CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

3. BOTTOM OUTLETS

3.1

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Purpose of bottom outlet

Bottom outlet is the outlet structure with the lowest elevation which can serve for
various purposes:
Filling of the reservoir
Drawdown of the reservoir
Flushing of sediments
Discharging surplus water

A bottom outlet must be provided in every dam as a safety structure to control reservoir
level and for emergency operations.

3.2

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

The load test of a dam is performed during the first filling of the reservoir.
The filling must be made progressively by accounting for the stability and the
watertightness of both the dam and its surroundings at certain levels of the
reservoir.
The load test procedure during the first filling is only amenable if a bottom outlet is
available.
The bottom outlet must thus be designed that the reservoir level can be kept
constantly under arbitrary levels

3.3

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Drawdown of reservoir

Qo
h

Fp
Qb
zo

Qo is the reservoir approach flow corresponding to an average value over a certain

time period such as several weeks or even months.
The choice of Qo depends on inflow hydrograph and reservoir storage
characteristics.

3.4

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Qb is the design discharge of the bottom outlet.

The hydrostatic pressure force on the dam face is

Fp Bh2 / 2
A drawdown of the reservoir level is followed by a stress relief. Accordingly,
drawing down an endangered dam is highly efficient.

Drawdown by the bottom outlet has to be fast

Qb > Qo

3.5

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Design guidelines for emergency drawdown:

Rapid drawdown of a reservoir within the shortest time lapse, the maximum Qb.
The tailwater valley should not be damaged by Qb.
Qb < QL
where QL is the limit tailwater discharge.
The drawdown should not cause shore slides.
Qb < (Qo + Qs)
where Qs is the allowable discharge for shore protection.

3.6

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

The allowable discharge Qs can be estimated from the limit drawdown velocity us

us

h
t

and
Qs = us A

where A is the reservoir surface area.

The limit drawdown velocity is related to allowable pore water velocity of the
groundwater flow along the shores of the reservoir.

3.7

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Acceptable bottom
outlet dimensions
h=h(Qb))

h
Solution
domain

Qo+Qs

Qb
Qo

QL

Optimization of head-discharge relation for design discharge of bottom outlet.

3.8

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

For flood conditions, the approach discharge Qo is large and the limit discharge QL
is small. Then, domain of solution shrinks, and can even vanish.
During flood periods, a drawdown is thus impossible.
Usually, one would choose average discharge conditions for the design.
The drawdown time is an important parameter. Under emergency, one would like
to draw down the top layers of the reservoir only, in a few days or weeks.
Bottom outlet is not a structure for permanent use due to limitations regarding
cavitation, hydrodynamic forces, abrasion and vibrations. It should, however, allow
a complete emptying of the reservoir when necessary.
3.9

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Flushing of sediments
In certain cases, bottom outlets are used for sediment flushing.
Continuity of the sediment transport is important. If it deposits in the tailwater the
bottom outlet may be submerged and thus endangered.
The ratio between water and sediment has to be such that it corresponds to the
transport capacity of the tailwater.

3.10

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Flood and residual discharge

Combined use of overflow spillway and the bottom outlet may be allowed for flood
conditions.
For this purpose multiple bottom outlets may be constructed.
A bottom outlet designed according to previous criteria is normally too large to fit
for the control of residual discharge.
It had to be operated permanently with an extremely small opening not suited
hydraulically. Therefore, a small outlet is often added to satisfy the needs for
residual discharge.

3.11

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Design Principles
A useful design is the combination of diversion tunnel and bottom outlet.

Karakaya dam: 1 Intake structure, 2 Diversion tunnels,

3 Bottom outlet chambers, 4 Upstream cofferdam,
5 Service building, 6 Outlet works, 7 Powerhouse.
3.12

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

For smaller dams, a culvert type bottom outlet may also be considered because of the
simple design.

Possible arrangements for the bottom outlet

a) Diversion tunnel used as bottom outlet, with access through a shaft.

3.13

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

b) Bottom outlet culvert, not accessible except for minimum reservoir level, with two
gates close to the inlet.

3.14

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

c) Diversion tunnel used as combined spillway and bottom outlet for morning glory
spillways.

3.15

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

d) Gravity dam with bottom outlet that is much shorter than for an earth dam.

3.16

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Technical requirements for a bottom outlet

Smooth flow for completely opened structure.
Excellent performance for all flows under partial openings.
Effective energy dissipation at terminal outlets.
Structure without leakage.
Simple and immediate application.
Easy access for maintenance and service.
Economic and useful design.
Long life.

3.17

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Hydraulic requirements for a bottom outlet

Pressurized flow upstream of the gate.

Free surface flow downstream of the gate.
A trash rack is provided at the inlet.

3.18

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

The tunnel often has a horseshoe profile.

The tunnel section contracts to a rectangular cross-section shortly before the gate
chamber.
Downstream from the gate chamber, the tunnel is expanded both laterally and at
the tunnel ceiling.
For long tunnels an aeration conduit behind the gate chamber may be required.
The air supply conduit has to be designed so that the gate chamber is safe against
submergence from the tunnel.
It is imperative that submergence of the bottom outlet is inhibited. The discharge is
then fully controlled with the gates.
Submergence will cause the mechanical equipment be wetted in the gate section.

3.19

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Hydraulic phenomena that must be considered in the design of bottom outlet

Average velocity at the bottom outlet is large.
Cavitation
Abrasion
Aerated flow
Sediment flow due to reservoir sedimentation
Floating debris or sediment deposition
Gate vibration

3.20

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Air entrainment
Free gate outflow reduces the potential of gate vibration and cavitation.
A bottom outlet should always be designed for free surface flow.
Aeration of flow just after the gate is required for rapid energy dissipation and to
reduce the risk of cavitation.

The aeration of flow may originate from three different sources

3.21

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

1) Tunnel outlet in a counter-current air flow along the outlet roof.

2) Air supply conduit by which the underpressure of the surface air is reduced.
3) Bottom aerator that counter problems with cavitation damage.
3.22

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Flow types (without bottom aerator)

a) Spray flow for relative gate

opening below 10%, with an
extremely high air entrainment.

b) Free flow as typical for bottom

outlets, and accompanied by features
of supercritical flow, such as shock
waves and two-phase flow.
.

3.23

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

c) Foamy flow for a tunnel almost

full with air-water flow.

d) Hydraulic jump with a free

surface tailwater flow due to
tailwater submergence.

3.24

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

e) Hydraulic jump with transition to

pressurized tailwater flow.

f) Fully pressurized flow caused by a

deep tailwater submergence.

In applications, cases e and f should be avoided because of possibility of

dangerous surging in the channel.

3.25

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Gate Controlled Discharge

Qa
a0
a

Cca

Gate flow may be either free or submerged. For free gate flow, the space behind the
gate is filled with air of pressure head ha. If the efflux is into the atmosphere, ha=0.

3.26

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Based on energy considerations, the underflow discharge of a gate is given by

Q C c ab 2g (H h e C c a h a )

1/ 2

where
Cc

is the contraction coefficient,

the gate opeing,

the gate width, and

H-he

the head on the gate with he the head loss from the entrance to the
gate section.

The contraction coefficient is dependent on the gate geometry and opening.

For quick calculations of flow rate as function of gate opening one can assume:

Cc 0.8 0.2(a / a0 )4

3.27

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Cavitation
Cavitation is defined as formation of bubble or void in a liquid.
Cavitation occurs by decreasing the local pressure under constant temperature.
The local pressure reduction in a fluid flow can be caused by:
a decrease of total energy head because of increase in elevation,
a local increase of velocity and
turbulence, vortices or large scale separation.

3.28

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

The water flowing in hydraulic structures contains air bubbles of various sizes and with
numerous impurities. These conditions are necessary to initiate cavitation.

The hydrodynamic parameter describing the cavitation process is cavitation index

p pv
h hv

V02 / 2 V02 / 2g

where

is local pressure,

pv

is vapor pressure and

V0

is the reference velocity typically of the upstream flow.

3.29

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

20

pv (kPa)

15

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

Temperature ( C)

Vapor pressure for water

3.30

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Example: a sudden into-the-flow offset

> 1.8 : no cavitation

0.3 < < 1.8 : Developed cavitation

= 1.8 : Incipient cavitation where

cavitation bubbles occasionally can be
observed.

< 0.3 : Supercavitation

3.31

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

If cavitation occurs close to flow boundaries, then cavitation damage may happen, and
the structure can seriously be damaged.

Offset into-the-flow

Groves

Offset away from-the-flow

Protruding joints

Isolated roughness elements causing cavitation

3.32

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Incipient cavitation for into-the-flow offset.

3.33

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Incipient cavitation index for chamfered offset.

3.34

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Control of cavitation

Cavitation damage can be controlled by two methods:

Control of cavitation index by geometry

Control of cavitation damage by aeration

3.35

CE 458 Design of Hydraulic Structures

Steps in cavitation control

Prediction of water surface profiles.
Determination of pressure head curves.
Computation of cavitation index curves.
If there are locations where cavitation is predicted, then the geometry of the
structure or smoothness of the boundary has to be improved.
If both approaches fail, the flow has to be aerated.
Capacity of a structure with an aerated flow has to be larger because of the
increase of air-water discharge.

3.36