

especially
during the
ІІІ-ІV
century and
later during the Ottoman period in ХV ХVІІ century. The Struma River, and
most of its tributaries in Sofia, Radomir and Pernik Districts gold is flying. This
fact has been known that people from ancient times. So far there is no
evidence to the oldest gold producers in the region, but there is no doubt that
has begun in prehistoric times, when many of the resources in the Balkan
Peninsula have been exploited. In later historical times, when the ore
production in Ancient Thrace has become a basic living for large groups, the
gold placers and gold deposits along the
The stream of Struma River has been recovered from ancient times, and
particularly acute in some historical periods. Traces of this remarkable
ancient gold production may have Strymon valley extensively exploited. With
a holiday activity takes place in the Middle Ages almost ХІХ century. In this
communication only the gold projects in the southern slopes of the Vitosha
and Verila Mountain discussed. In these places there are many "on site" and
gold deposits and goldsilver occurrences and deposits, caught in the past.
Traces of ancient gold mines in the above during the Struma River wash
remains of old projects along the alluvial plac $ ers Gold washed along the
river Strymon, and on the terraces around the village Bosnek (Dimitrov, 1960,
241 - 249 ? Velkov, 1955, 88? Peev, 1975, 99? Peev, 1980, 52?
Georgiev, 1987, 19? Iliev et al., 1991, 11). Recently in this place a deposit of
gold deposits were seeking, which was partially worked in the past. The
traces of the old projects located east of the village Bosnek. The
Northeastern
part of the space occupied area of 600x30 m, аnd in the southwest - 150х40
m. Ivan Velkov describes them as "The piles of stones placed in big bands at
up to 1 km in length, on the left bank of the Strymon, South and Southwest of
village "(Velkov, 1955, 88). Water for washing is taken from "the river
Strymon in Duhlite - a cave east of the village, where previously there was a
group and water. These piles of stones known to local
population from "gramag'e names" and "density". According to Ivan Peev,
under "Studena" dam and the flooding of the river Rudarshtitsa and slighly
less along the coarse of the Struma River, the verandas have worked

At the same there used as a "once seen ditch, which catches

Kupen water from a tributary of the Strymon and drive away in this area for
washing and quartzite are under such close Struma «gramadatsi '". In The
gramadatsi out "located in the areas Smilio,
Yanchesko Usoe, Sichkova Bara, Hrebeta Balabanitsa and between villages
and Yarlovo Chuipetlovo. Especially notable is the size of the old quarry in
gold
Smilio area - 555 m length, width of 40-50 meters and a depth of 10 meters
(Peev, 1975, 99? Peev, 1980, 52-53). There are many other parts of digging,
reaching up to 400 m the length of the BA Krusta Peak (1561 m). Ivan Velkov
also reported these excavations "in the northeast of Bosnek to about 2 km
away, on the right bank of the Strymon steep increases in the South in a
rocky mountain height, the upper parts of which are" deeply furrowed with
many deep Excavations "(Velkov, 1955, 88).
Deliradev says "quartzite 'gramadatsi" above the village Bosnek (Deliradev,
1926). These excavations, located at Petrus Peak is known as "Petrunovi
Gramadi". According Panayot Bakalov these old mining projects is one
coluvial (redeposited Tertiary sediments bearing gold), and the excavations
on the terrace of the Struma River in Bosnek - alluvial (river) placers. In
reality, the nature of
discussed placers in Petrus Peak is eluvial or eluvialdeluvial. Another large
quarry in eluvial-deluvial deposits are located in the east of the village of
Gorna Dikanya in Dragal village near Kozarnitsite (Figure 1). Currently
represented
as a negative form of relief with dimensions 550x80-100 m, located on the
north side of the river Dragal. It can be distinguished from the physical relief
from deep cuts and pits and the large piles of rock fragments of different
sizes.
Probably in alluvial placers from local gold silver deposits are digging along
the right bank of the river Dobri Del. Fig. 1. Much digging near Kozarnitsite,
near the village of Gorna Dikanya (Radomir District)
Traces of the old mine works from local production of gold The third set of
traces of old gold producers in the region are from local gold deposits. Ivan
Velinov notes as excavations for the production of spot gold in these Nakev
Kamak (ore occurrence "Iveto") at its source Matnitsa
River, north of the village Chuipetlovo (Velinov, 2002, 25-27). At the north
and west of the village in Vakarelets area (Figure 2) and the village Lisets
(Fig. 3) is
The tenth such excavations, some 80-200 meters in length and 15-20 meters
in depth. That is why some of the names of areas to be connected to the old
gold production: gully Kopanik, arapotamo River Dobri Dol in Dragoya Peak,
the village Rudarski Egretsi and others. Fig. 2. Digging areas near
"Vakarelets", in the North of the village Gorna Dikanya (Radomir District)
Fig. 3. Digging positions in the north of the village Lisets (Radomir District)
Monetary data for the ancient production of precious metals Gold production
has been widely in Bulgaria since Thracian times. Indirect information is the
numerous discoveries of gold artifacts, including the Upper Struma
River region. It is assumed that these activities have developed since the
Roman Empire conquered the Balkans. A larger gold produced at this time
was used by local goldsmiths, jewelry and gold sold to wealthy individuals
Serdica. Some small part is cut as gold
coins. Mint in Serdica believed to produce a limited quantity aureuses early III
c. during the reign of the dynasty Severes. Several decades later cut gold
coins with images of the emperor Tacitus (275-276 AD) and Prob (275-282
AD), but after 278 AD suspending
activity (Figure 4). At the beginning of IV c. no significant change in the
structure of the use of gold and silver produced in the region. Much of the
production is used for minting coins and medals. For example, when the
Emperor Diocletian in 303 AD Serdica in antique cut
many programs and silver coins bilone (Bozhkova, 1977, 4). a b c
Fig. 4. Gold aureuses, minted in Serdica by emperors: а - Caracalla
(197-217); B - Tacitus (275-276); C - Prob (275-282) The difference to many
other mints of the empire, one in Serdica quickly specializes in cutting the
gold coins. On 1 May 305 AD until 25 July AD 306 gold coins the names of
the emperors Diocletian and Maximian Herculii, Galerii Maximian and
Maximin Daza, and Empress Valeria were cut (Figure 5). In 308 AD mint
again suspend its work, but after a few years (317/318 г.) Again
Mints aureuses gold, this time with the names of emperors
Licinius and Constantine the Great (Bozhkova, 1977, 5). а b c Fig. 5. Gold
aureuses, minted in Serdica by emperors: а - Maximin ІІ (308-313)? B -
Galeria Valeria (308)? C - Galerii Maximilian (305-306) This gold is cut with
different political events and mostly the visits of Roman emperors in Serdica.
Probably the control over the gold coins issued in the Roman
Empire was more severe compared to other types of mint coins and has
occurred only in individual cases, despite significant and sustained gold
production in some areas. This is the most plausible explanation for the
frequent interruption of gold cutting Serdica and short but wide range of
movement once the type of coins and the variety of images. During the
remaining years of the gold produced in the surroundings of the present city
of Sofia is probably sent for cutting the Mint of Serdica other major mints and
only a small part is used for local use.
During the Early Byzantine period of the precious metal
production in the area probably continue, but there is no direct evidence.
There are also data for the period of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. Finally,
the first written evidence of ore production in Sofia and Samokov District
occurred during decades punch in the Ottoman conquest of the Balkan
Peninsula. а b c Fig. 6. Silver argenteuses minted in Serdica by emperors: а -
Maximilian Hercules (305-306); B - Diocletian (303-305); C - Maximin Daza
(305-306)
.
Historical accounts of the medieval production of precious metals
In a document of 1451-1455, out 'hasove »and« timari »in Sofia and
Samokov areas where villages are linked to mining activities (Sources ...,
1966, 53-103). Data refer to the production of iron in the villages Bistritsa,
Studena, Daskalovo, Radichkov Samokov, Srubski Samokov, Vulkov
Samokov, Popovyane, Reliovo and Pasarel. I guess you or a previous period
was the gold, silver, lead and iron production in the neighborhood of villages
Chuipetlovo, Yarlovo,
Bosnek, Gorna Dikanya, Dolna Dikanya, Lisets, Dren, Drugan, Studena,
Kralev Dol, Popovo and others. This has manifested itself in the list of most
important silver mines of the Balkan Peninsula compiled by Genovesian
Giacopo de
Promontorio in 1475 (Ризаj, 1970, 93). According to the data, despite the
known mines Novo Burdo, Srebrenitsa, Kratovo, Prishtina and Serres, a large
silver mine was also close to Sofia. Production of precious metals from the
mine, reached a maximum during the century ХVI. For at least two centuries
significant quantities of both gold and silver in situ reserves and deposits
were produced. Giant remains left by these activities - excavations in gold
mining, gold and silver gold-silver-polymetallic deposits, and huge piles of
stones washed bearing gold placers (Аvdev, 1996, 21-24). Unfortunately,
there are few written records for the gold and silver mines. Indirect
information is Turkish «Ferman» send in 1574 by local commanders kadii
( "") of mining centers which ordered him to send certain amounts of lead in
Thessaloniki (Ризаj, 1970, 92). The receiver of the «Ferman» is kadia »of
Radomir, who was forced to send the ore from the nearest local mine. From
that time is another letter with similar content. It is addressed to «kadia» Sofia
and Hazur nazur assistant "of Chavush, and a copy was sent to kadia» of
Samokov and the nazur "in Samokov (Grozdanova, Andreev, 1986, 121).
Was ordered in the required quantity of lead for the construction of a mosque
in Istanbul to be sent. The involvement of nazur the '' of Samokov perhaps
this effect is related to the transfer because the supplies of iron from
Samokov to Istanbul was to be frequent and regular basis and this
organization existed. Another indirect evidence for the existence of "Dikanya"
mine and other mines around Sofia that time is the local cut. It began in early
ХVI century, when Wisdom mint produces first «akche» the name of Sultan
Suleyman I, Kanuni (1520-1566) (Bachvarov, 1981, 34). Around the years
1545-1550 blocks for almost 20 years, but the 1568/1569 continuing its
activity. After one of the many economic and financial crisis at the end of the
century, the 1603 mint temporarily suspend production. An effort
restoration of activity was a Ferman Sultan dated 12 August του 1618
(Ikhchiev, 1911, 203-205? Bachvarov, 1981, 35). Production at the moment
is minimal and sporadic. The 1640 mint Sofia permanently suspend its
activity. The only direct evidence for gold and silver mine near Sofia is the
beginning of the century ХVII. As written in an Ottoman document of 17 June
1635, some of the above mentioned villages were included in the "big rock" is
"the glory of the sultan» (Draganova, 1970, 191). As can be
proposed by the information in the document, holding it stood at the end of
ХVI c. and beginning of ХVII c. after excluding the villages of Vitosha
administrative rule Samokov ( "we were brought under the authority of kaza"
of Samokov "). One possible reason may be the most different mining
activity, such as gold and silver produced. At the time of the document, the
population of villages in southern and southwestern slopes of Vitosha
Mountain was mainly active in the production of iron and possibly to a lesser
extent - precious metals. Not clear villages involved in gold and silver
production, but can be proposed on the basis of the
archaeological and geological data, that the villages Dikanya, Lisets, Kozich,
Dren, Chuipetlovo, Bosnek and others. Several years later, the economic
situation in the region deteriorated. The local population was left to the mercy
of local rulers, which severely disorganized in the ore production. As
indicated in the above cited paper of 1635 "Because of the great terror and
oppression" of the mining district of Samokov and scattered groups of
refugees went to the Sofia kaza »(Draganova, 1970, 191? Andreev,
Grozdanova, 1993, 80). The villages in the mining and Kozich Dren (Pernik
District) was completely deserted. Nevertheless the village
Dikanya remains under a tax register from 1640-1646 was about 60 families
associated with the mining and that is why they have released the emergency
tax (Grozdanova, 1989, 124). The reflection of this mining activity is a series
of subsequent information, which is a large mine states that existed at some
time in the Vitosha mountain. For example, a French memo trip of 1671, one
can see that information on the existence of gold and silver ores in the region
was widely spread among the population. The unknown author writes: "After
they (local authorities) made some investigation, gave different arguments
can be found here good gold ore" (Ionov, 1986, 121). The importance of the
old mine near Sofia was out poitned lso, the cartographers of the time. In
different geographic maps and ХVII ХVIII c. south of the city seems
characteristic for silver production areas toponym "Monte Argentaro". Thus,
two of the maps Kanteli da Vigniola of 1679 and 1684, covering territories
from Belgrade to the Black Sea to the mountains south of Sofia called a
"Monte Argentaro". The map of Gerard and Leonard in 1730, preserved in
the National Library "St.St. Cyril and Methodius" form "Monte Argentaro"
Mountains give their origin, the rivers Iskar, Struma and the Maritsa. The
same name is given to the mountain south of Sofia on the map of Tobias
Konrad Loter of 1739, and training in 1771 "Register of the regions of Turkey
and Christians also mentioned gold production in Vitosha:
Vitosha in silver, gold, lead and precious stones have been produced
"(Angelov, 1966, 58). Around the same time (1786) the traveler Saviur
Lusinian pass from Sofia, and has left a more detailed description for the
position of the mine:" In west of the city there are mountains, called «Vitush»
Turks.
At peak
there is a field where much of the aromatic flowers are blooming. here there
is also a gold mine, which is not working "(Shishmanov, 1891, 474). What I
referred to the" geography "of the two Armenian scholars and Indjedjian
Agonz, who often crossed the Bulgarian territories in the period 1792-1804
(Оrmadjiyan, 1984, 72). He will also visit a cave near Sofia, where they were
found cutting tools, left in accordance with the local residents, the once
existing there mint. The two travelers write: "A substance can claim this
because this area there are traces of gold mining. This is particularly evident
during rain, because the flooding river brings with itself »tebir», which is
nothing but gold dust. "The above evidence of a large gold and silver mine in
Vitosha complemented by a series others later written sources, most of them
from the first half of ХIХ
century (Avdev, 2005). An interesting fact is that over the years have been
some attempts made by the official Turkish authorities to clarify the prospects
for the production of iron ore from Mount Vitosha. In a letter from the Grand
Vessir the governor of Sofia, September 13, 1847 is written that "in the
Vitosha Mountain near Sofia, the ores have been discovered and
"Is that to search specific to sent, to whom should lend support" (Dorev,
1940, 301). The result is nosti, but probably this search gave no effect,
because until the liberation (1878) and after this unique gold miners in the
region are those who work alongside the local gold and magnetite bearing
rivers.

References
Andreev, S., Е. Grozdanova. 1993. About the History of Mining
Metallurgy and Bulgarian lands during ХV-ХIХ
Century. Izd. NBCM, Sofia, 152 p. (in Bulgarian)
Angelov, B. 1959. Archaeological notes on Serbian routes
during ХVII-ХVIII C. - Archeology, 8, 3, 57-59 (in Bulgarian).
Avdev, S. 1996. The large gold-silver minе in Vitosha during
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Avdev, S. 2005. History of gold production for the Bulgarian
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Nauka i Izkustvo, Sofia, 413 p. (in Bulgarian)
Markov, N. 2003. Sources for the History of Mining
Metallurgy for the Bulgarian Lands. Vol. 1. ХVII-ХIХ c. Sofia (in Bulgarian).
Оrmandjiyan, А. (Comp.). 1984. Аrmenian Notes on Travel
Balkans in ХVII-ХIХ century. Vol. 5. Nauka i Izkustvo, Sofia, 246 p. (in
Bulgarian)
Peev, I. 1975. Traces of monuments and material from the gold
project activity for the Bulgarian lands. - Proc. First
Symposium on the History of Mining in South-Eastern Europe.
Varna, 94-99 (in Bulgarian).
Peev, I. 1980. Material monuments to produce gold
Bulgarian territories. - Vekove, 9, 4, 48-56 (in Bulgarian).
Peev, I. 1990. The gold bearing deposits with deposits in Bulgaria. --
In: Methods and technologies for prospecting
Raw Materials. Vol. 1. Sofia, 92-97 (in Bulgarian).
Rizaj, S. 1970. Rudarsvoto vo Makedonja od ХV dо ХVІІІ vek.
- Glasnik na Institutot za Nationalna Istorijа, 14, 2-3, 91 - 111 (in
Macedonian).
Shishmanov, J. 1891. Old Travels through Bulgaria. - Sbornik
Narodni Umotvoreniya, Nauka i Knizhnina, IV, 474 p. (in Bulgarian)
Sources in Bilgarian history. Vol. XIII. Turkish
II.
Sofia
Keywords: stable isotope, gold ore deposit, genesis, Ukrainian Carpathians.
The main vertical division is typical of all deposits, including deposits
Muzhiev. The gold ores of silver is in an area; been replaced by gold-silver-
plumbum-zinc ore with major impurities of copper in depth. The composite
gold-polymetal sulfide ores is a dominant species on the ore deposit
Muzhiev. The results of isotopic investigations of this deposit suggest: 1. The
isotopic composition of strontium in polymetal ores [1, 2] shows that the
source of minerals "is a mixed crust-mantle; which is typical of modern
polymetal deposits (Weig-Eilend, New Zealand). 2. A hybrid nature of
magmatic rocks, related polymetal deposits confirmed
[1] of the isotopic ratio of strontium in magmatic rocks of the ore field (87 Sr /
86 Sr = from 0.704 to 0.708)
3. The isotope ratios of oxygen and carbon in carbonates (from 15,5 έως
17,9 ", SMOW and 1.5 with -9,8", РDВ appropriate) defines a heterogeneous
source of the substance in carbonate minerals from ore zones: Abyssal and
sedimentary-metamorphized figures are two [2].
4. The isotopic composition of gold-bearing quartz vein gold (d 18
The range of - 5.2 to 13.7) and also reflects polyvariant multiphase nature of
calcium. Abyssal along with sources of oxygen, particularly in the final stages
of the ore was also present, surface, meteoric waters; calculated variate
isotopic composition from 6.2 to -15 [2, 3]. 5. The d 34 S values for the area
of sulphide ore Beregov close to meteoritic standard, and for sulphate by
Auric barites is slightly displaced in the party of positive values (-0.2 to 9.6),
while non-metal parts is 22.8. The suite is delovetsky ore wear Sauliak
(mountain Rahov) deposit is characteristic spilite-keratophyre formation. The
ore zones zones appear here. Fizzy
The manganese ores associated with spiliteœdiabase, locally converted into
silicates. The top part of a huge, huge - impregnated pyrite, in general, there
are copper pyrite ores related Andesite magmatism. The distribution of gold
ore formation has the following range of sizes (g / t): Manganese - 0,3-1,0;
pyrite copper - up to 3.0; pyrite - polymetallic - 10 and more; Quartz (Sauliak)
type - 50 to 1000; arsenious guy - 10. The ore bodies have complex
topography, dipping low in the southwest.
On the structural signature of the ore bearing sequences determined
massive quartz, white-gray or milk, sometimes transparent, lens
performance, a small vein and veins in shales. Comb quartz located on sites
of sharp bends of quartz lenses. The practical value represents irregular
quartz ore associated with a gradual transition to black quartzite. Most
quartzes have a wide price band d 18 О. It is possible to select three types
metasomatites for the synthesis of metal ores in rock
mass: quartz-carbonate (I), quartz-sulfide (II) quartz (III). High values (d 18 О
= 16 ") is typical of the first type of rocks, the second type quartzes easier
isotope composition of oxygen, d 18
О = 12,3 ", mineralization of the third type contains quartz, with broadband
prices d 18 О - from 8.7 to 15.4 (average is 12.4). The difference
of barren quartz varies from a low flying ore and ore bearing is a very low
content
heavy oxygen isotope, d 18 О = 8 ". The growth of the content of isotopes
18 О in quartz zones enriched with organic matter scattered there. Normally,
such quartz has a high intensity of brightness and increasing component of
ore content. The results of isotope studies of carbonate ore sequences show
a wide range of d 18 О (9.7-17.2 "), and d 13 С (-15,3 ÷ 1,2") and lower
content of heavy isotopes than marbles. Without data, etc. GPMamchur [4],
FIZhukov and DOLesnoj [5], the isotope composition of carbon in coal is the
limits of -13.7 to 1.5. In the schist quartz-carbonate-sericitic composition
containing mineral, the terms d
18 О and d 13 С in carbonatic element differ from those of the marbles from
the lower content of heavy isotopes of oxygen and carbon.
Carbon black quartzite represented siderite and dolomite. Layerwise
micaceous distributed along the sheet, enriched with organic (d
13 С = -19,2 "). These are near carbon isotopic composition of carbon in
dolomite from near ore bearing listvenite. Ore --
bear near ore bearing formation formed in different geological situation,
which is confirmed by different isotopic composition of their oxygen.

References
Danilovich LG Petrogenesis of Abyssal formations Carpathians datas for the
isotope composition of strontium / Geol. j œ 1977, 37, issue. 4. œ P. 67-80.
Koptyuh Yu.M., Kulibaba VM to a problem of genesis of gold mineralization
associations Beregov area of the ore Transcarpathian / / problem of gold ore-
bearing from the depths of Ukraine. œKyiv, 1997. œ p. 211-220. Shcherbak
MP, Bartnicki EN, Lugova IP Isotope geology of Ukraine. - Kyiv, 1987. - P.
246. Mamchur GP et all. d
13 С value of crystalline carbonate rocks of the Carpathians, which contain
minerals - are manifestations of gold / / In collection: Geology and
Geochemistry of fossil fuels. - Lviv, 1978. - Issue. 51. - P. 30-37. Zhukov FI,
Lesnoj DA Isotopes of sulfur and carbon stratiform deposits of folded areas.
-Kiev: Nauk. dumka, 1982.

VIKINGS, BARBARIANS, VARAGIANS, hideous,

or whatever suits you,
Havn't had pottipota or to offer us,
We do not want to borrow anything from you
We gave you light and stravithikate
Harmony and the ruined
Hold off or you die
by sword and cross, with fair and steel!

CHERNIGIV, AKIDES, AND THEIR SECRETS

AKIDES

Things To CHRNIGIV is mysterious pin the columns of the theater in Red

Square, the pointed towers of the churches, the medieval buildings were built
all this just for style;
And the rate was made for no reason;
What is the secret krymmno eptasfragisto at the square;
But let's take things from the start We all know that the pins used to isolate
the vibration whoever. The bad news is that the spike is a bit difficult. To do
good work should be as sharp as possible. If you are very sharp but the
burden bends and crooked, "kefalonei" as leme.Ki so the surface is now
headed to potato and no nose so we missed the target. Why TOT therefore
loses its function as an absorber or better damper.
The solution is not one and the following plants. Use a very hard material to
resist bending due to gravity But this means cost. So they (the plants)
satisfied with a simple iron-tipped that very much to enrich later. In ancient
Greece, which is not employing them, and both the kostologio when I wanted
to build huge spikes, as we say columns had to find a suitable material,
Pentelic marble or marble TAYGETI
The drainage of the vibration is simeiaka.I spike it only serves. Something
like the edge of the knife. The force applied to the handle moved to
micronised edge, so that cuts the point where pressed. What is the value? I
assume that this does not easily move the loudspeaker, due to vibration of
megafonon.Akrivos! The hard, sharp
Spike does isolation do conjugation.
The pressure on the nose soaring, and the spike penetrates the bottom
surface. What is right from there, show case, with little critical mind because
the pins can easily have the opposite effect.
On the other is a good idea of the pins on carpets or rugs where it rests on
the "sails" by promoting the influence of transverse vibration. Tin cry course
material efapttai my friends but no pain no gain - otherwise, sozesai the
incident with the spike Oxymoron + platter! Exactly! The hard, sharp spike
does isolation do conjugation.
Well I have over the LOUDSPEAKERS bases., 4 SEAT those putting our
mom under the chairs-tables so as not to spoil the floor !!!!! The bases on
which pins are not chothoun instruments in wooden floor clicked over to coins
!!!!!!!
And how I got the idea, look at the theater of Chernigov which has shaped
marble Skepi L, the ninth pin collecting, and the front has a systychia by
marble columns standing on a wide marmaroines surfaces. That the eyes of
the Physical collect etheric energy and grounded to earth, causing a healing
environment
The main challenge then, speaking of pins is both to prevent the transmission
ADVERSE vibration (of the speakers that deliver them) with the appropriate
anti-vibration materials and other isolated and other devices from vibrations
generated.
If we had a stereo will anarotiomastan
What exactly vibrations (vibrations) we want to isolate? Is the ONLY caused
by the speakers, that simply want to avoid negative feedback from the
speakers in a needle and alone turntable? So we just move the needle in
relation to the magnet ( and the corresponding electrical signal) to have a
linear relationship with the groove is etched in the vinyl without any other
effect? And especially not negative feedback can lead to yperenischysi signal
at the resonance frequency (eigenfrequency) of the system:
1. Weight of head and arm (Mass Stgis in our case)
2. Flexibility / rigidity of the stem of the needle (spring, capitals)
3. there is any depreciation in the stock strain of the needle and the contact
of the diamond with the vinyl (absorbers) However, if this is the
eigenfrequency must be off (if I remember correctly there should be much
more or much less) than stimulate the frequency caused by the grooves of
the disc.

To reduce the phenomenon of negative feedback can

1. To insert a large mass, as Lem to thick marble or stone from an ancient

theater on the trail from the floor to the needle (massive turntable). This limits
the amplitude (intensity-amplitude) of vibration.

2. To change the system of "mass-spring-shock absorber, a little difficult,

even inserting a mass associated with the mass of the turntable with a spring
(turntable yposasi).
The "grooves" (hollows) are read by a laser head and the system can be
influenced by mechanical resonances ...
THE KATALAVA;
The columns broadcast soil, telourika currents frequencies produced shall be
withdrawn and the transporting them underground from the earth. Each is an
ancient temple and then IAARP that is something we Americans ipan m the
technology. 3000 years before we find these toys. Not only for ichitiks
frequencies and for trtipia light.
If you understand the ancient Greek temples are nothing more than collectors
of a particular idiosychnotitas material and not of the same material,
channeled through krthstalikon structures inside the earth, as if the injections
Do s life, and subsequently to reverse course on maintaining the balance
land "ECDC" negative energy that is stored within the lung MESTON -
ancient theaters that if you look from above you will see are the image
mirrors television. Got;

The ancient Greeks, the EL or Elohim, through the creations of giant on the
surface of the planet, keep an alive world, Gaia with life, which is a tiny piece
of your own life. The mass metaschimatiztai active and vice versa, the energy
in mass making the universe diogkonetai and growing like a giant balloon
aftofouskonetai. And aftofouskontai by infinite free free electricity which
metaschimatiztai the light energy. But let's see how like electricity ... ..
... ... It did light
A monochromatic beam of light, photons and charged with skeptonia
Réunion, spread in a glass and tile incident to a seat at an angle greater than
critical, reflected 100% and not go out of the tile. This phenomenon is called
total internal reflection. In fact the wave of light does not stop instantly on the
reflective surface. For a short time, a part of the package, despatched outside
the glass tile. We can show approaching half a glass tile near the first. The
bright wave that came out of the first glass wafer and weakens rapidly enters
the second wafer and propagates in it. H intensity and the second broadcast
wave tile depends on how close we brought the two plates together. One of
the greatest discoveries of the 20th century is that the particles behave like
waves. As light can penetrate the "closed area" between the tiles so the
matter (since it is waves) can penetrate the tunneling regions according to
classical theory is restricted. A simple example of the tunnel where we have
two metals are very close to each other without contact. A potential difference
applied between the two metals. The free electrons of the first metal have
enough energy to pass in the second. Is that like a "prison" in it because they
are inside a potential well produced by the attraction of positive nuclei. H
quantum mechanics but provides some electrons can penetrate the energy
barrier. However, like light waves, so the waves associated with electrons
and stop instantaneously the limits of the metal surface, but extend outside of
this weakening rapidly. If the gap between two pieces of metal are very small,
the electron - wave enters the second piece completely before weakening
and propagates in it. A current flows between two metallic electrodes. This
current increases exponentially as the two metal parts are close together.
Suppose that instead of a finger using a very sharp tungsten tip by which we
approach in a conductive sample without the ever bring into contact with it to
allow electrons to "flow" from the tip to the sample and vice versa. Applying a
potential difference, a few thousandths of a volt to few volts between the tip
and the sample causing a tunnel current of about nanoamper (10-9 A). If the
tip moves parallel to the surface of the sample, the current increases or
diminishes depending on whether the sample has "hills" and "valleys" on the
surface. To maintain the current standard should the spike-sample distance
is maintained constant. In other words, the pin moving ever nearer or moving
away from the sample. Watching the opening of the spike have a picture of
anomalies presented by the sample surface at each position. When the pin
with a high positive potential, found that over the material under
consideration, then the energy barrier that separates the electrons of the
material from the pin is quantum-mechanical passableness and appeared in
a weak electric current. Conversely, when the pin is located on a recessed
surface, the energy barrier becomes prohibitively high and electricity is
reduced dramatically or stops altogether. Thus the fluctuations of the current
"cold emission" record with an amazing accuracy of the anomalies observed
surface.

With multiple scans. of the sample and simulations succeeded with the help
of computer imaging would give a conductive surface on an atomic scale, as
the above pictures.
With very high quality pin can be seen no more common defects of a surface
but the "anomalies" from the same individual texture. We can see the same
people!
Piezoelectric crystals to control traffic
The move, however, Spike's back and forth must be made with absolute
precision when scanning the surface; And this could be done mechanically.
Binnig and Rohrer The piezoelectric crystals used to clamp the pin and check
the movement of at xy (for scanning) and the axis z (closeness - removal of
the spike).
How & Where you will spot Vikings gold
The old adage that "Gold is where you find it" is not necessarily true.
Prospecting in the better known gold bearing regions will immediately
improve how your chances of finding gold are. Gold is where others
have found it and you have come up with a better method of
recovering gold.
Rivers and streams:Rivers and Streams become natural collectors of
gold, making it a little easier for the average prospector. Gold moves
and collects primarily during flood stage. The high fast waters cut
away at the banks of the river and carry the gold into the mainstream.
Gold being seven times heavier than most other materials will tumble
along the bottom of the river and easily come to rest when the current
slows along the inside bend of the river or hits a major obstacle such as
a boulder.
Lakes:During the summer months the water in many lakes recedes
making the lake shores easily accessible. While exploring the
shoreline, look for streams that may still be flowing and dry washes
that may only flow during heavier rains or spring run off.
Prospect thoroughly where the stream enters the lake. If you find any
color at the mouth of a stream or dry wash, chances are there is more
gold further up the stream.
are going to show you the basic theory and methodology you need to
find where gold is present, how to identify it and what alternatives
there are for the extraction of gold via panning or other. In short, this
site will show you everything you need to know about gold
prospecting. Although we'll explain to great extend the "how to" of
searching for mineral deposits within ore veins, this guide considers
free gold ( Gold Placers of various types ) as the main source of this
precious metal. Also learn how to invest in gold via our other detailed
guide.
Mining extraction and metallurgy of gold has been pursued with great
interest since it developed intrinsic value as a result of its economic
and physical properties, its decorative appeal and its scarcity. During
much time gold has been the most attractive metal on the world, and
still to this day is one the ones most fever and many developments and
new ideas have appeared as a consequence of its huge value as an
economic metal.
The gold mining industry has grown considerably, and it appeared to
the writer that the present would be a propitious time to bring out some
guides in order to understand gold prospecting and gold mining. What
has been goal of the site is to make "Prospecting for Gold" a
compendium, in especially concrete form, of useful information
respecting the processes of winning from the soil and the after-
treatment of gold and gold ores, including some original suggestions.
Practical information, original and selected, mining jobs are given to
mining company directors, mine managers, mill operators, and
prospectors. In each part, will be found a large number of useful hints
on subjects directly and indirectly connected with the gold mining.
All the information should be very useful and surely is original, and
each reader will be able to understand the difficult task of processing
gold ores found in the veins that bear it. You'll learn the art of
extracting valuable metals from gravel placers.
Here, you can learn about metal detecting as well as gold panning. You
get to learn why gold placers will form where they form. You'll learn
how to look and how to find gold placers (that's prospecting!) and
analyze it.
Those unfamiliar with prospecting and mining will find a great
Glossary of the Mining Trade's Terms. The characteristics of an ore
deposit and its minerals assemblages (mineralization) determine
mining methods, extraction process (recovery methods & equipment
needed), and the performance of all chemical processes involved in
gold extraction. Thus, a good knowledge of an ore is required to
develop a gold extraction and the efficiency of the process.
The gold mineralogy can offer the following variations:
• Gold occurrence, showings.
• Gold particle size and distribution.
• Type of gangue.
• Mineralogical association.
• Changes in mineral.
• Changes during the time
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηThe objective of
the mining investigation is that of providing to the world market the
prime mineral or energetic minerals. The prospecting decisions of one
or another mineral, in one place or another is in function of the
economic and political context around the world and can be
accomplished by the state or private organisms. In the first case the
search of the prime materials is done by a public organism. In the
second case there only intervenes the concept of revenues or utilities
and the eventual search decisions are bound to the fluctuations of the
world wide market. Another case can be given such as in the
developing countries where prospecting can be trusted to a public
organism in another country of another country, to a private society or
international organism.
Why to search for minerals
The increase of the needs is due to:
• An increase in the world population
• An increase in the needs of the population
This implies an increase in production or a relaunching of the
investigations. However, the evolution of technology in addition
creates new needs. For example, the appearance and start up of the
motors of explosion and fuel derived from petroleum, has made
necessary the creation of more resistant alloys that are possible with
the increase of new mineral prospecting, such as antimony, chrome,
nickel, cadmium, and the prospecting of petroleum. All of this implies
the cycle of mineral economy. In the following we will give an
example of the first mineral used by man, which is quartzite or flint. In
origin, a prehistoric man, who was more observant than others,
accidentally discovered the origins of the properties of quartzite and
the advantages as far as the wood and the hardened clay in heat which
were more hardness, a minimum amount of wearing down, sharp
cutting edges etc.
After this:
• The first artisanal exploitation of mineral came about. Usage
gave superiority over those that had wooden arms.
• The commerce in change; with the increase of the demand the
price increases.
• The protection of the deposit that brings about the envy of
others: the owner protects his good and needs to do this by
 hand in order to do extraction and other thongs for the
distribution feed. In this way we can see an embryo of a
capitalist society show up (chief, worker, currency of change or
buy, nations of a lot of work). Then competition shows up
through “industrial spying” somebody obtains some flint and
“prospects” the place. Another deposit is found, the prices
become reduced, everything has its own variety of silica.
The study of indications has as an objective to analyze the interest of a
discovery to decide the possibility of going on to more detailed
prospection phases such as: geochemical tactic, ground geophysics,
ditches, wells, and sometimes drillings as well. The search of
indicators of abnormalities consists in finding the mineral in situ,
parting from geochemical or geophysical abnormalities or of alluvial
indicators. In this stage of the search generally the chosen zone where
substances that are being searched are known of and can be found in
greater amounts. In most cases, it has to do with defining the
mineralization extension parting from one or more punctual indicators.
The value of this mineralization will be played out in relation to its
recognized dimensions or supposed dimension and of its tenors. The
job will mainly be done with:
• A compilation of a geological map if the outcrops are sufficient
enough or of a map of the outcrops that will be the prospecting
guide.
• The realization of a careful sample in order for them to be as
complete as possible.
• The work will then develop carrying out the described
following points.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηStrategic
prospecting is a systematic type of prospection that needs to give
continuous information about the entire prospected surface. Its role is
that of pointing out abnormal areas in probable relations with
mineralization.
Detailed geochemical or tactical prospection
Detailed geochemical or tactical prospection is always a systematic
prospection and is useful to define the origin of strategic abnormalities,
its superficial extension and the levels reached by the tenors. It is
necessary to point out that in these three states it is possible to obtain,
through surface information, the image of the intersection of the
alteration area with the surface, in other words, secondary
abnormalities.
In certain cases, the geochemical tactic can be carried out through
more punctual operations of recognition on the surface: geochemical
with perforating drill or an analysis of ditches.
Structuring of a geochemical prospecting campaign
The structuring or project will vary according to the fixed objectives
and the climatic conditions of the region and will be done with the help
of a geochemical expert. The main points that will need to be resolved
are the following:
• Type of sampling
• Density
• Elements that are to be analyzed
Types of sampling
As has been said before, the samples can be fluvial sediments of
grounds or rocks. In the case of a strategic prospection the fluvial or
stream sediments will be predominately sampled, which is a technique
that actually seems to bring about the best results. A tactical
prospection requires the change of sampling of the grounds, normally
done at a depth of around 30 to 50 cm. In the case of the presence of a
particular superficial alteration or of a somewhat strong recovering, it
will be necessary to use particular techniques such as the use of a drill
whether these are manual or run by motor.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηThe density of the
samples varies according to the prospection scale and according to the
dimensions of the looked for targets. In a strategic prospection a
variable scale between 1:200.000 and 1:50.00 is usually worked on.
The sampling is done with wide meshes that have a variable density
between 1 to some sample of km2, if working on stream sediments. It
is always better to talk about the average density than the distance
between samples because it gives a more precise idea of the work that
needs to be developed. In the tactical phases the density will not be
talked about any more but rather the mesh. This will vary in function
of the deposit that is being searched for. For example for the first
localization of the abnormalities of Pb, Zn or Cu, a first mesh of 200 x
200 meters is enough, but in cases of abnormalities of Sb or W it will
be necessary to choose a mesh of 50 x 50 meters.
Analysis
Analysis is one of the punctual points, in reality the choice of a
technique to another is able to completely change the efficiency of
meaning of a campaign. The technique that is used needs to be
contemporarily sensible, reproducible (where it can be used a repeated
amount of times always in the same way) and that is not expensive.
Essentially there are two strategies that can be used:
• To adopt simple and usable methods also for the terrain, for
example in a van that has been adapted into a laboratory;
• Choose a more sophisticated technique, available in a central
laboratory (the one most used).
In the tactical prospection phase the problem is defined much better
than in the strategic prospection in that only a little group of elements
will be analyzed even if certain elements are not directly looked for,
they are very useful for evaluating the type of abnormality. For
example, Ni will be systematically analyzed in a tactical prospection
by Cu, as well as Au, Ag, Mo, Cd, and are interesting indicators for a
prospection of Pb and Zn. In the phase of the study of indications and
particularly if it is about studying the main aureoles through rock
geochemistry, of the multi element analysis they will be indispensable
to also visualize the polarity and amount of erosion of a deposit.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηThe most used
methods for the analysis of geochemical prospection are essentially:
• Spectrometry of emission with plasma source (spectrometry
plasma), where the sample in dust is burned in a direct arch or
current in a very high plasma. Generally 12 prioritized
elements are analyzed which are: Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, W, Sb, Ba,
Ni, Mn, Fe, Cr, Sn, along with ten useful elements be it because
they are accessory elements, like by geological cartography
which include: V, P, As, Mo, B, Be, Cd, Ni, Y.
• Spectrometry of optic emission at direct reading, can
simultaneously measure seven greater elements and twenty six
elements in outlines: Si02, A1203, Fe203, Mg0, Ca0, Na20,
K20 / Mn, P, Ti, Zr, B, Ba, Sr, La, Y, Nb, Pb, Zn, Cu, Ag, Cd,
As, Sb, Bi, Li, Sn, W, Mo, Cr, Co, V, Ni.
• Atomic absorption: is the most used technique for the common
mono element analysis, it has low limits of detection and the
equipment is relatively cheap. The results of the analysis are
 generally expressed in p.b.m. (parts by million, this is grams
per ton) or sometimes in p.b.b. (parts by billion, this is
milligrams per ton). For the elements present in great amounts
a percentage % will be given.
Recommendation
The different techniques of analysis have different sensibilities
according to the analyzed minerals; and therefore it is absolutely
impossible to compare the results that come about from different
techniques. A geochemical sampling campaign will therefore need to
intercalate double samples or samples with known of tenors in the
measure of 1 for every 100. In the sample it is therefore advisable to
provide number without samples.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηOnce the
objectives have been fixed as well as the execution method of the
prospection, with the help of a geochemical advisor, it will be the
prospector, geologist, or engineer that will carry out the start of the
workings on the terrain. No matter what the prospection state is, the
workings will essentially consist in the following operations:
• Outlining of itineraries and positioning of the samples
• Taking and numbering of the samples
• Preparation and sending of the samples
Itineraries and positioning of the samples
In the exploration phase or general recognition, it will be important to
cover the most amount of surface as is possible in the least amount of
time, therefore the ways of communication that exist will try to be used
such as land and fluvial. When these do not exist the profiles will be
drawn with a compass. In the strategic phase the objective is that of
locating abnormalities in which concentrating the means of more
detailed prospection therefore the regularity of the samples is turned
into a priority. The classical type of sampling is that of alluvial
sediments. The most logical courses will be those done down the
length of the secondary hydrographical net. With the purpose of
conserving a continuous density of the samples it is suggested to pre
select the sampling points on a topographical ground or on aerial
photos. In the following it is important to position the most exact as
possible sampling points over the terrain and be able to recognize them
in the future. Due to this it will be necessary to leave next signals to
each sampling point, that could be made up by a plastic bright colored
tape and on which the sample number can be written on with paint in
the closest outcrop. In the tactical phases, the objective is to delimit the
exact outlines of the abnormality in order to deduce the localization
and the most probable type of mineralization. The method consists in
taking the sample in a regular mesh, according to a square or
rectangular reticle that down the length of the parallel profiles, when
the direction of the enlargement of the abnormality is known of. The
sampled material is always a floor, or at the limit of the disaggregated
rock.
The localization of the samples is united to the materialization on the
prospecting terrain. With a theodolite or more simply with a compass it
will be necessary to draw a base line and perpendicular to this, other
lines in between them, according to the dimensions of the mesh. The
sampling points will be marked with indications of which a card with a
colored tape will need to have the number of the sample written on. In
this phase it will also be necessary to carry out an efficient
topographical lifting
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηAfter the top of the
abnormality has been well defined, the surface will be searched for, by
samples in depth, if this superficial image corresponds to an image at
the level of the bed rock in the in situ rock. In order to do this it will be
necessary to cut the abnormality with one or more profiles by means of
samples with drills that can be manual or the motor ones. In the case of
the presence of rock, by the study of the primary aureole the sampling
will be done over the witnesses of the drills or the cuttings in case of a
destructive drill.
Samples
Once the type of sampling has been fixed and the localization point in
the map, the practical problem of knowing where to sample and how to
take the sample from the terrain is the practical problem that is created
for the prospector. Each found situation will be different but there are
some cases that can be schematized.
Stream sediment samples in the hydrographic net
• Fine stream sediments sampling done on the active bed in the
water but not far from the current so as to avoid sampling
material that has been washed out too much. This type of
sampling is the one that best corresponds to the term stream
sediment.
 • Ground sampling of alluviums and colluviums in cases where
the alluviums in the active bed is big or in cases where there is
not any at all. This sampling is done on the clay parts of the
banks that are in contact with the water.
• Ground sampling on the bottom of the valleys, in case of the
absence of alluviums.
The objective of these samples is that of being representative of a
certain hydrographic basin; therefore avoid sampling the main
collectors where possible mineral contribution can be diluted by the
other contribution of other courses of sterile waters. Make sure to not
sample too close to the confluences but rather a little further upstream
in the secondary collector. A sampling of white sand is not considered
a good thing because it does not have a fraction of fine clay, in the
same way it is important to not pick up a sample that is too rich in
organic material (samples that are black for example). In tropical
countries, a good sample normally has a grey or dark brown color to it.
Note: it is suggested whenever possible to pick up the feces of the
worms that can be found in the river banks as closely as possible to the
water stream. This is an optimal particle size material that is
completely cleaned by the animal of all the organic material.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηIt is advisable to
avoid sampling the stratum of superficial humus: the optimal depth
varies generally between 15 and 40 cm in depth. Sampling at the base
of the herbaceous roots can give you a good and very real indication of
the optimal depth. Therefore make sure to avoid the sampling on very
developed grounds or in areas that are clearly allochtonous (such as
ancient terraces, dunes, etc.). In these cases it is convenient to take into
account the sampling by drilling through this covering.
Amount that should be sampled
The amount that should be sampled varies anywhere from 200 to 500
grams, according to the proportions of the fine sediments that are
included. This amount allows, after the drying and sifting has been
done, obtaining of a sample with a minimum weight of 60 grams. A
minimum amount of 40 grams is enough to carry out the current
analysis (at least 25 grams in the case of analysis of gold) and 20
grams that will be conserved as a witness. The sample fields will be
placed in a covering (18 x 26 cm) or in plastic cups. Note: keep in
mind that in a strategic prospection 10 to15 samples per day represent
around 4 to 7 kilograms that need to be transported.
Numbering of samples and field booklet
This is a very important part because if mistakes are made or there are
samples that have been numbered two times, they can turn into
something that cannot be used for the work. The advisable method is a
sequential numbering with the field booklet made up by previously
numbered files and avoid in this way mistakes. This file also allows the
processing of data. In some cases it is advisable to mark the samples
on the topographical map by using a square mesh of 1 cm on the side
numbering the samples from left to right, and up to down. This method
makes easier finding on the map without having to calculate the
geographical coordinates
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηIn a big strategic
prospection, it is useless to send thousands of samples of 400 grams
each to a laboratory; it is a good idea therefore to take into account the
preparation of the samples that consist essentially in:
• Drying
• Disintegration
• Sifting
The drying can be done in the sun or with a fire, without cooking the
minerals; disintegration, this does not mean grinding though, can be
done in a wooden or ceramic pan being careful to not break the bigger
sized minerals; the sifting can be done in a mesh of 0.125 mm (100
mesh). After the sifting the sample will then be quartered until two
small cups have been filled and one of these will be sent to the
laboratory and the other one will remain as the witness. The expedition
will need to be carried out like for the alluvial samples. Attention:
mainly in the case of the grinding of rocks, each geochemical grinding
will need to avoid any sort of contamination due to the pans and
sieves. Therefore it is preferable to use agate sieves and stainless steel
sieves or the one that have nylon net.
Data treatment
The treatment of the data is usually done by the geochemist on the
computer in the case of strategic prospection or by hand in the tactical
prospection where the number of samples is a lot less. Once the real
value of a determined element in an area has been established, in other
words the values that should be considered anomalous, a legend will
normally be established with variations in tone inside of the same
color, showing lighter tones in the case of lower values (For instance,
white, light brown, brown, dark brown, hot orange, etc.) the choice of
the anomalous areas will be a decision of both the prospector and the
geochemist who will analyze the data that is at disposal, as the ones
that have been given by the prospector due to his knowledge of the
land, as well as by the considerations of the moving of the elements,
characteristic associations, etc. given by the geochemist
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηScientifically all
streams and valleys are formed or try to be formed in a V shape,
however this does not usually take place in nature. The bedrock
underneath stops the downward erosion and the stream underneath
starts to broaden, which causes at bedrock a moderately flat bottom.
The discharge, speed and nature of the load as well as the resistance of
the bedrock will determine the ending shape of the bottom of a stream.
Even though most of the streams that are prospected today are
relatively stable in their formation, the erosion of bedrock continues on
occurring.
Rapids and waterfalls are two very ordinary effects of erosion that
prospectors are familiar with. Rapids happen when there is a very
quick drop in the gradient or a quick narrowing of the width of the
stream. When there is a vertical drop or very close to being vertical for
several feet, the effect is what we know as a waterfall.
Potholes become formed when the stream water twirls in a circular
movement. This load is then suspended and works similar to a grinding
wheel and forms a basin or pothole in the stream bed.
When two streams flow close by one another and through soils that
have different types of resistance to erosion, it is common to for them
to come together and for one to get sidetracked into the other. This is
what is more commonly known as stream piracy.
When it is said that streams become more mature it simply refers to the
fact that the speed or velocity is almost balanced with the load (not in
the case of flood stage though). During this time of the history of the
stream it is known as a graded stream. This kind of stream consists of
most of the modern time streams. Nonetheless even though this type of
stream only cuts down a teensy bit, it is still able to erode the sides.
There are also many occasions in which a stream will wonder from
side to side in S patterns, which are called meanders. Every once in
awhile during flood season, the water will cut across the S and will cut
off a curved area into an oxbow lake. A stream that comes together and
then separates is known as a braided stream.
While it is true that there is a lot of information that perhaps is not
useful for amateur prospectors, we have still decided to include it to
provide information on the terms. This also gives the prospector the
opportunity to understand the way streams transport metals, which is
something that occurs when placer deposits are created.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηScientifically all
streams and valleys are formed or try to be formed in a V shape,
however this does not usually take place in nature. The bedrock
underneath stops the downward erosion and the stream underneath
starts to broaden, which causes at bedrock a moderately flat bottom.
The discharge, speed and nature of the load as well as the resistance of
the bedrock will determine the ending shape of the bottom of a stream.
Even though most of the streams that are prospected today are
relatively stable in their formation, the erosion of bedrock continues on
occurring.
Rapids and waterfalls are two very ordinary effects of erosion that
prospectors are familiar with. Rapids happen when there is a very
quick drop in the gradient or a quick narrowing of the width of the
stream. When there is a vertical drop or very close to being vertical for
several feet, the effect is what we know as a waterfall.
Potholes become formed when the stream water twirls in a circular
movement. This load is then suspended and works similar to a grinding
wheel and forms a basin or pothole in the stream bed.
When two streams flow close by one another and through soils that
have different types of resistance to erosion, it is common to for them
to come together and for one to get sidetracked into the other. This is
what is more commonly known as stream piracy.
When it is said that streams become more mature it simply refers to the
fact that the speed or velocity is almost balanced with the load (not in
the case of flood stage though). During this time of the history of the
stream it is known as a graded stream. This kind of stream consists of
most of the modern time streams. Nonetheless even though this type of
stream only cuts down a teensy bit, it is still able to erode the sides.
There are also many occasions in which a stream will wonder from
side to side in S patterns, which are called meanders. Every once in
awhile during flood season, the water will cut across the S and will cut
off a curved area into an oxbow lake. A stream that comes together and
then separates is known as a braided stream.
While it is true that there is a lot of information that perhaps is not
useful for amateur prospectors, we have still decided to include it to
provide information on the terms. This also gives the prospector the
opportunity to understand the way streams transport metals, which is
something that occurs when placer deposits are created.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηScientifically all
streams and valleys are formed or try to be formed in a V shape,
however this does not usually take place in nature. The bedrock
underneath stops the downward erosion and the stream underneath
starts to broaden, which causes at bedrock a moderately flat bottom.
The discharge, speed and nature of the load as well as the resistance of
the bedrock will determine the ending shape of the bottom of a stream.
Even though most of the streams that are prospected today are
relatively stable in their formation, the erosion of bedrock continues on
occurring.
Rapids and waterfalls are two very ordinary effects of erosion that
prospectors are familiar with. Rapids happen when there is a very
quick drop in the gradient or a quick narrowing of the width of the
stream. When there is a vertical drop or very close to being vertical for
several feet, the effect is what we know as a waterfall.
Potholes become formed when the stream water twirls in a circular
movement. This load is then suspended and works similar to a grinding
wheel and forms a basin or pothole in the stream bed.
When two streams flow close by one another and through soils that
have different types of resistance to erosion, it is common to for them
to come together and for one to get sidetracked into the other. This is
what is more commonly known as stream piracy.
When it is said that streams become more mature it simply refers to the
fact that the speed or velocity is almost balanced with the load (not in
the case of flood stage though). During this time of the history of the
stream it is known as a graded stream. This kind of stream consists of
most of the modern time streams. Nonetheless even though this type of
stream only cuts down a teensy bit, it is still able to erode the sides.
There are also many occasions in which a stream will wonder from
side to side in S patterns, which are called meanders. Every once in
awhile during flood season, the water will cut across the S and will cut
off a curved area into an oxbow lake. A stream that comes together and
then separates is known as a braided stream.
While it is true that there is a lot of information that perhaps is not
useful for amateur prospectors, we have still decided to include it to
provide information on the terms. This also gives the prospector the
opportunity to understand the way streams transport metals, which is
something that occurs when placer deposits are created.

ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηScientifically all
streams and valleys are formed or try to be formed in a V shape,
however this does not usually take place in nature. The bedrock
underneath stops the downward erosion and the stream underneath
starts to broaden, which causes at bedrock a moderately flat bottom.
The discharge, speed and nature of the load as well as the resistance of
the bedrock will determine the ending shape of the bottom of a stream.
Even though most of the streams that are prospected today are
relatively stable in their formation, the erosion of bedrock continues on
occurring.
Rapids and waterfalls are two very ordinary effects of erosion that
prospectors are familiar with. Rapids happen when there is a very
quick drop in the gradient or a quick narrowing of the width of the
stream. When there is a vertical drop or very close to being vertical for
several feet, the effect is what we know as a waterfall.
Potholes become formed when the stream water twirls in a circular
movement. This load is then suspended and works similar to a grinding
wheel and forms a basin or pothole in the stream bed.
When two streams flow close by one another and through soils that
have different types of resistance to erosion, it is common to for them
to come together and for one to get sidetracked into the other. This is
what is more commonly known as stream piracy.
When it is said that streams become more mature it simply refers to the
fact that the speed or velocity is almost balanced with the load (not in
the case of flood stage though). During this time of the history of the
stream it is known as a graded stream. This kind of stream consists of
most of the modern time streams. Nonetheless even though this type of
stream only cuts down a teensy bit, it is still able to erode the sides.
There are also many occasions in which a stream will wonder from
side to side in S patterns, which are called meanders. Every once in
awhile during flood season, the water will cut across the S and will cut
off a curved area into an oxbow lake. A stream that comes together and
then separates is known as a braided stream.
While it is true that there is a lot of information that perhaps is not
useful for amateur prospectors, we have still decided to include it to
provide information on the terms. This also gives the prospector the
opportunity to understand the way streams transport metals, which is
something that occurs when placer deposits are created.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηThe material that is
carried by the stream in the water is called the stream load or more
informally known as debris. Sand, gravel and little boulders that seem
to float in between the bed and surface are referred to as suspended,
debris that has dissolved is in solution, and boulders that bounce along
the floor of the stream move due to saltation.
After the speed of the stream slows down to where it does not support
its stream load anymore, the material in it is then deposited.
Debris that travels to the bed from being suspended is said to be
deposited by sedimentation, and by precipitation from solution and
when a stone that has been bouncing at the bottom of the stream stops,
is known as grounding.
It is sufficient for a prospector to have an idea of the dimension of
material that can be moved in a stream. The larger stones that are
bounced along with the bed load do the work of grinding with other
rocks in order to bring them down in size and this also sets ore free.
After the gold has been released from material that was cemented in
this way, it has a tendency of staying where it is and it is not usual for
it to transport itself more.
Once the stream has reduced its speed so that the material that is
deposited at several levels down the bed load of the stream it is then
retained. All this means is that the gold is then covered with sand and
gravel that is useful as a valuable cover that protects it from being
transported further down by the water of the stream.
After the natural process of why gold stays put is understood it is quite
easy to see why this occurs. In general there are two big reasons for
this.
Firstly the sand and gravel that covers and protects the material needs
to be eroded by the stream before the gold is able to moved. In other
words, the stream needs to reach the same flood stage it was at when
the gold was deposited first. Due to the fact that streams get to flood
stage at habitual periods within the cycle of a year, it is not likely the
gold that has been deposited will erode before a year goes by.
If the gold remained at the profundity it was deposited in, a good
amount of it would be carried up and moved each year as the stream
got to its level of deposition in the process of flood stage. Nonetheless
there is one thing that takes place right after the gold has been
deposited and it almost assures that it is not probable the gold that was
deposited during the flood stage will ever be eroded again that is
unless there is a bigger flood that takes place.
Some material that is in the bed load of a stream for the most part
looks like that of a bank. However there are some major differences.
First of all due to the fact that it has gotten ground and ground again
until the consistency is a lot finer than that of a shore. In second place,
this is always permeated by water and has a much higher viscosity.
The content of moisture lubricates the gravel and lets heavier material
to go down to the bottom.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηRemember that
before any mineral can be carried or concentrated by a stream it needs
to enter the stream somewhere upstream from where it is then
concentrated and there has to be enough for it to concentrate. The area
that the gold comes from is called the original source and these sources
usually consist of veins, mineralised zones in bedrock, as well as
permanent placers or preserved placers that were formed in the past.
The original source can be at a distance from one or both sides of the
stream and it can also consist of an exposed vein in the bedrock of a
stream. The original source is in many cases a deposit that has a little
amount of gold that is not convenient to waste time on. There are many
cases in which the source has less than one milligram of gold per ton in
it. However, when a long period of time goes by, natural weathering
breaks up the rock and releases the gold, which is then carried to the
stream.
Even though there are different methods in which this can occur, the
most known of and most important is runoff, which is the occurrence
that occurs when the soil becomes permeated with more water than it
is able to bear and it starts to move across the top or surface.
There is also another type of runoff that is called ground runoff and
this has to do with the water that gets to the stream through leakage.
This seepage or leakage carries almost no sediment to the stream even
though it sometimes moves some material through solution.
Gold can withstand travelling across the earth however the resistance
will be equivalent eventually when the runoff gets to the flood stage
and starts to erode the top of the earth. The speed in which this occurs
is defined by the amount of runoff and the inclination of the slopes that
is around the stream.
Due to the fact that the slopes of runoff are normally much more
abrupt than the inclination of the stream, gravity has a big role in the
movement and transporting of the gold. The progression of placers in
these types of movement is residual to alluvial to stream.
After gold gets going on its journey of transportation on the surface of
the earth it will not stop unless something obstructs or blocks it. As
opposed to the bed load of a stream, the soil close to the banks of a
stream are normally very hard right under the surface and do reject
settling by heavier materials. The material is kept close to the surface
and becomes easily eroded during heavy runoff and travels along the
surface as well. Sooner or later it gets to the stream at the point of
entry.
The place where the gold goes into a stream is normally not the type of
place a prospector is interested in looking into in order to placer gold.
Normally there is simply not enough amount of gold worth recovering
in this area. Due to the fact that the entry is usually always because of
flooding conditions, and because the speed of the stream is faster than
the of the sheet wash or gulley that carries the gold, the gold is very
quickly moved down the stream to the place it is deposited.
The velocity of the stream is what will determine how far it moves
down the stream. In some cases it only moves a short distance while in
other occasions it moves long distances if cases where the stream is
moving quickly. One thing that is for sure is that after the gold has
been deposited, it has a tendency of remaining where it was deposited.
Usually it does not go further down the stream.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηGulch Placers
Gulch placers are another type of stream placer that is normally a little
well-defined area that can be as short as a few hundred yards along a
stream bed. Gulch placers usually have a steep hill immediately
adjacent to the area and a good amount of the gold is concentrated
from the drainage area from the hills.
It is easy to recognize them, as they are often times located in areas
that contain big boulders that prelude large-scale placer mining. In the
past these were often times first located by the pioneers and they were
worked on a great amount by the Chinese miners who were known as
the most patient miners and who would simply not leave an area until
they got every single flake of gold out.
There are still placers that can be reworked on today with the help of
modern portable dredges but there is not usually enough gold re-
concentrated in them that would pay out well.
Creek Placers
Creek placers start to stretch out and are long strips of the creek coarse
where there are only some boulders and a few sand bars. These can
sometimes extend for many miles and a lot of them have been worked
on commercially.
These days most creek placers remain idle because of the amount it
costs to work on them. However, they are perfect for amateur
prospectors who have bigger dredges and patience time to work on
them. In most cases these types of operations require tow or more
people as well as at least one six-inch dredge. Although there might be
some rich deposits in these types of placers, make sure you extensively
sample it before doing any sort of long-term investment on them.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηFor prospectors
that are interested in placer prospecting, water the most essential
geological agent. Although almost all of the actions of the water can be
seen, it is vital that people that prospect learn and have a total
understanding of not just the process but of the words that are used in
geology as well which describe the occurrence.
The process in which water is used is called the hydrologic cycle. In
order to explain it we can start at any place of the cycle. Excluding the
reality that little amounts of water continue to be brought to the top
from their original pockets of formation, all of the water on the earth
can be said to fall to the surface of the earth from clouds in the rain or
snow.
After the water hits the earth it begins to take a trip back to up to the
clouds. (We’re sure you have learned about this in school). The greater
amount of water is then evaporated back into the atmosphere directly
from the sea, lakes, rivers and the moist itself on the earth as well as
from any other damp surface.
The following biggest source of water given to the clouds is acquired
through transpiration. This is a process that has been explained as the
way the plants in the earth breath by grabbing water from the earth and
passing it out into the air. There are certain areas of the earth where
water is returned to the atmosphere by 95 percent due to evaporation
however in general this is of around 55 to 60 percent. The rest, which
is around 40 percent approximately, is caused either by infiltration or
runoff and porosity and many other causes in the soil.
Runoff has to do with water that cannot be evaporated or absorbed
right away so it travels downwards until it reaches the sea. Infiltration
is when water that can be absorbed by any given soil until it can’t
absorb it anymore.
As far as mining is concerned streams include all types of moving
water from narrow dry washes to rivers that are muddy and that may
be a mile long. There are streams that only flow in certain periods or
occasionally and these are known as intermittent and are streams that
are supplied by melting snow and streams that have reached a depth
where the water table consistently provides are known as permanent
streams.
One assortment of streams is by the drainage patterns they have. There
are streams that form a pattern that runs long square or near square
angles and these are known as rectangular streams. There are also
streams that are dentric in nature and are seen in an overview to form a
pattern that is sort of tree like and can normally be found around the
slopes of a mountain. There are also trellis streams and these drain at
almost right angles into the main stream.
Streams are also portrayed depending on the relationship they have
with topography or underlying strata. A consequent direction of the
stream flows along the original slope of the land. Fractures or a major
different in the hardness of the bedrock alters the direction of the flow
of the subsequent stream and it usually causes it to go toward the
direction of the softest rock.
There are also antecedent streams that go along with its original course
without taking notice of any big changes in the topography of the land
that surrounds it. Another type of stream is known as superimposed
streams, which cut through overlying strata that is softer and that now
have older underlying rocks for bedrock.
The biggest job of the streams consists of erosion, transportation and
deposition. This process starts on a surface that is inclined where water
falls as rain or snow, or in places where ice has formed. The amount of
runoff in different areas is directly related to different factors such as
how steep the slope is, the inability of the surface to absorb the
moisture, when there is a lack of vegetation in certain areas, and how
long the storm or rain decides to last.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηThere are three
main types of stream erosion that are vital as geological causes and
these consist of, abrasion, solution and quarrying.
Abrasion is what a stream does to the sides of bedrock and boulders
that are inside of it. The speed that abrasion occurs at in any stream is
determined by its load, which consists of the complete amount of
material that is carried by the stream at any given time.
Many streams have boulders and pebbles and sand that are all useful as
cutting tools and over an amount of time also serve as a grinding
wheel. The streams abrades the surfaces and the material that is carried
while at the same time boulders are knocking into each other and start
breaking into pieces. The knocking and breaking process is what is
known as impaction.
Another type of erosional types is known as solution. Solution is a
chemical compound that has dissolved in the stream and reacts
chemically on the rocks or minerals that are in the subsurface. One
example of this is carbonic acid and this can be caused due to the
water, air and vegetation that decay. Rocks that have been faced with
these solutions dissolved in stream water include dolomite and
limestone.
Another essential erosional quality of a stream is known as quarrying.
This signifies that the power of the water actually plucks weak
cemented areas from the bedrock or banks and starts to carry it down
stream. Sometimes this action leaves an evident undercut in the bank
or leaves a crack in the bedrock.
The theory of placer geology highly relies on the rate of the stream
erosion and how it is transported and because of this it is vital to
understand the language and words that are used because they are often
times found in literature that has to do with mining.
One of the most important contributions to erosion has to do with the
amount of water the stream carries. Consequently bigger streams, or
smaller ones that are in a flood stage, are the most active when it
comes to erosion, transporting and depositing.
Velocity has to do with the speed the water travels at and this is
controlled by the stream gradient which means the angle that the
streams flows in comparison to the level surface of the crust of the
earth. If the angle is steeper, the speed is increased and there is more
potential for erosion.
The effects of the stream erosion assist in controlling deposition of a
lot of the idiosyncrasies of different streams that prospectors are faced
up to when prospecting. Some of these can be seen above the surface
of the stream and other can be located below the surface.
ΚανονικόΣυνθήκηορισμούΛίσταορισμώνΔιεύθυνσηIn addition to its
high specific gravity, as well as the perfect conditions for settling
contained in its environment, there is another feature that speeds up the
process of the settling of the gold.
This is the typical action of the bed load, which is the accumulation of
debris that is held in the area between bedrock and the bottom of the
stream. The gold that had been deposited by the stream load
throughout the reduction of speed of the after flood stage is now
dispersed somewhat regularly at varying depths.
The bed load is additionally being carried down the stream and this
means that the part of the bed between the rock and the floor of the
stream is also being moved down the stream. This could be called sand
flow or flow of sand and occurs very slowly. This movement is partly
because of gravity and in part because of the force and the weight of
the water in the stream.
This movement does not only have to do with the gravel and sand but
with the big rocks that are not attached firmly to the bedrock. While
the bed moves down the stream a great amount of activity is taking
place.
The movement downwards to the level of the sea presses the grains of
gravel and sand against each other and allows them to release pressure
that then helps to improve the process of the gold going towards the
bedrock. The minerals that are heavier also have a tendency of
traveling down the stream and the journey to bedrock takes a curved
course.
Sooner or later after a long time, the gold gets to the bedrock and here
is no longer able to sink anymore and so it starts moving down stream
along with the bedrock. If in these journeys the gold happens to come
across a crevice, it will usually gravitate to the bottom of the crevice
where only very, very strong flood stages can remove it in order to be
transported more.
Another interesting consequence that occurs in settling is the building
up of pay streaks. While it travels downwards the velocity of the
settling is slower and sands that are slower get further compressed and
the lubrication of the water is reduced. In other words when some
pieces start to slow down, other flakes of gold catch up to them and
when they join they settle together. If the journey is a long one, and
there is a large amount of flakes that are going to settle, a good amount
of gold flakes can combine and settle together.
This accumulation or accumulations were the pay streaks the operators
of old bucket dredges used to recover often times when these machines
were in operation. There are a number of ways these pay streaks can be
accumulated in placers. These can be become accumulated in a little
and concentrated area, they can also accumulate over a big area, and
they can accumulate on top of the whole layer of the placer