Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
Richard D. Young
Introduction
Leadership is an important part of the human condition. It has been an indispensable and
necessary factor in defining civilization through the ages. To understand the past, one
studies the leaders who have shaped history. The present is comprehended by looking
backwards at great and small leaders, and by examining leaders of today who influence
the lives of trillions. Interestingly enough, but quite logically, people look to todays
leaders for what lies ahead. The vision of these contemporary leaders, it is believed, holds
the keys to the future. Individuals look to these leaders and their visions of tomorrow in
hope of better and more satisfying lives, not simply for themselves, but for their children
and future generations to come.
As leadership is of great importance and concern to humankind, then it is reasonable to
desire to understand what it is. What is leadership? How do morality and the common
good fit into the leadership equation? Are there cultural and environmental considerations
at stake in the notion and practice of leadership? What do the experts and researchers say
with regard to the differing leadership approaches? Is there a difference, a real distinction,
between leadership and management? And, lastly, what is the so-called visionary leader
that is much discussed in todays literature?
In this monograph, answers to these vital questions will be touched upon. Based on an
extensive literature review, leadership will be examined in order to provide a discussion
that will encapsulate, in narrative form, what leadership is and its various distinguishing
factors. Additionally, as common sense, practical experience, and the literature dictates,
this narrative will place leadership plainly in the spheres of both private and public theory
and practice. Nevertheless, in the spirit of public policy research and its import in
everyday affairs of government, some emphasis will be placed on leadership in the public
sector.
The Need for and Meaning of Leadership
According to renowned author, James MacGergor Burns (1978), in his seminal work
entitled Leadership, one of the greatest needs of our times is leadership. Not just any kind
of leadership, but as Burns describes it compelling and creative leadership. (Burns,
Wren ed., 1995, p. 8).
In his criticism, Burns claims that leadership is nowadays universally mediocre, and at
times, simply irresponsible. Much of this is to do with our ignorance of the meaning of
leadership in modernity. In essence, we are not sure of what leadership is. Is it composed
5) Leading change involves avoiding the boiled frog syndrome. (If you put a frog
in a frying pan and slowly turn up the heat, the frog will not jump out but will
rather fry to death. If you put a frog in boiling water, however, it will immediately
jump out. Hence, if people in an organization do not sense a momentous gap
between where they are and where they need to be, they will stay in their
comfort zone and, so to speak, get passed by, become obsolete, or perhaps
perish.)
6) Leading change must establish relevance.
7) Leading change means asking the right questions.
8) Leading change means creating early victories. (People need to see some initial
evidence that a new idea is working and that it produces results).
9) Leading change means recognizing the paradox of change. (Change is again
constant. Leading change means understanding that a new idea may need to be
changed further along the continuum of time. Thus the irregularity and
capriciousness of change.)
10) Leading change involves creating a learning organization.
11) Leading change means competing against oneself.
12) Leading change means building coalitions.
Bernard Bass, a distinguished professor and director of the Center for Leadership Studies
at the State University of New York, is and remains a scholarly and prolific author of
leadership and its meaning and variations. He notes, for example, that leadership is a
highly complicated and modern concept, which appeared in literature in the first part of
the 19th century (Bass, Wren ed., 1995, p. 37). Bass states further that today the
definitions of leadership have become so pervasive that its true meaning is difficult to
ascertain. He nevertheless attempts to cobble together a definition that has received
plentiful attention. Bass sees leadership as a focal point of group purposes, as a question
of personality, as an actor that induces compliance, a discharge of influence, and a
personification of certain key behaviors and skills. He adds to this that leadership is also
a form of persuasion, an interactive relationship(s), and a propensity to achieve goals or
bring about results. (p. 38).
The effective leader is likewise defined by internationally known speaker and author
Karl Albrecht (1996) in his book, Creating Leaders for Tomorrow. In this work Albrecht
declares that, generally speaking, leadership is the capability to focus human energy to
achieve defined outcomes (p. 16). Having said this, Albrecht states that additionally an
effective leader, in working with others, must possess 1) vision and values, 2) direction,
3) persuasion, 4) support, 5) development, and 6) appreciation.
Briefly, for example, Albrecht says that to be a visionary, the leader must be able to see
the big picture. This means comprehending the current overall situation and
circumstances, and then deciding where to go in the future. It also means articulating the
purpose and values of the organization and developing a strategy for bringing it forward.
As Albrecht states further, the leader must make these values real and compelling for
others. (pp. 23-24).
sacrifice his own people, the entirety of the German populace, to accomplish his own
selfish ends.
Rather, Gardner feels that as Americans and civilized peoples, we expect our leaders to
be constantly sensitive to our needs as constituents or followers. Public leaders have a
duty and responsibility to respond to our basic, common needs. A leader is one who is
responsive and caring. Additionally, a moral leader is invariably fair and consistent.
Within the context of shared values, a leader fosters and allows individuals to grow, to
express his or her talents and energies. Hence, Gardner defines a moral leader as an
enabler, a person who assists us in reaching our potentialities. (pp. 73-74).
Also, John Gardner believes that as ethical leaders it is important to remember that one
must unleash human potentialities within the framework of laws and customs. Society is
made up of both written and unwritten rules and principles. A leader must recognize this
and direct ones followers towards societys embedded beliefs by established or
acceptable rules of law. Ultimately, these beliefs and laws are embraced by Americas
concepts of what is generally referred to as the common good, the commonwealth, or the
public interest (p. 97). A leader, a moral leader, must recognize therefore that ethical
thought and behavior is essential to being not simply a leader, but a good leader. This is
someone who distinguishes readily right from wrong, good from bad, and consistently
seeks shared values, that when taken together, constitute nothing less than the
common or public good.
Leaders and Followers
A topic of considerable discussion among experts in the study of leadership is one that
considers the relationship between leaders and followers. Experts claim that in order to
have a thorough or perceptive understanding of leadership, individuals must decipher the
complex interaction of the so-called leader-follower phenomena. Several scholars have
attempted to explore and answer fundamental questions regarding this interaction, most
particularly Gardner (1987), Rost (1991), and Koehler and Pankowski (1996).1 In the
following narrative, this leader-follower relationship will be briefly discussed.
John Gardner, in an article entitled simply Leaders and Followers, puts forward several
notions that shed some light on this topic. He states that leaders are many times not as
much in charge as they may seem to be (Gardner, Wren ed., 1995, p. 185). The reason
why this is so is that influence and pressure are, so to speak, a two-way street. In other
words, leaders affect their constituencies and in return constituencies affect their leaders.
This is somewhat similar to other relationships that have been often referred to in the
literature; e.g., political journalists and politicians, doctors and their patients, preachers
and their congregations. Relationships are, in this sense, only as valid as to the viability
and genuine exchange between two objects (persons or groups)in this case the leader
and follower.
Gardner also places some emphasis on the concept held by Max Weber and Georg
Simmel that leaders can maintain authority (respect) only as long as followers believe in
or have trust in their authority. But Gardner makes a distinction at this juncture to fit
more with contemporary behavioral and situational theories. This distinction is among
political leaders and other leaders, especially business or government leaders (p. 186).
In politics, Gardner says, individuals freely pick and chose their leaders. Leaders must
therefore actively compete and persuade people that they are (or will be) good stewards
of the electorate and that their political and policy ideas and actions will be beneficial to
constituency needs and preferences. However, corporate as well as non-elected
government leaders have more differential treatment from their employees. Workers are
by virtue of their employment conditions required to carry out the duties and
responsibilities of their positions. They are required to obey their bosses instructions and
wishes. As Gardner puts it, They are supposed to accept their superiors, the
organizational hierarchy, and act on orders from above (p. 186).
But here Gardner is quick to point out that employees often dont follow through. This is
because many corporate or government executives think that their hierarchical rank and
authority alone makes them leaders. This, for Gardner, is a falsehood. He states that
corporate and government leaders can possess subordinates, but not necessarily
followers. Why is this so? Gardner says, first and foremost, that a following must be
earned (p. 186). A follower is only a true follower if he or she, as an employee, willingly
accepts their superiors leadership, not just their rank. After all, leadership involves
reasonableness, competence, trust, steadiness, etc. For Gardner, only those superiors that
exhibit the traits and characteristics that are commonly defined as leadership will
genuinely have followers who are truly inspired, trusting and willing to work proactively
to carry out leader instructions and directives.
Gardner also makes another couple of points worth mentioning in his discussion of
leaders and their relation to followers. First, he believes that leaders, with the exception
of those in a military environment, are wise to let the decision-making process be, to the
extent possible, a participative one between leaders and followers. Adequate and
authentic input from followers in decision-making permits followers to take ownership of
and be committed to the leaders goals and objectivesas well as a shared vision.
While some situations require a sharp distinction between leaders and followers, e.g., an
armed mission or campaign by the police or military, or a heavily task-oriented or
assembly-line assignment such as the making of widgets, most employment
environments are conducive to more informal, less structured leader-follower
arrangements. Gardner (p. 187) states:
The two-way conversation between leaders and followers is deeply
influenced by the expectations of the followers. Any social group, if
it is more than a crowd of unrelated strangers, has certain shared
needs, aspirations, values, hopes and fears. The group creates norms
that tend to control the behavior of its members, and these norms
constitute the social order. It is in this context that leaders arise, and
and teams to act in the best interest of the mission, goals, and objectives of the
organization. Koehler and Pankowski go on to define transformational leadership as a
procedure or practice of stimulating change and empowering followers to do their best, to
improve their skills and abilities, and to ratchet-up organizational processes. Koehler
and Pankowski deem this empowering of followers as a thoughtful and successful way to
instill responsibility and accountability in all forms of follower work and actions. (p. 16).
Leadership: Cultural Considerations and Environmental Pressures
Leadership may also be seen or understood in light of organizational cultures and the
influences of outside or external pressures. Plentiful and widespread literature speaks to
these important internal and external nuances and in several differing contexts. The
following discussion touches on these subjects in hopes of providing a broader grasp of
the meaning of leadership.
First, the general distinction or dichotomy of organizations often cited in the literature
should be mentioned. Two very different organizational typologies, first clearly identified
in 1947 by Max Weber,2 are frequently denoted. These are 1) the traditional or
hierarchical bureaucracy type, and 2) the informal or fluid organizational model.
The traditional model organization presents a rigid and structured organization where
leadership is strictly oriented downward in a hierarchical and officious arrangement. The
configuration here is departmentalized and strictly authoritarian in nature. On the other
hand, the informal or fluid model is issue-oriented, flexible, adaptive, and inclusive
where leadership is shared and non-linear. The fluid organization is loose or noncompartmentalized and encourages leader-follower shared-power arrangements
conducive to self-motivation, autonomy, and collective action. Thus, in terms of the
public sector, one model tackles public policy and problems in a strict, unbending,
procedural way, and the other model addresses public issues and predicaments in a
shared, mutual, and a freer or more accommodating way. Two sharply distinct
organizational formstwo very different mindsets, values, processes, and actions.
It should be noted that while these two models are diametrically opposed to one another,
still some experts agree that an organization can contain a blend of the two. In some
large institutions, for instance, hierarchical arrangements exist but also pockets of sharedpower structures exist as well. The U.S. Department of Defense generally is pointed out
as a case in point of the blending of both models. In the DOD, for example, the armed
forces command structure is tightly intact, but there also exists special departments that
allow for creativity and informal leader-follower structures, such as those that deal with
weapons design, strategic planning, and general research and development.
Having made this classic distinction in organizational theory, hierarchical and fluid or
shared-power, a look at some of the thoughts contained in contemporary writings on the
subject will be constructive at this stage. By way of illustration, Edgar Schein, in his book
Organizational Culture and Leadership (1992), states that the term culture has over the
past ten years come to refer also to the climate and practices of organizations. This
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includes also the espoused credo and values of an organization. (Schein, Wren ed.,
1995, p. 271). He therefore believes, that since this is so, it implies that organizational
cultures can also be termed or described as the right kind of culture, a culture of
quality, an effective culture, and so on. This is significant in that it allows for the
critical analysis of organizational and leadership styles. Studying an organizational
culture, feels Schein, allows for observing the shared behavioral regularities of a group
when they interact; the language used, the customs and traditions that develop, and the
rituals that are carried out under certain circumstances (p. 276). Like an anthropologist,
an organizational researcher or consultant can, as such, decipher an organization or
leadership style by looking carefully at group norms, values, philosophies, rules of the
game (implicit rules for getting along), climate (the physical layout of the organization
and lines of communication), and shared meanings (ideas or feelings that are shared). In
the end, if these norms, values, behaviors, and rituals are effective ones, (or as Schein
puts it, if the organization and/or its leadership are functional vis--vis
dysfunctional), then a correct and useful cultural determination can be made (p.281).
Another interesting view of organizational culture and leadership is discussed by authors
Terrance Deal and Alan Kennedy (1982). They attempt to describe what constitutes a
strong culture. Deal and Kennedy define organizations as human, living institutions. As
they state in their book Corporate Cultures, organizations must be perceived not as
plush buildings, bottom lines, strategic analysis, or five-year plans (Deal and Kennedy,
Wren ed., 1995, p. 282). Rather, organizations must first be understood as persons, a
group of human beings that coexist together in a culture of integrated values, ideas, and
customs. A strong culture is one that allows for 1) a system of informal rules that spells
out how people are to behave most of the time, and 2) one that enables people to feel
better about what they do, so they are more likely to work harder (p. 293). For Deal and
Kennedy a strong organizational culture is additionally one that possesses the following
characteristics:
An environment where employees feel secure and are empowered to be creative and
take calculated risks;
An environment where employees believe in something (the organizations vision,
mission, goals, etc.);
A workplace where top management actively encourages training and learning
experiences;
An environment that maximizes communication, along lines both vertically and
horizontally (e.g., this includes an open door policy that gives employees access to
everyone in the organization);
An environment that regularly exercises ritual, ceremony, and play (e.g., organizationwide celebrations, special recognition for performance excellence, employee team sports
events, or informal get-togethers for socializing purposes); and,
An atmosphere where management reinforces organizational values on a regular basis
(pp. 284-293).
Stephen Harper (2001) affirms these views in his work and study of visionary
organizations and leadership. He states that it is imperative that organizational strategies
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must place a premium on its human resources (p. 157). He continues by stating that
successful organizational cultures are those that foster policies that attract, motivate, and
retain people who are energetic and innovative and who desire to be part of an
organization, public or private, that strives to improve services and products and meet
emerging needs. Harper highlights the notion of organizations that are sensitive to
emerging customer needs. He asserts that visionary executives that look to future
opportunities and invest resources in tomorrows budding needs meet and sustain
institutional viability. He observes that Peter Drucker says it is important for an
organization and its leadership to be forward-thinking, that is, not only to invest resources
in what comprises todays breadwinners, but also what constitutes tomorrows
breadwinners. (Harper, 2001, p. 158).
Finally, a few closing words on environmental pressures. All organizations and leaders
face outside or external pressures. More particularly, public sector organizational leaders
must be continuously attentive to constituent needs that, by law, are intended or
authorized to be addressed. Public leaders must pursue, via the application of resources at
their disposal, with the greatest efficiency and effectiveness possible, and with due
reasonableness, the publics common good as it presents itself in all of its manifestations.
In carrying out these public responsibilities, without fail, various social and economic
pressures invariably come to bear and must be contended with in some appropriate
manner. Leaders and their organizations must as a result meet these challenges through
understanding, competence, and the powers and wherewithal they possess.
Burt Nanus (1992) states that a key to meeting environmental pressures is for leaders to
think about the future. He asks essentially, What are the future environmental threats
and opportunities one should be strategically thinking about in order to be prepared to
meet tomorrows challenges? (pp. 82-96). Nanus declares in his narrative:
To start thinking about the future, identify all the categories of
relevant developments. For most organizations, these include future
changes in the needs and wants served by the organization, in the
major stakeholders, and in the economic and social, political, and
technological environments. An additional category of other is
sufficient to catch anything else of importance. (p. 83).
Nanus further offers a useful template of critical questions to ask regarding future and
external developments. These include seven key questions as follows:
1) Generally speaking, what topmost changes are expected in the needs and desires
served by the organization in the future?
2) What are, more specifically, the changes expected as relates to the organizations
stakeholders?
3) What changes are expected in the upcoming economic environment?
4) What changes are expected in the social environments of the future?
5) What changes are expected in the shifting political environments?
6) What technologies are to be expected in the future?
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7) What other major environmental changes are expected that may influence or
exert pressures on the organization and its leadership? (p. 84).
Leadership Approaches
Beginning in the year c. 1910, leadership began to be studied or researched in more
formal and varying ways. (See Chemers, 1984, Wren ed., 1995, pp. 83-99). Since then,
differing theories or approaches have emerged. According to the literature on leadership
theories, many researchers and experts have typically focused on the narrower aspects
of the concept of leadership and its practices and, as a result, have tended to represent
leadership in a partial or limited way (Yukl, 1994, pp. 11-15). Thus, leadership has
frequently been defined and analyzed in a categorical or episodic sense. Gary Yukl, in
Leadership in Organizations (3rd Edition), identifies these categories (or periods) of
leadership research in terms of basically four approaches: 1) the trait approach, 2) the
behavior approach, 3) the power-influence approach, and 4) the situational approach (p.
11).
Additionally, Yukl recognizes that some researchers have mixed and matched some of
these approaches into hybrid-forms of leadership theory and practice. He acknowledges,
for example, that some of these include participative leadership, charismatic leadership,
and decision group leadership (p. 11).
In the discussion which follows, these varying leadership approaches will be discussed as
based on the works of several experts in leadership theories and their practical
applications. (Yukl, 1994; Chemers, 1984; Burns, 1978; Couto, 1993; Nadler and
Tushman, 1990; Stogdill, 1948; Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991; Hersey and Blanchard,
1979; Gardner, 1993; Manz and Sims, Jr., 1991; Wren and Swatez, 1995; Hughes,
Ginnett, and Curphy, 1993).
The Trait Approach
The early part of the 20th century saw researchers in management studies begin to piece
together a leadership theory that placed considerable emphasis on the personal traits or
attributes of leaders. The underlying premise of the so-called trait approach, is that
leaders are different from other people in respect to the particular characteristics or traits
that they possess. The trait approach states that certain individuals are leaders because
they possess extraordinary attributes, such as energy, intellect, persuasiveness, and
uncanny foresight. (Yukl, p. 12). Gardner (1993), drawing on the works of Ralph
Stogdill, Bernard Bass, and Edwin Hollander, among other experts, provides a taxonomy
of attributes as follows: 1) physical vitality and stamina, 2) intelligence and judgment-inaction, 3) willingness (eagerness) to accept responsibilities, 4) task competence, 5)
understanding of followers/constituents and their needs, 6) skill in dealing with people, 7)
need to achieve, 8) capacity to motivate, 9) courage, resolution, steadiness, 10) capacity
to win and hold trust, 11) capacity to manage, decide, set priorities, 12) confidence, 13)
ascendance, dominance, assertiveness, and 14) adaptability, flexibility of approach (pp.
48-66). According to Gardner, it is additionally important to note that a leader is not
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necessarily one who possesses one or all of these traits, but rather a leader isper the
trait theory generally appliedone who comprises some acceptable proportion of the
traits mentioned above.
Ralph Stogdill, in 1948, conducted a landmark and comprehensive study of more than
120 trait studies. His conclusion was that no discernable reliability or coherent patterns
existed (Stogdill, Wren ed., 1995, p. 84). This conclusion convinced Stogdill that traits
in-and-by themselves were not enough to adequately define and explain the concept of
leadership. Resulting evidence and findings eventually affirmed among experts in
leadership theory that it was wise to explore personal traits and attributes of leaders in
light of other factors such as behaviors and effectiveness (Yukl, p. 12).
The Behavioral Approach
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the study of behaviorism in the fields of psychology
and management science began to take hold. Leadership researchers began to identify a
host of fairly consistent behavioral patterns among leaders. These included, for instance,
styles that eventually took on designations as autocratic, democratic, and laissezfaire. Hersey and Blanchard (1979) and Chemers (1984) are mentionable researchers in
the analysis and critique of the behavioral approach to leadership and these particular
styles (autocratic, etc.).
It is of interest to note that the autocratic style is, as the name implies, an authoritative
and non-participatory approach to leading others. It is normally characterized as controloriented and inflexible. Conversely, the democratic style is one that encourages
participation and equalitarian principles of self-rule. The laissez-faire category is a more
hands-off, self-determining, and tolerant approach to leading.
Yukl (1994) states that researchers and experts began to study the behavior of leaders in
two ways. First, they began to look more deliberately and systematically at how leaders
actually performed their work. Specifically, leadership researchers evaluated carefully
how managers or leaders used their time. This led to the conceptualizing of roles,
functions, and duties (pp. 12-13). Activities of leaders such as planning, organizing,
directing, staffing, communicating, etc. took on a new relevance. Second, researchers and
experts began to compare these managerial-type functions among leaders to determine
who were more or less effective in their jobs. Chemers (1984) states that the main tool for
research here was the use of questionnaires, such as the Leader Behavior Description
Questionnaire or LBDQ3 (Chemers, Wren ed., 1995, p. 85).
Again, similar to the narrow construct of the trait theory, continuing studies found
problems with a single approach to explaining and understanding the multi-faceted notion
and practice of leadership.
The Power-Influence Approach
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and his or her followers, while spotlighting the notion of follower readiness. They
define the leadership situational approach in the following way.
Situational Leadership is an attempt to demonstrate the appropriate
relationship between the leaders behavior and a particular aspect of
the situationthe readiness level exhibited by the followers.
According to the model, the leader must remain sensitive to the
followers level of readiness. As personal problems arise, new tasks
are assigned, or new goals are established, the level of readiness
may change. The model prescribes that leaders should adjust their
behavior accordingly. Thus, situational leadership assumes a
dynamic interaction where the readiness level of followers may
change and where the leaders behavior must change appropriately
in order to maintain the performance of followers. (Hersey and
Blanchard, Wren ed., 1995, p. 207).
Finally, a closing word on the contingency aspect of the situational leader approach. By
this it is meant that many researchers use the term situational-contingency when referring
to a leaders effectiveness as it relates to differing trait patterns and/or behaviors when
they coincide with differing situations. Consequently, variable personal characteristics
and behaviors are optimal or more effective in certain situations than others. This is
contrasted with Yukls (1994, p. 14) more universal theories of situational leadership.
(See Yukl, Chapter 10).
Motivational Approaches
Another significant leadership approach pertains to or relies heavily on motivational
theory. Many experts believe that the most significant factor associated with good
leadership is the skill or ability to motivate ones followers. Two researchers and experts
that stand out in this field of inquiry are Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg.
Maslows theory of motivation is commonly referred to as the hierarchy of needs. (See
A. H. Malsows Motivation and Personality, 1954). He theorizes that individuals are
motivated by the satisfying of five basic needs (see Figure below). These needs, he
further contends, must be satisfied in a successive fashion, proceeding from the most
basic physiological needs to the highest need which he designates as self-actualization.
Leaders who comprehend this need theory and apply correct motivational techniques in
the practice of leadership will, according to Maslow, succeed most. Maslows hierarchy
of needs is most often portrayed in pyramid-type form or illustration as follows:
Figure
Hierarchy of Needs
Herzbergs
(1966) approach
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is called simply the two-factor theory. This theory, based on extensive research of
professionals and their work, states that what truly motivates or satisfies workers
(designated as motivators) can be placed into five categories. These are 1) advancement
and growth, 2) responsibility, 3) the work itself, 4) recognition, and 5) achievement.
Conversely, Herzberg describes factors that add or contribute less value to the satisfaction
of professionals as hygiene factors. These non-motivators or diminished motivators, so
to speak, include 1) supervision, 2) working conditions, 3) co-workers, 4) pay, 5) policies
and procedures, and 6) job security. According to one interpretation of Herzberg, no
matter the degree to which leaders enhance compensation, working conditions, and other
so-called hygiene factors, followers will not exert any additional effort in their work and
its related tasks (Hughes, Ginnett, and Curphy, 1993, Wren ed., 1995, p. 333).
The Hero-Charismatic Approaches
Before concluding this section on leadership approaches, a few words on what Manz and
Sims (1991) call SuperLeadership. A classic leadership approach to leaders styles,
and comprehending them, is often referred to the hero or charismatic one. As Gardner
states the diversity of examples of this approach extends back as far as written history
Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, William the Conqueror, Genghis Khan, Napoleon
Bonaparte, Robert E. Lee, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. These represent, for example,
leaders who serve as models of heroic leadership, combining the traits and skills and
actions of the highest order of military (and political as well) expertise. The herocharismatic approach states that in order to understand, and in other cases to emulate
leadership, one should analyze historical figures, ancient and/or contemporary, who were
or are considered to embody great (effective) leader abilities and skills.
According to Manz and Sims, this view of leadership is also sometimes called the
strong-man approach. This is the tough guy style epitomized by Teddy Roosevelt and
the roughriders charging up San Juan Hill. Another view in this venue of charismatic
leader is that of a trans-actor. A trans-actor is a leader who uses goals and rewards to
achieve effectiveness. The premise or logic here is if we achieve X (the goal), then we
will receive Y (the reward). (Manz and Sims, Wren ed., 1995, pp. 213-216).
Two other distinctions can be attributed to the hero-charismatic approach as well. The
most contemporary view, which is classified as charismatic by many experts, is the
visionary hero or leader. (Note: Visionary leadership will be discussed at length later in
this paper.) Manz and Sims distinguish this visionary leader as a person who creates a
larger than life vision for followers (p. 216). Hence the leaders power is conditional
on the acceptance of the leaders vision by employees or followers. The final distinction
drawn as to hero-charismatic leaders is, as noted earlier, the Super-Leader. This
connotation of leadership is neither a heavy-handed or autocratic charismatic style as
one might imply. Rather, the Super-Leader is where a leader shares power with the
followers enabling them to become loci for self-leading and self-sustaining action. Thus
commonality of organizational purpose and commitment, activities, and results
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achievement is mutual, collective or unitedergo, Super (p. 216). (See also Nadler
and Tushman, Winter 1990, pp. 77-97, for discussion of charismatic approach).
Leadership and Management
A distinction between the meanings of leadership and management is drawn by many
experts. One expert and author in particular, John Kotter, a professor at Harvard Business
School, has written several articles and books discussing this distinction. Simply put, his
thesis is that effective leadership involves the processes of developing vision and
forward-thinking strategies, dealing with change, and empowering followers. On the
other hand, management involves more precisely the operation of an organizational
system or unit and is oriented towards functions such as supervising, planning, budgeting,
organizing, controlling, staffing, and so on. Kotter states that this distinction is neither
arbitrary nor semantic. He also recognizes that leadership is compatible with
management and that leaders can manage as well as lead. In many instances also,
managers lead as well as manage. (See John P. Kotters On What Leaders Really Do,
1999, a book and interpretative compilation based on six articles written and published
originally in the Harvard Business Review, between 1979 and 1997).
In this chapter the leader-manager distinction will be briefly discussed.
The Leadership Distinction
Leadership, according to Kotter (May-June 1990), occurs within an organizational setting
of some type and involves three main processes. These processes are:
1) Establishing direction (providing vision and strategies for making change);
2) Aligning people (maximizing communication and commitment of followers); and,
3) Motivating and inspiring (creating drive and enthusiasm among followers). (See
Kotter, Wren ed., 1995, pp. 116-121).
Establishing direction is a central function of leadership. Its aim is to produce
constructive and long-range change for an organization. Kotter, however, is quick to point
out in his analysis that leaderships setting of direction is not the same thing as the
planning function which he describes as a managerial process, which is deductive in
nature, and is aimed at bringing about orderly results, not change (Kotter, Wren ed.,
1995, pp. 116-117). Establishing direction is more inductive (the result of reasoning from
particulars to something more general) in that it is a process whereby leaders seek out a
range of data, patterns, and relationships. Kotter goes on to interpret this as the
developing of a vision for the future, that is, a broad and long-term goal for the future.
He adds that critical to accomplishing this vision a leader must identify sweeping or
wide-range and adaptive strategies (not tactical plans) to accomplish this vision of the
future.
Leadership is also distinguished from management in that it focuses on aligning people
vs. the mere organizing and staffing function (pp. 118-199). Effective leaders, says
Kotter, are those who successfully communicate a vision and its attending strategies to
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those motivated individuals whose cooperation is needed, followers, peers, etc. A leader
must line up ones human resources in order to move in the direction that has been
articulated for the future. A leader must talk to and use written communications that
align those needed to realize or bring to fruition organizational-wide or across-the-board
change. Further, aligning people entails getting people to believe the message and its
credibility (p. 119). This translates into follower commitment. Commitment,
accompanied by empowerment, allows for a dedication and autonomy for followers to
excel and bring about fundamental change. Simple organizing and staffing managerial
functions do not embrace this leadership scale or dimension by any stretch of the
imagination.
Lastly, leadership involves the process of motivating people. This is far different than the
management functions that are delegated as controlling and problem solving. As per
management, the matter of control is paramount. Controlling is the function of ensuring
that policies, procedures or systems are adhered to strictly to conform to quality design
and features. Obviously, this is highly managerial in nature. Problem solving is a rational
process to establish causes or conditions or situations that require solutions. It is an
orchestrated and systematic decision-making process that coincides perfectly with
managerial skills and abilities. Motivating people, however, is a leadership process. It
means keeping people in the right direction through appealing to their needs as outlined,
for example, by Maslows and Herzbergs theories of motivational psychology. This
includes feelings of belonging, making a difference, and acknowledgment for a job well
done. Kotter states:
Leadership is different. Achieving grand visions always requires an
occasional burst of energy. Motivation and inspiration energize
people, not by pushing them in the right direction as control
mechanisms do but by satisfying basic human needs for
achievement, a sense of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, a
feeling of control over ones life, and the ability to live up to ones
ideas. Such feelings touch us deeply and elicit a powerful response.
(p. 120).
The Management Distinction
Good management is essential to the success of organizations both in the private and
public spheres. Managerial staff, for example at the top echelons of government and line
managers who supervise public services delivered at lower levels of agency or
departmental activities, must be qualified and exhibit management skills to achieve and
maintain excellent customer service. Leadership, as stated above, is again quite different.
The question remains then, What is management?
One significant characterization of management is to see it as bringing order to an
enterprise. The complexity of organizations, especially large ones, requires that
management be in place for the sake of orderliness to provide for efficiency and
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Thus, Nanus points out that the right vision of the future for an organization is
a compelling and acceptable idea, one in which a leader effectively
communicates and motivates people to act. The resulting action causes these
people and their organization to evolve and, by necessity, make progress (p. 16).
In establishing this right vision, Nanus cites four forces.
The right vision attracts commitment and energizes people. This is
somewhat self-explanatory. In short, individuals are naturally inclined to want
and to desire things that they can believe in and commit to, as Nanus describes
it, a significant challenge that befits ones best efforts. The right vision must
link up, as a consequence, with a persons consciousness, awareness and their
needs. If the vision or image or idea of organizational direction has appeal,
promise, and benefits to be gained, a person is highly likely to jump on board
and to work enthusiastically to make the vision a reality.
The right vision creates meaning in workers lives. Individuals need a sense
of personal mission, importance and/or self-esteem associated with their work
lives. Leadership and management experts universally believe that people who
take pride in their work, what they are attempting to do or make, in terms of
services and products, are more successful, happier and productive. Therefore,
finding meaningfulness on the job, or within the context of ones work, is
paramount to (Maslows) the concept or feeling of self-actualization or selfworth.
The right vision establishes a standard of excellence. The right vision clearly
establishes where an organization is going in the future and also what an
organization stands for. In effect, this is the same as establishing a standard or
norm for organizational success. So in this sense the right vision can also be
seen as, or equivalent to, a touchstone of organizational distinction and
quality.
The right vision bridges the present and the future. Many so-called leaders get so
caught up or involved with the day-to-day activities (problems and details) of an
organization that they spend little or virtually no time on forward-thinking. Hence, no
vision and no progress. The right vision must connect todays organization with
tomorrows. A visionary leader must dedicate him or herself to future customer needs,
future organizational processes, future or long-range organizational products and
services. A right vision takes all of these important matters into consideration and serves
as a beacon and working framework for linking the present organization and all of its
components to the emerging future. (pp. 16-18).
Finally, Stephen Harper (2001) writes:
Crafting the companys [organizations] vision may be the most
important role breakthrough leaders can play in creating a forwardfocused company. Breakthrough leadership will only be possible if
the company has a clearly articulated vision. The vision serves three
purposes. First, it serves as the companys North Star. All decisions,
plans, and activities should be directed toward fulfilling the
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visionary leaders and distills them down to four: 1) direction setter, 2) change agent, 3)
spokesperson, and 4) coach. (See pp. 10-15).
Prior to discussing these four visionary leadership roles, however, Nanus predicates them
on possession and demonstration of key skills or abilities (pp. 11-12). First, Nanus
believes a visionary leader must be capable of effectively communicating with managers
and other employees within an organization. This requires the leader to provide
guidance, encouragement, and motivation. Next, or second, a visionary leader must
comprehend the outside environment and be capable of reacting appropriately to its
threats and opportunities. This includes most importantly being able to relate skillfully
with key individuals external to an organization, but nevertheless essential to it
(investors, customers, etc.). Third, a visionary leader must be instrumental in shaping
and affecting organizational practices, procedures, products, and services. A leader in this
sense must be involved or rather engrossed in an organization to bring about and sustain
excellence while preparing and leading the way to the futurea successfully achieved
vision. And lastly, and a logical extension to the former leadership skill or ability, a
visionary leader must have or develop a niche for anticipating the future. This niche is
an imaginative, yet data-based ability to assess future customer needs, technologies, and
so forth. This includes the capability of aligning organizational resources in order to be
prepared to meet these emerging needs and changes.
With this background in mind, the first visionary leadership role Nanus (1992) discusses
as necessary to being effective is the direction setter. The direction setter role is one
where a leader presents a vision, a convincing image or target for an organization to
achieve in the future, and involves people from the get-go. This for many experts in the
study and practice of leadership is the essence of visionary leadership. As a direction
setter, a leader presents a vision, communicates it, motivates worker and colleagues, and
convinces people that it is the right direction to proceed and encourages participation on
all levels and at all stages of progress towards the vision. (p. 13).
Change agent is the appellation given to the second critical role a visionary leader must
play. In the context of change, the external environment is central. Economic, social,
technological, and political changes occur continuously, some dramatic and others subtle
in nature. Indeed, customer needs and preferences change as do those of other
organizational stakeholders. Effective leaders must be constantly attuned to these changes
and think ahead to potential changes and changeability. This ensures that the leader is
prepared for any situations or circumstances that may threaten organizational success for
the present and, most importantly, for the future. Finally, as stated earlier in this
monograph, flexibility and calculated risk taking are also important in a changing
environment. (pp. 13-14).
The third indispensable role of a visionary leader is that of spokesperson. Getting the
message out, so to speak, is a significant part of envisioning the future of an
organization. An effective leader is also a person who knows and appreciates the many
available forms of communication available in explaining and building support for a
vision of the future. The leader, as spokesperson for the vision, must communicate a
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message that strikes the right chord with everyone involved with or touched by the
organizational visioninternally and externally. It must be a message, as Nanus puts it,
which is worthwhile, attractive, and exciting about the future of the organization. (p.
14).
And last, or fourth, an effective visionary leader is tantamount to being a good coach. By
this it is meant that a leader must use teamwork to achieve the stated vision. A leader
empowers his or her players to work together, to coordinate their efforts or activities,
toward winning or achieving an organizational vision. The leader, as coach, keeps
people focused on realizing the vision by directing, encouraging, and building trust
among the many players that are crucial to an organization and its vision of the future. In
some cases, it can be argued that the leader as coach, might more appropriately be
designated a player-coach. This would be a leader who, like the legendary Boston
Celtics Bill Russell, or perhaps a Michael Jordan, both played as well as coached.
Todays corporate examples or equivalents would include Microsofts Bill Gates,
Amazons Jeffery Bezo, or Apples Steve Jobs. A question one might ask, In public
service, what visionary leaders stand out that exhibit or embody this coach-player role
style, or for even that matter, simply coach style? (Note: For further discussion on
visionary leader roles see Hesselbein, Goldsmith, and Beckhard, eds., The Leader of the
Future: New Visions, Strategies, and Practices for the Next Era, 1997).
Visionary Leadership in Action
Visionary leadership is a concept that can be expounded upon and understood through
literature and theory. But of greater significance is the reality of visionary leadership
carried out in a host of concrete actions, proceedings, and events. In this section,
visionary leadership will be looked at in the active sense as it falls within the spheres of
movement, change, and time. Obviously, while doing visionary leadership is different
from talking about or analyzing it, the medium used here will be necessarily a written
one. This is inescapable. In any case, the emphasis placed on the following content and
discussion should be seen strongly by the reader to be one that implies or means acting as
opposed to one that is merely theoretical or ideological.
Harper (2001) states that leaders are facing an era of rapid or accelerating change.
Hence, timing is critical to being an effective visionary leader. In order to cope
satisfactorily (competently) with this acceleration of change, associated principally with
the external environment, leaders exercise the distinct competencies of anticipation,
speed, agility, and perceptiveness. (pp. 61-78)
By anticipation, it is meant that visionary leaders must proactively examine the
external environment to discover changes that may positively or negatively impact the
organization. Leaders should also actively encourage workers to be cognizant of change
factors outside the organization and to keep the organizations leaders and managers
aware of such changes. Being perceptive, nimble and innovative in such endeavors will
benefit the organization universally (p. 62). Additionally, the practice of using what if
type scenarios is beneficial to leaders and their anticipatory capabilities. Regularly
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considering and discussing possible scenarios that may occur in the future, keeps the
visionary leader focused and prepared for a variety of potentialities. The creation of
contingency plans may be useful for some likely scenarios. (p. 63).
Besides Harper (2001), other leadership and management authors believe that speed is
crucial to staying competitive, responding quickly to customer needs, and saving money.
(See Grant and Gnyawali, May-June 1995; McKenna, September 1997; LeBoeuf, 1993;
Reinhardt, December 1997; Carnevale, 1990). Experts agree that in todays world of
commerce and trade, including most public sector areas as well, being fast or prompt in
meeting customer or constituent needs is all-important. Those organizations that have a
competitive edge, or focus on excellence or benchmarks in their efforts and results, are
normally considered successful and are those consistently relied upon to provide needed
services and products. Visionary leaders see speed as a capability that must be mastered
in order to satisfy customers who want or desire immediate fulfillment (gratification).
Fast, efficient, and friendly service is, for example, what people want when dealing with
governmental entities. Red-tape, long lines, rude civil servants, etc. should and must be a
thing of the past. The public expects and should receive the highest quality service
possible from public entities and, again, this means speed. Technology and Web-based
systems are, for example, new ways of achieving this new rapidity in product and service
delivery. (pp. 64-68).
Agility is another term that is becoming increasingly associated with visionary leadership.
The National Baldrige Program defines it as a capacity for rapid change and flexibility
(NIST, p. 2). Similarly, Harper (2001, p. 70) declares that agility is the ability to turn on
a dime. Agility is, therefore, the capacity for a leader to see ahead in terms of what lies
ahead for an organization (perceptiveness). It also includes the capacity for being
prepared as well as flexible in order to make timely changes or adjustments to thwart
threats and take advantage of opportunities. Agility has several integral components:
The ability to develop and make available new and desirable products and services.
The ability to enter new markets or connect with new constituencies.
The ability to adjust and respond to changing customer needs.
The ability to adjust swiftly from one organizational process or procedure to another.
The ability to compress time in the delivery of goods and services. (p. 70).
Perceptiveness is another fundamental capacity of the visionary leader in action. Leaders,
according to experts and practitioners alike, must discern the intricacies and changeability
of the external environment. This insightfulness or acuity must be constantly exercised
and appropriate responses must occur sooner rather than later. In those cases where
opportunities are perceived, then leaders must act. Lead-time is also important to
organizational success; hence, visionary leaders must have their radar screens up at all
times. They must identify emerging or potential opportunities, prepare strategies and
marshal the resources needed, and get in and out (serve or produce at opportune times) to
maximize success or achievement. (pp. 75-76).
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Visionary Criteria
A vision that a leader constructs is an image, an idea, or mental model of a future
organizationits processes, its services or products, etc. This has been the thrust of the
discussion in this chapter. With this in mind, what is the criteria, or perhaps better stated,
what is fundamental to a vision as conceived and realized by a leader? The criteria of a
vision can be somewhat exhaustive, but such a discussion or analysis inevitably leads to
ever-increasing complexities and seemingly endless explanations. Thus, here, in this
section, an attempt to succinctly express what constitutes a vision, i.e., one constructed by
a visionary leader, will be given. To do this, seven criteria or special properties of a
vision will be enumerated. (See Nanus, 1992, pp. 28-30).
1) Appropriateness. A vision for an organization must fit appropriately its history,
culture, and values. It must be a vision that takes into account the past and the
current status of the organization and, at the same time, be something suitable and
realistic for the organizations foreseeable future.
2) Idealistic. A vision must convey something which is hopeful and positive. A
vision should make a difference that is value-laden and reflects high ideas. It
should be a vision that is noteworthy and productive, perhaps even something that
is momentous or revolutionary.
3) Purposeful and Credible. A vision must also be purposeful or focused on
achieving some plausible aim. The vision should be clear and give followers and
affected others a meaningful sense of direction. Is the vision and the path to its
realization a valid one? Does it begat true focus and offer a better future?
4) Inspirational. A vision must motivate people to believe and join in, become part of
the making of a better tomorrow. The vision of a new organizational push
should inspire individuals and encourage them to be fully committed. People
should be energized and eager to bring about the vision.
5) Understandable. Is the vision clear and comprehensible? If it is ambiguous or
sketchy, or simply too difficult to understand, then it is a vision that is lost in its
very beginnings and is doomed to failure. Leaders must work particularly hard to
communicate a vision that can not only be grasped, but also embraced by others.
A leader must therefore be knowledgeable of every aspect related to the vision
and capable of relaying this to others.
6) Unique. Every organization is distinctive in some way or fashion. An organization
is somehow exceptional in its history, traditions, activities, etc. A vision must
unavoidably reflect this uniqueness.
7) Ambitious. Visions overreach and are necessarily bold, resolute, and often
sweeping in nature. They require courage and steadfastness. Frequently, they
require sacrifices and emotional investment. (pp. 28-29).
The Vision Review
Nanus (1992) points out that all organizations, private or public, are moving forward in
time or as he states it every organization has its own momentum (p. 56). This
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Endnotes
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Note: Also see In Praise of Followers by Robert E. Kelly, Harvard Business Review, (Nov.-Dec. 1988); Cambridge, MA.
Note: See Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, Trans. A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons
(New York: Oxford Press, 1947).
3
The Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire is a standard and generally acceptable behavioral survey instrument used
in behavioral research.
2