Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad

ME 101: WORKSHOP PRACTICE I

Pushing frontiers

April 2009
PREFACE

Theengineerscancreateanewkindofcivilization,basedontechnology,whereart,beautyand
finerthingsoflifeareacceptedaseveryonesdue.Engineers,whateverbetheirlineofactivity,mustbe
proficientwithallaspectsofmanufacturing.However,itshouldnotbeforgottenthatpracticewithout
theory is blind and the theory without practice is lame. A person involved in acquiring manufacturing
skillsmusthavebalancedknowledgeoftheoryaswellaspractice.
Thisbookiswrittentomeettheobjectivesofthetrainingcoursesinworkshoppracticeforall
the first year engineering courses in Indian institute of technology Hyderabad. It imparts basic
knowledgeofvarioustoolsandtheiruseindifferentsectionsofmanufacturesuchasfitting,carpentry,
welding,machineshopetc.
The study of workshop practice acts as the basis for further technical studies. This book gives
theperceptiontobuildtechnicalknowledgebyactingasaguideforimpartingfundamentalknowledge.
Numerous neatly drawn illustrations provided in the text will help the students in understanding the
subject,andtheconceptsrelatedit,better.
Sincereattemptshavebeenmadetopresentthecontentsinasimplelanguage,supplemented
withlinediagrams,whichareselfexplanatoryandeasytoreproduce.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to professors and colleagues for their consistent
support.Suggestionsforimprovementinthisbookwillbethankfullyacknowledgedandincorporatedin
thenextedition.

K.Sathyanarayana
N.A.Somasundaram
P.Raju

25April2009

Contents

Preface
TableofContents
page

1.FittingShop
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Holdingtools
2
1.3
Markingandmeasuringtools
5
1.4
Cuttingtools
8
1.5
Finishingtools
10
1.6
Miscellaneoustools
11
1.7
Safepractice
12
1.8
Modelsforpreparation
13
Exercises
2.Carpentry

2.1
15
Introduction
15
2.2
Timber
16
2.3
Markingandmeasuringtools
17
2.4
Holdingtools
18
2.5
Planingtools
28
2.6
Cuttingtools
20
2.7
Drillingandboringtools
21
2.8
Miscellaneoustools
22
2.9
Woodjoints
24
2.10 Safepractice
25
Exercises
3.Welding

3.1
Introduction
28
3.2
Arcwelding
28
30
3.3
Weldingtools
31
3.4
Techniquesofwelding
32
3.5
Typesofjoints
33
3.6
Weldingpositions
33
3.7
Advantages&disadvantagesofarcwelding
34
3.8
Safepractice
35
Exercises
4.MachineShop

4.1
Introduction
39
4.2
Lathe
39
4.3
Workholdingdevices
40
4.4
Measuringtools
40
4.5
41
Cuttingparameters
41
4.6
Toolmaterials
42
4.7
Toolgeometry
42
4.8
Latheoperations
44
4.9
Safetyprecautions
Exercises
45
References48

Chapter1

FITTINGSHOP

1.1INTRODUCTION
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions when
components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair
componentwhichmustbefitaccuratelywithanothercomponentonreassembly.Thisinvolvesacertain
amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain amount of
benchwork.Theaccuracyofworkdonedependsupontheexperienceandskillofthefitter.
Thetermbenchworkreferstotheproductionofcomponentsbyhandonthebench,whereas
fittingdealswhichtheassemblyofmatingparts,throughremovalofmetal,toobtaintherequiredfit.
Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and
considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping, scraping,
sawingdrilling,andtapping.

1.2HOLDINGTOOLS
1.2.1Benchvice
Thebenchviceisaworkholdingdevice.Itisthemostcommonlyusedviceinafittingshop.The
benchviceisshowninFigure1.1.

Figure1.1:BenchVice

Itisfixedtothebenchwithboltsandnuts.Thevicebodyconsistsoftwomainparts,fixedjaw
and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces the
workagainstthefixedjaw.Jawplatesaremadeofhardenedsteel.Serrationsonthejawsensureagood
grip.Jawcapsmadeofsoftmaterialareusedtoprotectfinishedsurfaces,grippedinthevice.Thesizeof
theviceisspecifiedbythelengthofthejaws.
The vice body is made of cast Iron which is strong in compression, weak in tension and so
fracturesundershocksandthereforeshouldneverbehammered.

1.2.2Vblock
Vblock is rectangular or square block with a Vgroove on one or both sides opposite to each
other.TheangleoftheVisusually900.Vblockwithaclampisusedtoholdcylindricalworksecurely,
during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for this the bar is faced
longitudinallyintheVGrooveandthescrewofVclamp istightened.Thisgriptherodisfirmwith its
axisparalleltotheaxisofthevgroove.

1.2.3CClamp

Thisisusedtoholdworkagainstanangleplateorvblockoranyothersurface,whengrippingis
required.

ItsfixedjawisshapedlikeEnglishalphabetCandthemovablejawisroundinshapeanddirectly
fittedtothethreadedscrewattheend.Theworkingprincipleofthisclampisthesameasthatofthe
benchvice.

Figure1.2:Vblock

Figure1.3:Cclamp

1.3MARKINGANDMEASURINGTOOLS
1.3.1Surfaceplate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work
piece.Itisalsousedformarkingoutsmallboxandismorepreciousthanthemarkingtable.Thedegree
ofthefinisheddependsuponwhetheritisdesignedforbenchworkinafittingshoporforusinginan
inspectionroom;thesurfaceplateismadeofCastIron,hardenedSteelorGranitestone.Itisspecified
bylength,width,heightandgrade.Handlesareprovidedontwooppositesides,tocarryitwhileshifting
fromoneplacetoanother.

Figure1.4:Surfaceplate

Figure1.5:Angleplate

1.3.2Trysquare
Itismeasuringandmarkingtoolfor900angle.Inpractice,itisusedforcheckingthesquareness
of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of the Try square is
madeofhardenedsteelandthestockofcastIronorsteel.ThesizeoftheTrysquareisspecifiedbythe
lengthoftheblade.

1.3.3Scriber

AScriberisaslendersteeltool,usedtoscribeormarklinesonmetalworkpieces.Itismadeof
hardenedandtemperedHighCarbonSteel.TheTipofthescriberisgenerallygroundat12oto15o.
Itisgenerallyavailableinlengths,rangingfrom125mmto250mm.Ithastwopointedendsthebentend
isusedformarkinglineswherethestraightendcannotreach.

Figure1.6:Trysquare

Figure1.7:Scriber

1.3.4OddlegCaliper
ThisisalsocalledJennyCaliperorHermaphrodite.Thisisusedformarkingparallellinersfrom
afinishededgeandalsoforlocatingthecenterofroundbars;ithasonelegpointedlikeadividerand
theotherlegbentlikeacaliper.Itisspecifiedbythelengthoftheleguptothehingepoint.

1.3.5Divider

It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the
measuringedge.Thisisusedformarkingcircles,arcslayingoutperpendicularlines,bysettinglines.Itis
madeofcasehardenedmildsteelorhardenedandtemperedlowcarbonsteel.Itssizeisspecifiedby
thelengthoftheleg.

Figure1.8:Oddlegcaliperanddivider

1.3.6Trammel
Trammelisusedfordrawinglargecirclesorarcs.

1.3.7Punches
Theseareusedformakingindentationsonthescribedlines,tomakethemvisibleclearly.These
aremadeofhighcarbonsteel.Apunchisspecifiedbyitslengthanddiameter(sayas15012.5mm).It
consistsofacylindricalknurledbody,whichisplainforsomelengthatthetopofit.Attheotherend,it
isgroundtoapoint.Thetaperedpointofthepunchishardenedoveralengthof20to30mm.
Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to
provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conical
pointhaving60includedangle.
Centerpunchissimilartothedotpunch,exceptthatitisgroundtoaconicalpointhaving90
includedangle.Itisusedtomarkthelocationoftheholestobedrilled.

Figure1.9:Punches

1.3.8Calipers
Theyareindirectmeasuringtoolsusedtomeasureortransferlineardimensions.Theseareused
with the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of Case
hardenedmildsteelorhardenedandtemperedlowcarbonsteel.Whileusing,butthelegsofthecaliper
aresetagainstthesurfaceofthework,whetherinsideoroutsideandthedistancebetweenthelegsis
measuredwiththehelpofascaleandthesamecanbetransferredtoanotherdesiredplace.Theseare
specifiedbythelengthoftheleg.Inthecaseofoutsidecaliper,thelegsarebentinwardsandinthecase
ofinsidecaliper,thelegsbentoutwards.

Figure1.10:Calipers

1.3.9VernierCalipers

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be
usedasadepthgauge.Ithastwojaws.Onejawisformedatoneendofitsmainscaleandtheotherjaw
ismadepartofavernierscale.

Figure1.11:Verniercaliper

1.3.10VernierHeightGauge
TheVernierHeightgaugeclampedwithascriber.ItisusedforLayoutworkandoffsetscriberis
used when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is standing. The
accuracy and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier calipers. Its size is
specifiedbythemaximumheightthatcanbemeasuredbyit.ItismadeofNickelChromiumSteel.

Figure1.12:VernierHeightgauge

1.4CUTTINGTOOLS
1.4.1HackSaw

TheHackSawisusedforcuttingmetalbyhand.Itconsistsofaframe,whichholdsathinblade,
firmly in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter. Hacksaw blades
haveanumberofteethrangingfrom5to15percentimeter(cm).Bladeshavinglessernumberofteeth
percmareusedforcuttingsoftmaterialslikealuminum,brassandbronze.Bladeshavinglargernumber
ofteethpercentimeterareusedforcuttinghardmaterialslikesteelandcastIron.
Hacksawbladesareclassifiedas(i)Allhardand(ii)flexibletype.Theallhardbladesaremadeof
H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used to cut
hardmetals.Thesebladesarehardandbrittleandcanbreakeasilybytwistingandforcingthemintothe
workwhilesawing.FlexiblebladesaremadeofH.S.Sorlowalloysteelbutonlytheteetharehardened
and the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by unskilled or semiskilled
persons.

Figure1.13:Hacksawframewithblade

Theteethofthehacksawbladearestaggered,asshowninfigureandknownasasetofteeth.
Thesemakeslotswiderthanthebladethickness,preventingthebladefromjamming.

Figure1.14:Setofteeth

1.4.2Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made
from0.9%to1.0%carbonsteelofoctagonalorhexagonalsection.Chiselsareannealed,hardenedand
temperedtoproduceatoughshankandhardcuttingedge.Annealingrelievestheinternalstressesina
metal.Thecuttingangleofthechiselforgeneralpurposeisabout60.

Figure1.15:Flatchisel

1.4.3TwistDrill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High speed steel. Both straight and
tapershanktwistdrillsareused.Theparallelshanktwistdrillcanbeheldinanordinaryselfcentering
drill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore provided in the drilling
machinespindle.

Figure1.16:Twistdrills

1.4.4TapsandTapwrenches
Atapisahardenedandsteeltool,usedforcuttinginternalthreadinadrillhole.HandTapsare
usually supplied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a tapper tap,
intermediatetapandplugorbottomingtap.Tapsaremadeofhighcarbonsteelorhighspeedsteel.

Figure1.17:Tapsandtapwrench

1.4.5Diesanddieholders
Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or split
type.Theyarefixedinadiestockforholdingandadjustingthediegap.TheyaremadeofSteelorHigh
CarbonSteel.

Figure1.18:Diesanddieholder

1.4.6BenchDrillingMachine
Holes are drilled for fasteningpartswithrivets,bolts or for producing internalthread. Bench
drillingmachineisthemostversatilemachineusedinafittingshopforthepurpose.Twistdrills,madeof
toolsteelorhighspeedsteelareusedwiththedrillingmachinefordrillingholes.

Followingarethestagesindrillingwork
1. Selectthecorrectsizedrills,putitintothecheckandlockitfirmly
2. Adjustthespeedofthemachinetosuittheworkbychangingthebeltonthepulleys.Usehighspeed
forsmalldrillsandsoftmaterialsandlowspeedforlargediameterdrillsandhardmaterials.
3. Layoutofthelocationofthepoleandmarkitwithacenterpunch.
4. Holdtheworkfirmlyintheviceonthemachinetableandclampitdirectlyontothemachinetable.
5. Putonthepower,locatethepunchmarkandapplyslightpressurewiththeFeedHandle.

6. Once Drilling is commenced at the correct location, apply enough pressure and continue drilling.
Whendrillingsteelapplycuttingoilatthedrillingpoint.
7. Release the pressure slightly, when the drill point pierces the lower surface of the metal. This
preventsthedrillcatchinganddamagingtheworkordrill.
8. Oncompletionofdrillingretracethedrilloutoftheworkandputoffthepowersupply.

Figure1.19:Benchdrill

1.5FINISHINGTOOLS
1.5.1Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting tool
called reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of which is
slightlysmallerthanthefinishedsizeandthenahandreamerormachinereamerisusedforfinishing
theholetothecorrectsize.
HandReamerismadeofHighCarbonSteelandhaslefthandspiralflutessothat,itisprevented
fromscrewingintothewholeduringoperation.TheShankendofthereamerismadestraightsothatit
canbeheldinatapwrench.Itisoperatedbyhand,withatapwrenchfittedonthesquareendofthe
reamerandwiththeworkpieceheldinthevice.Thebodyofthereamerisgivenaslighttapperatits
workingend,foritseasyentryintothewholeduringoperation,itisrotatedonlyinclockwisedirection
andalsowhileremovingitfromthewhole.

Figure1.20:Reamers

1.5.2Files
Filingisoneofthemethodsofremovingsmallamountsofmaterialfromthesurfaceofametal
part.Afileishardenedsteeltoo,havingsmallparallelrowsofcuttingedgesorteethonitssurfaces.
Onthefaces,theteethareusuallydiagonaltotheedge.Oneendofthefileisshapedtofitinto
a wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel in width and
taperingslightlyinthickness,towardsthetip.Itisprovidedwithdoublecutteeth.Onthefaces,single
cutononeedgeandnoteethontheotheredge,whichisknownasasafeedge.


Figure1.21:Partsofahandfile

Filesareclassifiedaccordingtotheirshape,cuttingteethandpitchorgradeoftheteeth.The
figureshowsthevarioustypesoffilesbasedontheirshape.

Figure1.22:Singleanddoublecutfiles

Needlefile

Figure1.23:Typesoffiles

1.6MISCELLANEOUSTOOLS
1.6.1Filecard
Itisametalbrush,usedforcleaningthefiles,tofreethemfromfilings,cloggedinbetweenthe
teeth.

Figure1.24:Filecard

1.6.2Spiritlevel
Itisusedtocheckthelevelingofmachines.

1.6.3BallPeenHammer
BallPeenHammersarenamed,dependingupontheirshapeandmaterialandspecifiedbytheir
weight.Aballpeenhammerhasaflatfacewhichisusedforgeneralworkandaballend,particularly
usedforriveting.

Figure1.25:Ballpeenhammer

1.6.4CrossPeenHammer
It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,
riveting,bendingandstretchingmetalsandhammeringinsidethecurvesandshoulders.

1.6.5StraightPeenHammer
Thisissimilartocrosspeenhammer,butitspeenisinlinewiththehammerhandle.Itisused
forswaging,rivetinginrestrictedplacesandstretchingmetals.

Figure1.26:Crosspeenhammer
Figure1.27:Straightpeenhammer

1.6.6Screwdriver
Ascrewdriverisdesignedtoturnscrews.Thebladeismadeofsteelandisavailableindifferent
lengthsanddiameters.Thegrindingofthetiptothecorrectshapeisveryimportant.
Astarscrewdriverisspeciallydesignedtofittheheadofstarscrews.Theendofthebladeisfluted
insteadofflattened.Thescrewdriverisspecifiedbythelengthofthemetalpartfromhandletothetip.

10

Figure1.28:Screwdrivers
1.6.7Spanners

Aspannerorwrenchisatoolforturningnutsandbolts.Itisusuallymadeofforgedsteel.There
aremanykindsofspanners.Theyarenamedaccordingtotheapplication.Thesizeofthespanner
denotesthesizeoftheboltonwhichitcanwork.

Figure1.28:Spanners

1.7SAFEPRACTICE
Thefollowingaresomeofthesafeandcorrectworkpracticesinbenchworkandfittingshop,with
respecttothetoolsused
1.Keephandsandtoolswipedcleanandfreeofdirt,oilandgrease.Drytoolsaresafertousethan
slipperytools.
2.Donotcarrysharptoolsonpockets.
3.Wearleathershoesandnotsandals.
4.Dontwearlooseclothes.
5.Donokeepworkingtoolsattheedgeofthetable.
6.Positiontheworkpiecesuchthatthecuttobemadeisclosetothevice.Thispracticeprevents
springing,sawbreakageandpersonalinjury.
7.Applyforceonlyontheforward(cutting)strokeandrelievetheforceonthereturnstrokewhile
sawingandfiling.
8.Donotholdtheworkpieceinhandwhilecutting.
9.Usethefilewithaproperlyfittedtighthandle.
10.Afterfiling,removetheburrsfromtheedgesofthework,topreventcutstothefingers.
11.Donotuseviceasananvil.

11

12.Whilesawing,keepthebladestraight;otherwiseitwillbreak
13.Donotuseafilewithouthandle.
14.Cleantheviceafteruse.

1.8MODELSFORPRACTICE
Preparethemodels,asperthedimensionsandfitsshowninbelow.

Figure1.30:DovetailFitting

Figure1.31:Vfitting

Figure1.32:Halfroundfitting

Figure1.33:Crossfitting

Figure1.34:DrillingandTapping

12

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Fitting
Exercise1
SquareFiling

Aim
TofilethegiventwoMildSteelpiecesintoasquareshapeof48mmsideasshowninFigureFE1
Toolsrequired
Benchvice,setofFiles,Steelrule,Trysquare,Verniercaliper,Vernierheightgauge,Ballpeenhammer,
Scriber,Dotpunch,Surfaceplate,AngleplateandAnvil.
Sequenceofoperations
1. Thedimensionsofthegivenpiecearecheckedwiththesteelrule.
2. Thejobisfixedrigidlyinabenchviceandthetwoadjacentsidesarefiled,usingtheroughflatfile
firstandthenthesmoothflatfilesuchthat,thetwosidesareatrightangle.
3. Therightangleofthetwoadjacentsidesischeckedwiththetrysquare.
4. Chalkisthenappliedonthesurfaceoftheworkpiece.
5. Thegivendimensionsaremarkedbyscribingtwolines,withreferencetotheabovetwodatumsides
byusingVernierheightgauge,AngleplateandSurfaceplate.
6. Usingthedotpunch,dotsarepunchedalongtheabovescribedlines.
7. Thetwosidesarethenfiled,byfittingthejobinthebenchvice;followedbycheckingtheflatnessof
thesurfaces.
Asthematerialremovalthroughfilingisrelativelyless,filingisdoneinsteadofsawing.

Result
Thesquarepiecesof48mmsideisthusobtainedbyfiling,asdiscussedabove.

a.Rawmaterial

b.Finishedjob

FigureFE1:Squarefiling

13

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Fitting
Exercise2
VFitting

Aim
TomakeVfitfromthegiventwoMSplatesanddrillingandTappingasshowninFigureFE2
Toolsrequired
Benchvice,setofFiles,Trysquare,Scriber,Steelrule,Ballpeenhammer,Dotpunch,Hacksaw,Vernier
caliper,Surfaceplate, Angle plate, Vernierheight gauge,5mm drillbit,3mm drill bit,M6 tap setwith
wrench,AnvilandDrillingmachine.
Sequenceofoperations
1. Theburrsinthepiecesareremovedandthedimensionsarecheckedwithsteelrule.
2. MakebothpiecessurfacelevelsandrightanglesbyfixingintheVice,useFilesforremovingmaterial
togetlevel.
3. WiththehelpofTrysquarechecktherightanglesandsurfacelevels.
4. UsingSurface plate and Angle plate mark the giventwo metal piecesas per drawing with Vernier
heightgauge.
5. Punch the scribed lines with dot punch and hammer keeping on the Anvil. Punch to punch give 5
mmgap.
6. CutexcessmaterialwherevernecessarywithHacksawframewithblade,DrillbitsandTaps.
7. The corners and flat surfaces are filed by using square/flat and triangular file to get the sharp
corners.
8. Dimensions are checked by vernier caliper and match the two pieces. Any defect noticed, are
rectifiedbyfilingwithasmoothfile.
9. Care is taken to see that the punched dots are not crossed, which is indicated by the half of the
punchdotsleftonthepieces.

Result
TherequiredVfittingisthusobtained,byfollowingthestages,asdescribedabove.

FigureFE2: VFitting

14

Chapter2

CARPENTRY

2.1INTRODUCTION
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a
marketableformofwoodandendswithfinishedproducts.It6dealswiththebuildingwork,furniture,
cabinet making.Etc.joinery, i.e.,preparationof joints isoneof theimportantoperations inall wood
works.Itdealswiththespecificworkofcarpenterlikemakingdifferenttypesofjointstoformafinished
product.
2.2TIMBER
Timberisthenamegiventothewoodobtainedfromwellgrowntrees.Thetreesarecut,sawn
intovarioussizestosuitbuildingpurposes.
Theword,grain,asappliedtowood,referstotheappearanceorpatternofthewoodonthe
cutsurfaces.Thegrainofthewoodisafibrousstructureandtomakeitstrong,thetimbermustbeso
cut,thatthegrainsrunparalleltothelength.
2.2.1Timbersizes
Timbersoldinthemarketisinvarioussizesandshapes.Thefollowingarethecommonshapes
andsizes.
a. Log
Thetrunkofthetreewhichisfreefrombranches.
b. Balk
Thelog,sawntohaveroughlysquarecrosssection.
c. Post
Atimberpiece,roundorsquareincrosssection,havingitsdiameterorside
from175to300mm.
d. Plank
Asawntimberpiece,withmorethan275mminwidth,50to150mmin
thicknessand2.5to6.5metersinlength.
e. Board
Asawntimberpiece,below175mminwidthand30to50mminthickness.
f. Reapers Sawntimberpiecesofassortedandnonstandardsizes,whichdonotconfirm
totheaboveshapesandsizes.

2.2.2ClassificationofTimber
Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in
generalaredividedintotwobroadcategories:SoftwoodsandHardwoods.
Softwoodsareobtainedfromconifers,kair,deodar,chir,walnutandseemal.Woodsobtained
from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are known as hard wood, but it is
highlydurable.
Another classification of woods is based on the name of the trees like teak, babul, shisham,
neem,kair,chir,etc.

2.2.3SeasoningofWood
Anewlyfelledtreecontainsconsiderablemoisturecontent.Ifthisisnotremoved,thetimberis
likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content under
controlledconditions,atauniformrate,fromallthepartsofthetimber.Onlyseasonedwoodshouldbe
usedforallcarpentryworks.Seasoningmakesthewoodresilientandlighter.Further,itensuresthatthe
woodwillnotdistortafteritismadeintoanobject.

2.2.4CharacteristicsofGoodTimber
Thegoodtimbermustpossessthefollowingcharacteristics
a. Itshouldhaveminimummoisturecontent,i.e.,thetimbershouldbewellseasoned.
b. Thegrainsofwoodshouldbestraightandlong.
c. Itmustretainitsstraightnessafterseasoning.
d. Itshouldproducenearmetallicsoundonhammering.
e. Itshouldbefreefromknotsorcracks.
f. Itshouldbeofuniformcolor,throughoutthepartofthewood.
g. Itshouldrespondwelltothefinishingandpolishingoperations.
h. Duringdrivingthenailsandscrew,itshouldnotspliteasily.

15

2.3MARKINGANDMEASURINGTOOLS
Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to
exact size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring tools
thatarerequiredinacarpentryshop.

2.3.1SteelruleandSteeltape
Steelruleisasimplemeasuringinstrumentconsistingofalong,thinmetalstripwithamarked
scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large
measurements,suchasmarkingonboardsandcheckingtheoveralldimensionsofthework.

Figure2.1:SteelruleandSteeltape
2.3.2Markinggauge

It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a square
wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted a marking pin, made of
steel.Thestockissetatanydesireddistancefromthemarkingpointandfixedinpositionbyascrew.It
mustbeensuredthatthemarkingpinprojectsthroughthestem,about3mm andtheend aresharp
enoughtomakeaveryfineline.Amortisegaugeconsistsoftwopins.Inthis,itispossibletoadjustthe
distancebetweenthepins,todrawtwoparallellinesonthestock.

a.Markinggauge

b.Mortisegauge

Figure2.2:Markinggauges
2.3.3Trysquare
Itisusedformarkingandtestingthesquarenessandstraightnessofplanedsurfaces.Itconsists
ofasteelblade,fittedinacastironstock.Itisalsousedforcheckingtheplanedsurfacesforflatness.Its
sizevariesfrom150to300mm,accordingtothelengthoftheblade.Itislessaccuratewhencompared
tothetrysquareusedinthefittingshop.

Figure2.3:Trysquare

2.3.4Compassanddivider
Compassanddivider,areusedformarkingarcsandcirclesontheplanedsurfacesofthewood.

16

2.3.5Scriberormarkingknife
Itisusedformarkingontimber.Itismadeofsteelhavingoneendpointedandtheotherend
formedintoasharpcuttingedge.

2.3.6Bevel
Itisused forlayingoutandchecking angles. The blade ofthe bevel isadjustable and maybe
heldinplacebyathumbscrew.Afteritissettothedesiredangle,itcanbeusedinmuchthesameway
asatrysquare.Agoodwaytosetittotherequiredangleistomarktheangleonasurfaceandthen
adjustthebladetofittheangle.

Figure2.4:CompassandDivider

Figure2.5:ScriberandBevel

2.4HOLDINGTOOLS
2.4.1Carpenter'svice
Figure2.6showsthecarpenter'sbenchvice,usedasaworkholdingdeviceinacarpentershop.
Itsonejawisfixedtothesideofthetablewhiletheotherismovablebymeansofascrewandahandle.
TheCarpenter'svicejawsarelinedwithhardwooden'faces.

Figure2.6:Carpentersvice

Figure2.7:Cclamp

2.4.2Cclamp
Figure2.7showsaCclamp,whichisusedforholdingsmallworks.

2.4.3Barcramp
Figure 2.8 shows abar cramp. It is made of steelbarof Tsection,with malleable iron fittings
andasteelscrew.Itisusedforholdingwideworkssuchasframesortops.

Figure2.8:barcramp

17

2.5PLANINGTOOLS
Planingistheoperationusedtoproduceflatsurfacesonwood.Aplaneisahandtoolusedfor
thispurpose.Thecuttingbladeusedinaplaneisverysimilartoachisel.Thebladeofaplaneisfittedin
awoodenormetallicblock,atanangle.

2.5.1Jackplane
Itis themostcommonly used generalpurposeplane. It is about 35cm long.The cutting iron
(blade)shouldhaveacuttingedgeofslightcurvature.Itisusedforquickremovalofmaterialonrough
workandisalsousedinobliqueplanning.

2.5.2Smoothingplane
Itisusedforfinishingworkandhence,thebladeshouldhaveastraightcuttingedge.Itisabout
20to25cmlong.Beingshort,itcanfolloweventheslightdepressionsinthestock,betterthanthejack
plane.Itisusedafterusingthejackplane.

2.5.3Rebateplane
Itisusedformakingarebate.Arebateisarecessalongtheedgeofapieceofwood,whichis
generallyusedforpositioningglassinframesanddoors.

2.5.4Ploughplane
Itisusedtocutgrooves,whichareusedtofixpanelsinadoor.Figure2.9showsthevarious
typesofplanesmentionedabove.

Figure2.9:Typesofplanes

2.6CUTTINGTOOLS
2.6.1Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to suit
differentpurposes.Asawisspecifiedbythelengthofitstoothededge.
2.6.1.1Crosscutorhandsaw
It is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerf will be
widerthanthebladethickness.Thisallowsthebladetomovefreelyinthecut,withoutsticking.

18

2.6.1.2Ripsaw
Itisusedforcuttingthestockalongthegrains.Thecuttingedgeofthissawmakesasteeper
angle,i.e.,about60whereasthatofcrosscutsawmakesanangleof45withthesurfaceofthestock.

2.6.1.3Tenonsaw
Itisusedforcuttingthestockeitheralongoracrossthegrains.Itisusedforcuttingtenonsand
infinecabinetwork.However,itisusedforsmallandthincuts.Thebladeofthissawisverythinandso
itisstiffenedwithathickbacksteelstrip.Hence,thisissometimescalledasbacksaw.Inthis,theteeth
areshapedlikethoseofcrosscutsaw.

2.6.1.4Compasssaw
Ithasanarrow,longerandstrongertaperingblade,whichisusedforheavyworks(Fig.1.13).It
ismostlyusedinradiuscutting.Thebladeofthissawisfittedwithanopentypewoodenhandle.

Figure2.10:Typesofsaws
2.6.2Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made in various
blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in different blade lengths. Most of the
woodchiselsaremadeintotangtype,havingasteelshankwhichfitsinsidethehandle.Thesearemade
offorgedsteelortoolsteelblades.

Figure2.11:Partsofchisel

19

2.6.2.1Firmerchisel

Theword'firmer'means'stronger'andhencefirmerchiselisstrongerthanotherchisels.Itisa
generalpurposechiselandisusedeitherbyhandpressureorbyamallet.Thebladeofafirmerchiselis
flat,asshowninFigure2.12a.

2.6.2.2Dovetailchisel

Ithasabladewithabeveledback,asshowninFigure,duetowhichitcanentersharpcomers
forfinishing,asindovetailjoints.

2.6.2.3Mortisechisel
Itisusedforcuttingmortisesandchippinginsideholes,etc.Thecrosssectionofthemortisechiselis
proportioned to withstand heavy blows during mortising. Further, the crosssection is made stronger
neartheshank.

a.Firmerb.Dovetailc.Mortise

Figure2.12:Typesofchisels

2.7DRILLINGANDBORINGTOOLS
2.7.1Carpentersbrace
Itisused forrotating auger bits,twistdrills, etc., toproduce holes inwood. In somedesigns,
braces are made with ratchet device. With this, holes may be made in a corner where complete
revolutionofthehandlecannotbemade.Thesizeofabraceisdeterminedbyitssweep.

2.7.2Augerbit
Itisthemostcommontoolusedformakingholesinwood.Duringdrilling,theleadscrewof
thebitguidesintothewood,necessitatingonlymoderatepressureonthebrace.Thehelicalfluteson
thesurfacecarrythechipstotheoutersurface.

2.7.3Handdrill
Carpenter's brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill is used for
drilling small holes.A straightshank drill isusedwiththis tool. It is small, lightin weightand may be
conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a
handleattachedtogearandpinionarrangement.

2.7.4Gimlet
Ithas cuttingedges likeatwist drill. It is used fordrilling largediameterholeswith the hand
pressure.

20

Figure2.13:Drillingtools

2.8MISCELLANEOUSTOOLS
2.8.1Mallet
Itisusedtodrivethechisel,whenconsiderableforceistobeapplied,whichmaybethecasein
makingdeeproughcuts.Steelhammershouldnotbeusedforthepurpose,asitmaydamagethechisel
handle.Further,forbettercontrol,itisbettertoapplyaseriesoflighttapswiththemalletratherthana
heavysingleblow.

2.8.2Pincer
It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pullingout small nails
fromwood.Theinnerfacesofthepincerjawsarebeveledandtheouterfacesareplain.Theendofone
armhasaballandtheotherhasaclaw.Thebeveledjawsandtheclawareusedforpullingoutsmall
nails,pinsandscrewsfromthewood.

2.8.3Clawhammer
Ithasastrikingflatfaceatoneendandtheclawattheother,asshowninfigure.Thefaceis
usedtodrivenailsintowoodandforotherstrikingpurposesandtheclawforextractingrelativelylarge
nailsoutofwood.Itismadeofcaststeelandweighsfrom0.25kgto0.75kg.

2.8.4Screwdriver
Itisusedfordrivingscrewsintowoodorunscrewingthem.Thescrewdriverofacarpenteris
differentfromtheothercommontypes,asshowninfigure.
The length of a screw driver is determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the blade
increases,thewidthandthicknessofthetipalsoincrease.

2.8.5Woodraspfile
Itisafinishingtoolusedtomakethewoodsurfacesmooth,removesharpedges,finishfillets
andotherinteriorsurfaces.Sharpcuttingteethareprovidedonits
surfaceforthepurpose.Thisfileisexclusivelyusedinwoodwork.

2.8.6Bradawl
Itisahandoperatedtool,usedtoboresmallholesforstartingascreworlargenail.

21

a.Mallet

b.Pincerc.Clawhammerd.Bradawl

e.Woodraspfile

f.Screwdriver
Figure2.14:Miscellaneoustools

2.9WOODJOINTS
There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite use and
requires lay inout, cutting them together.The strengthof the joint dependsuponamountofcontact
area.Ifaparticularjointdoesnothavemuchcontactarea,thenitmustbereinforcedwithnails,screws
ordowels.Thefigure2.15showssomecommonlyusedwoodjoints.

a.Butt

b.Dowell

c.Dadod.Rabbet

e.Lap

f.Mortiseandtenon

g.Miter

Figure2.15:Commonwoodjoints

2.9.1Lapjoints
Inlapjoints,anequalamountofwoodisremovedfromeachpiece,asshowninfigure2.16.Lap
jointsareeasytolayout,usingatrysquareandamarkinggauge.Followtheproceduresuggestedfor
sawingandremovingthewastestock.Ifthejointisfoundtobetootight,itisbettertoreducethewidth
of the mating piece, instead of trimming the shoulder of the joint. This type of joint is used for small
boxestolargepiecesoffurniture.

22


Figure2.16:Lapjoints

2.9.2MortiseandTenonJoints
It is used in the construction of quality furniture. It results in a strong joint and requires
considerableskilltomakeit.Thefollowingarethestagesinvolvedinthework.
a. Markthemortiseandtenonlayouts.
b. Cutthemortisefirstbydrillingseriesofholeswithinthelayoutline,chiselingoutthewastestock
andtrimmingthecornersandsides.
c. Preparethetenonbycuttingandchiseling.
d. Checkthetenonsizeagainstthemortisethathasbeenpreparedandadjustitifnecessary.

Figure2.17:MortiseandTenonjoints

2.9.3Bridlejoint
Thisisthereverseofmortiseandtenonjointinform.Themarkingoutofthejointisthesameas
formortiseandtenonjoint.Thisjointisusedwherethemembersareofsquareornearsquaresection
andunsuitableformortiseandtenonjoint.

Figure2.18:Bridlejoint

23

2.10SAFEPRACTICE
Thefollowingaresomeofthesafeandcorrectworkpracticesincarpentryshop,withrespectto
thetoolsused
1. Toolsthatarenotbeingusedshouldalwaysbekeptattheirproperplaces.
2. Makesurethatyourhandsarenotinfrontofsharpedgedtoolswhileyouareusingthem.
3. Useonlysharptools.Adulltoolrequiresexcessivepressure,causingthetooltoslip.
4. Woodenpieceswithnails,shouldneverbeallowedtoremainonthefloor.
5. Becarefulwhenyouareusingyourthumbasaguideincrosscuttingandripping.
6. Testthesharpnessofthecuttingedgeofchiselonwoodorpaper,butnotonyourhand.
7. Neverchiseltowardsanypartofthebody.
8. Donotusechiselswherenailsarepresent.Donotusechiselasascrewdriver.
9. Donotuseasawwithaloosehandle.
10. Alwaysusetriangularfileforsharpeningtheteeth.
11. Donotuseasawonmetallicsubstances.
12. Donotusemallettostrikenails.
13. Donotuseplaneattheplaces,whereanailisdriveninthewood.

24

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Carpentry
Exercise2
DoubleLapjoint

Aim
Tomakeadoublelapjoint,usingthegivenmildsteelpiecesandbyarcwelding.
Materialused
Twomildsteelpiecesof100X40X6mm.
Toolsandequipmentused
Arcweldingmachine,Mildsteelelectrodes,Electrodeholder,Groundclamp,flatnoseTong,Faceshield,
Apron,Handgloves,MetallicworkTable,Benchvice,Roughflatfile,Trysquare,Steelrule,Wirebrush,
Ballpeenhammer,Chippinghammer,ChiselandGrindingmachine.
Sketch

Figure3.13:Doublelapjoint
Operationstobecarriedout
1. Cleaningtheworkpieces
2. tackwelding
3. fullwelding
4. cooling
5. chipping
6. finishing
Procedure
1. Takethetwomildsteelpiecesofgivendimensionsandcleanthesurfacesthoroughlyfromrust,dust
particles,oilandgrease.
2. Removethesharpcornersandburrsbyfilingorgrindingandpreparetheworkpieces.
3. Theworkpiecesarepositionedontheweldingtable,toformalapjointwiththerequiredover
lapping.
4. Theelectrodeisfittedintotheelectrodeholderandtheweldingcurrentissettoapropervalue.
5. Thegroundclampisfastenedtotheweldingtable.
6. Wearingtheapron,handgloves,usingthefaceshieldandholdingtheoverlappedpiecesthearcis
struckandtheworkpiecesaretackweldedattheendsofboththesides
7. Thealignmentofthelapjointischeckedandthetackweldedpiecesarereset,ifrequired.
8. Weldingisthencarriedoutthroughoutthelengthofthelapjoint,onboththesides.
9. Removetheslag,spattersandcleanthejoint.

ResultThedoublelapjointisthusmade,usingthetoolsandequipmentasmentionedabove.

36

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Carpentry
Exercise3
Cornerjoint

Aim
Tomakeacornerjoint,usingthegivenmildsteelpiecesandbyarcwelding.
Materialused
Twomildsteelpiecesof100X40X6mm.
Toolsandequipmentused
Arcweldingmachine,Mildsteelelectrodes,Electrodeholder,Groundclamp,flatnoseTong,Faceshield,
Apron,Handgloves,MetallicworkTable,Benchvice,Roughflatfile,Trysquare,Steelrule,Wirebrush,
Ballpeenhammer,Chippinghammer,ChiselandGrindingmachine.
Sketch

Figure3.14:Cornerjoint
Operationstobecarriedout
1. Cleaningtheworkpieces
2. tackwelding
3. fullwelding
4. cooling
5. chipping
6. finishing
Procedure
1. Takethetwomildsteelpiecesofgivendimensionsandcleanthesurfacesthoroughlyfromrust,dust
particles,oilandgrease.
2. Removethesharpcornersandburrsbyfilingorgrindingandpreparetheworkpieces.
3. Theworkpiecesarepositionedontheweldingtablesuchthat,theLshapeisformed.
4. Theelectrodeisfittedintotheelectrodeholderandtheweldingcurrentissettoapropervalue.
5. Thegroundclampisfastenedtotheweldingtable.
6. Wearingtheapron,handgloves,usingthefaceshieldandholdingthepiecesthearcisstruckand
theworkpiecesaretackweldedatboththeends.
7. Thealignmentofthecornerjointischeckedandthetackweldedpiecesarereset,ifrequired.
8. Weldingisthencarriedoutthroughoutthelength.
9. Removetheslag,spattersandcleanthejoint.

ResultTheCornerjointisthusmade,usingthetoolsandequipmentasmentionedabove.

37

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Carpentry
Exercise4
Tjoint

Aim
TomakeaTjoint,usingthegivenmildsteelpiecesandbyarcwelding.
Materialused
Twomildsteelpiecesof100X40X6mm.
Toolsandequipmentused
Arcweldingmachine,Mildsteelelectrodes,Electrodeholder,Groundclamp,flatnoseTong,Faceshield,
Apron,Handgloves,MetallicworkTable,Benchvice,Roughflatfile,Trysquare,Steelrule,Wirebrush,
Ballpeenhammer,Chippinghammer,ChiselandGrindingmachine.
Sketch

Figure3.15:Tjoint

Operationstobecarriedout
1. Cleaningtheworkpieces
2. tackwelding
3. fullwelding
4. cooling
5. chipping
6. finishing
Procedure
1. Takethetwomildsteelpiecesofgivendimensionsandcleanthesurfacesthoroughlyfromrust,dust
particles,oilandgrease.
2. Removethesharpcornersandburrsbyfilingorgrindingandpreparetheworkpieces.
3. Theworkpiecesarepositionedontheweldingtablesuchthat,theTshapeisformed.
4. Theelectrodeisfittedintotheelectrodeholderandtheweldingcurrentissettoapropervalue.
5. Thegroundclampisfastenedtotheweldingtable.
6. Wearingtheapron,handgloves,usingthefaceshieldandholdingthepiecesthearcisstruckand
theworkpiecesaretackweldedatboththeends.
7. ThealignmentoftheTjointischeckedandthetackweldedpiecesarereset,ifrequired.
8. WeldingisthencarriedoutthroughoutthelengthoftheTjointasshowninthefigure.
9. Removetheslag,spattersandcleanthejoint.

ResultTheTeejointisthusmade,usingthetoolsandequipmentasmentionedabove.

38

Chapter4

MACHINESHOP

4.1INTRODUCTION
Inamachineshop,metalsarecuttoshapeondifferentmachinetools.Alatheisusedtocutand
shape the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a chuck,
fittedontothelathespindleorinbetweenthecenters.Thecuttingtoolisfixedinatoolpost,mounted
onamovablecarriagethatispositionedonthelathebed.Thecuttingtoolcanbefedontothework,
eitherlengthwiseorcrosswise.Whileturning,thechuckrotates incounterclockwisedirection,when
viewedfromthetailstockend.

4.2PRINCIPALPARTSOFALATHE
Figure4.1showsacenterlathe,indicatingthemainparts.Thenameisduetothefactthatwork
piecesareheldbythecenters.

Figure4.1:Partsofacenterlathe
4.2.1Bed
It is an essential part of a lathe, which must be strong and rigid. It carries all parts of the
machine and resists the cutting forces. The carriage and the tail stock move along the guide ways
providedonthebed.Itisusuallymadeofcastiron.

4.2.2Headstock
Itcontainseitheraconepulleyorgearingstoprovidethenecessaryrangeofspeedsandfeeds.
Itcontainsthemainspindle,towhichtheworkisheldandrotated.

4.2.3Tailstock
Itisusedtosupporttherighthandendofalongworkpiece.Itmaybeclampedinanyposition
alongthelathebed.ThetailstockspindlehasaninternalMorsetapertoreceivethedeadcenterthat
supportsthework.Drills,reamers,tapsmayalsobefittedintothespindle,forperformingoperations
suchasdrilling,reamingandtapping.

4.2.4CarriageorSaddle
It is used to control the movement of the cutting tool. The carriage assembly consists of the
longitudinalslide,crossslideandthecompoundslideandapron.Thecrossslidemovesacrossthelength
ofthebedandperpendiculartotheaxisofthespindle.Thismovementisusedforfacingandtoprovide
thenecessarydepthofcutwhileturning.Theapron,whichisboltedtothesaddle,isonthefrontofthe
latheandcontainsthelongitudinalandcrossslidecontrols.

4.2.5CompoundRest
Itsupportsthetoolpost.Byswivelingthecompoundrestonthecrossslide,shorttapersmaybe
turnedtoanydesiredangles.

39

4.2.6ToolPost
Thetoolpost,holdsthetoolholderorthetool,whichmaybeadjustedtoanyworkingposition.

4.2.7LeadScrew
Itisalongthreadedshaft,locatedinfrontofthecarriage,runningfromtheheadstocktothe
tailstock.Itisgearedtothespindleandcontrolsthemovementofthetool,eitherforautomaticfeeding
orforcuttingthreads.

4.2.8Centers
Therearetwocentersknownasdeadcenterandlivecenter.Thedeadcenterispositionedin
thetailstockspindleandthelivecenter,intheheadstockspindle.Whileturningbetweencenters,the
deadcenterdoesnotrevolvewiththeworkwhilethelivecenterrevolveswiththework.

4.3WORKHOLDINGDEVICES
4.3.1Threejawchuck
It is a work holding device having three jaws (selfcentering) which will close or open with
respect to the chuck center or the spindle center, as shown in figure. It is used for holding regular
objectslikeroundbars,hexagonalrods,etc.

Figure4.2:Threejawchuck

Figure4.3:Fourjawchuck

4.3.3Faceplate
Itisaplateoflargediameter,usedforturningoperations.Certaintypesofworkthatcannotbe
heldinchucksareheldonthefaceplatewiththehelpofvariousaccessories.

Figure4.4:Faceplate

Figure4.5:Lathedoganddrivingplate

4.3.4Lathedogsanddrivingplate
Theseareusedtodriveaworkpiecethatisheldbetweencenters.Theseareprovidedwithan
opening to receive and clamp the work piece and dog tail, the tail of the dog is carried by the pin
providedinthedrivingplatefordrivingtheworkpiece.

4.4MEASURINGINSTRUMENTS
4.4.1OutsideandinsideCalipers
Firmjointorspringcalipersareusedfortransferofdimensionswiththehelpofasteelrule.

40


Figure4.6:Calipers

4.4.2VernierCalipers
Verniercaliperisaversatileinstrumentwithwhichbothoutsideandinsidemeasurementsmay
bemadeaccurately.Theseinstrumentsmayhaveprovisionfordepthmeasurementalso.

Figure4.7:VernierCaliper
4.4.3Micrometers
Outsideandinsidemicrometersareusedformeasuringcomponentswheregreateraccuracyis
required.

4.5CUTTINGPARAMETERS
4.5.1Cuttingspeed
It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified in meters per
minute. Ti depends upon the work piece material, feed, depth of cut, type of operation and so many
othercuttingconditions.Itiscalculatedfromtherelation,
Spindlespeed(RPM)=cuttingspeedx1000/(D)
WhereDistheworkpiecediameterinmm.

4.5.2Feed
Itisthedistancetraversedbythetoolalongthebed,duringonerevolutionofthework.Itsvalue
dependsuponthedepthofcutandsurfacefinishoftheworkdesired.

4.5.3DepthofCut
It is the movement of the tip of the cutting tool, from the surface of the work piece and
perpendicular to the lathe axis. Its value depends upon the nature of operation like rough turning or
finishturning.

4.6TOOLMATERIALS
Generalpurposehandcuttingtoolsareusuallymadefromcarbonsteelortoolsteel.Thesingle
pointlathecuttingtoolsaremadeofhighspeedsteel(HSS).themainalloyingelementsin1841HSS

41

tools are 18 percenttungsten,4percentchromiumand 1percentvanadium.5to10 percentcobalt is

alsoaddedtoimprovetheheatresistingpropertiesofthetool.
Carbidetippedtoolsfixedintoolholders,aremostlyusedinproductionshops.

4.7TOOLGEOMETRY
Asinglepointcuttingtoolusedonlathemaybeconsideredasasimplewedge.Figure4.8shows
thecommonturningtoolsusedfordifferentoperations.Figure6.9showsthebasicanglesofasimple
turningtool.

Figure4.8:CommonturningtoolsFigure4.9:Toolgeometry

4.8LATHEOPERATIONS
4.8.1Turning
Cylindricalshapes,bothexternalandinternal,areproducedbyturningoperation.Turningisthe
processinwhichthematerialisremovedbyatraversingcuttingtool,fromthesurfaceofarotatingwork
piece.Theoperationusedformachininginternalsurfacesisoftencalledtheboringoperationinwhicha
holepreviouslydrilledisenlarged.
Forturninglongwork,firstitshouldbefacedandcenterdrilledatoneendandthensupported
bymeansofthetailstockcentre.

4.8.2Boring
Boringisenlargingaholeandisusedwhencorrectsizedrillisnotavailable.However,itshould
benotedthatboringcannotmakeahole.

4.8.3Facing
Facingisamachiningoperation,performedtomaketheendsurfaceoftheworkpiece,flatand
perpendiculartotheaxisofrotation.Forthis,theworkpiecemaybeheldinachuckandrotatedabout
the lathe axis. A facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the lathe. The tool is slightly inclined
towardstheendoftheworkpiece.

4.8.4TaperTurning
A taperisdefined as the uniform change in the diameter ofa work piece,measured along its
length. It is expressed as a ratio of the difference in diameters to the length. It is also expressed in
degreesofhalftheincluded(taper)angle.
Taperturningreferstotheproductionofaconicalsurface,ontheworkpieceonalathe.
Shortsteeptapersmaybecutonalathebyswivelingthecompoundresttotherequiredangle.Here,
thecuttingtoolisfedbymeansofthecompoundslidefeedhandle.Theworkpieceisrotatedinachuck
orfaceplateorbetweencenters.

42

4.8.5Drilling
Holesthatareaxiallylocatedincylindricalpartsareproducedbydrillingoperation,usingatwist
drill. For this, the work piece is rotated in a chuck or face plate. The tail stock spindle has a standard
taper.Thedrillbitisfittedintothetailstockspindledirectlyorthroughdrillchuck.Thetailstockisthen
movedoverthebedandclampedonitnearthework.Whenthejobrotates,thedrillbitisfedintothe
workbyturningthetailstockhandwheel.

4.8.6Knurling
Itistheprocessofembossingadiamondshapedregularpatternonthesurfaceofaworkpiece
using a special knurling tool. This tool consists of a set of hardened steel rollers in a holder with the
teethcutontheirsurfaceinadefinitepattern.Thetoolisheldrigidlyonthetoolpostandtherollersare
pressedagainsttherevolvingworkpiecetosqueezethemetalagainstthemultiplecuttingedges.The
purposeofknurlingistoprovideaneffectivegrippingsurfaceonaworkpiecetopreventitfromslipping
whenoperatedbyhand.

4.8.7Chamfering
Itistheoperationofbevelingtheextremeendofaworkpiece.Chamferisprovidedforbetter
look,toenablenuttopassfreelyonthreadedworkpiece,toremoveburrsandprotecttheendofthe
workpiecefrombeingdamaged.

4.8.8Threading
Threadingisnothingbutcuttinghelicalgrooveonaworkpiece.Threadsmaybecuteitheron
the internal or external cylindrical surfaces. A specially shaped cutting tool, known as thread cutting
tool,isusedforthispurpose.Threadcuttinginalatheisperformedbytraversingthecuttingtoolata
definiterate,inproportiontotherateatwhichtheworkrevolves.

Figure4.10:OperationsofLathe

43

4.9SAFETYPRECAUTIONS

1. Alwaysweareyeprotectionpreferablyindustrialqualitysafetyglasseswithsideshields.Thelathe
canthrowoffsharp,hotmetalchipsatconsiderablespeedaswellasspinoffspiralsofmetalthat
canbequitehazardous.Don'ttakechanceswithyoureyes.
2. Wearshortsleeveshirts,loosesleevescancatchonrotatingworkandquicklypullyourhandorarm
intoharm'sway.
3. Wear shoes preferably leather work shoes to protect your feet from sharp metal chips on the
shopfloorandfromtoolsandchunksofmetalthatmaygetdropped.
4. Removewristwatches,necklaces,chainsandotherjewelry.Tiebacklonghairsoitcan'tgetcaught
intherotatingwork.Thinkaboutwhathappenstoyourfaceifyourhairgetsentangled.
5. Alwaysdoublechecktomakesureyourworkissecurelyclampedinthechuckorbetweencenters
beforestartingthelathe.Startthelatheatlowspeedandincreasethespeedgradually.
6. Get in the habit of removing the chuck key immediately after use. Some users recommend never
removing your hand from the chuck key when it is in the chuck. The chuck key can be a lethal
projectileifthelatheisstartedwiththechuckkeyinthechuck.
7. Keepyourfingersclearoftherotatingworkandcuttingtools.Thissoundsobvious,butIamoften
temptedtobreakawaymetalspiralsastheyformatthecuttingtool.
8. Avoidreachingoverthespinningchuck.Forfilingoperations,holdthetangendofthefileinyour
lefthandsothatyourhandandarmarenotabovethespinningchuck.
9. Neveruseafilewithabaretangthetangcouldbeforcedbackintoyourwristorpalm.

44

ME101WorkshopPracticeI

Machineshop
Exercise1
Facingandplainturning

Aim
Toobtainrequireddiameterofacylindricalworkpiecewiththegivenlength(Fig4.11).
Tools&Equipment
Lathe machine. Mild steel bar, right hand cuttingtool, box keyortoolpostkey, chuck key,steel rule,
outsidecalipersorverniercalipers.
Sketch

2x45

28.50.2

1300.2

FigureMSE1: Plain Turning

Theory
Facingistheoperationsoffinishingtheendsofworktomakeendsflat,smoothandtorequiredlength.
Roughturningoperationisusedwhereexcessivestockistoberemovedandsurfacefinishisnotcritical.
Forsuchaoperationdeepcutswithcoarsefeedareused.Duringroughmachining,maximummetalis
removedandverylittleoversizedimensionisleftforfinishingoperation.
Procedure
1. Thegivenworkpieceisheldinthe3jawchuckofthelathemachineandtightenedfirmlywithchuck
key.
2. Right hand single point cutting tool is taken tightened firmly with the help of box key in the tool
post.
3. Machineisswitchedonandthetoolpostisswiveledandthecuttingpointisadjustedsuchthatit
positionedapproximatelyforfacingoperationthenthetoolisfedintotheworkpieceandthetool
postisgiventhetransversemovementbyrotatingthehandwheelofthecrossslide.
4. Withthisfacingiscompletedandthetoolpostisswiveledandcuttingpointismadeparalleltothe
axisofworkpiece.
5. Depthofcutisgivenbycrossslidetothetoolpostandthesidehandwheelisrotatedtogivethe
longitudinalmovementforthetoolpostandjobisturnedtotherequiredlengthanddiameter.
6. Aftercompletionofthejobit is inspectedforthedimensionsobtainedwiththehelpofsteelrule
andoutsidecaliperorverniercaliper.
Precautions
1. Workpieceshouldbeheldfirmly.
2. Inroughturningoperationdonotoverfeedthetool,asitmaydamagethecuttingpointofthetool.
3. Exercise over hung of tool should be avoided as it results in chatter and causes rough machined
surface.
4. Itisimportanttoensurethatduringfacingoperationthecuttingisperformedfromcenterpointto
theouterdiameteroftheworkpiece.
ResultThejobisthusmadeaccordingtothegivendimensions.

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