Applied Thermal Engineering 48 (2012) 32e40

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w.e l s e v i
e r.c o m / l o c a t e / a p t h e r m e n g

An experimental and analytical investigation of a multi-fuel stepped

piston engine
Peter R. Hooper*, Tarik Al-Shemmeri, Michael J. Goodwin
Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Technology, Staffordshire University, Beaconside, Stafford ST18 0AD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 7 December 2011
Accepted 13 April 2012
Available online 21 April 2012

This paper presents results of computational modelling of a stepped piston engine using one
dimensional CFD code. The analysis builds upon the experimental work performed on a four-cylinder
stepped piston engine for Unmanned Air-Vehicle (UAV) application. A range of variables in terms of
fuels, fuelling methods and core engine parameters have been modelled and compared with actual test
data. The maximum power recorded from experimental testing was 30.47 kW at 5250 RPM using
kerosene JET A-1. The correlation between theoretical and experimental data is in general agreement
within the bounds of the uncertainties of experimental errors and the assumptions within the
numerical models. Simulation has allowed an assessment of potential for direct injection fuelling
predicting minimum specic fuel consumption (SFC) of 0.273 g/kWh using indolene and 0.310 kg/kWh
using simulated JET A-1.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Engine modelling
WAVE CFD
internal combustion engine
stepped piston engine
externally scavenged two-stroke engine
unmanned aircraft engine
single fuel policy

1. Introduction
The need for low mass engines capable of operating efciently
on low volatility fuels has been a NATO objective for quite some
time [1]. The requirement remains to this day largely unfullled [2]
except for a number of small volume exploratory applications for
unmanned air-vehicle (UAV) systems. The high volatility of
gasoline and therefore its deployment in theatre and onboard
Navy vessels poses a very hazardous safety risk. Furthermore due
to the fact that the majority of military aircraft and ground based
vehicles operate on kerosene based (AVTUR, NATO F34, JP5, JP8)
and diesel fuels, the logistical supply and support challenges of
moving and storing AVGAS and AVGAS/oil mixed fuels
for
conventional two-stroke engine powerplants presents signicant
problems.
UAVs by their very nature have to meet very stringent targets
in order to achieve low overall vehicle mass objectives. All of
the onboard systems, notably air-frame, avionics, electronic
surveil- lance payload, propulsion system and fuel payload
must be designed to meet these minimum mass requirements.
The power- plant normally represents one of the highest mass
assemblies within the overall UAV system. In the case of the
propulsion system, the most efcient method of combustion of
low
volatility fuels
is achieved using compression ignition.
Thermal efciencies in excess

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 44 (0)1785 353514; fax: 44 (0)1785 353520.

E-mail address: p.r.hooper@staffs.ac.uk (P.R. Hooper).
1359-4311/$ e see front matter
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2 012.04.034

of 50% [3] have been demonstrated using two-stroke cycle diesel

engines. Unfortunately these are high mass engines achieving very
high power levels but at a power:mass ratio of only around
0.035 kW/kg. Automotive four-stroke diesel engines are capable of
achieving typical levels of 0.8 kW/kg. Unfortunately these also
present too high a mass penalty for UAV application. For medium
and short range applications turbine powerplants are largely
unsuitable. For xed wing UAVs the minimum cruise speed or
loitering speed of small turbine powerplants is normally too high
for practical surveillance missions unless rotary wing UAVs are
adopted [4].
A means of overcoming this problem was identied via experimentation [5] with low mass spark ignition engine combustion of
kerosene JET A-1. Successful operation of such a system based
upon an engine not required to sustain the high pressure
required for compression ignition, offers a means to meet this
conicting need. The two-stroke cycle engine has been the
subject of research and development for low emission automotive
applications via results observed using direct injection. Notable
examples demonstrated by Schlunke [6], Duret [7] and most
recently by Turner et al. [8]. The highest thermal efciency levels
with a two-stroke cycle engine are therefore likely to be achieved
with direct injection of heavy fuels.
During the experimental phases of the research forming the
subject of this study a range of tests were conducted to assess
the effects on the performance of a stepped piston engine
designed and developed at Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd
(BHE) under Ministry of Defence contract. The work included

P.R. Hooper et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 48 (2012) 32e40

exploration of the effects of compression ratio variation and

a range of fuel preparation methods. The results of the subsequent computational modelling of the engine are also presented, together with discussion of modelled and actual results
correlation. The use of Ricardo WAVE engine simulation software has allowed investigation of the potential for direct
injection.
2. Stepped piston engines
The method of operation of the stepped piston engine has been
presented in previous papers by Hooper et al. [5,9e14],
however the operating principle is reproduced in Fig. 1.
The SPV580 engine operates with two banks of paired crosscharging cylinders. Air or air and fuel mixture is drawn into the
pumping annulus, through a reed valve. As the piston ascends the
charge is transferred through a crossover system to the working
cylinder. Thereon the engine operates as a normal two-cycle
engine, except that the crankcase isolation enables fundamental
durability and operational advantages.
2.1. Stepped piston engine advantages
The crankcase isolation afforded by the stepped piston allows
the following key advantages:Low piston thermal loading e due to positive cooling
methods
Re-circulatory wet sump lubrication
Plain bearings
No valve gear
High durability with low emissions
Compact low mass design
Extended oil change periods
Low manufacturing costs
Ability to operate on wide range of fuels (no added oil)
Simple compression ratio variation
The SPV580 uses a 90
V4 cylinder conguration with
a capacity of 580 cm3 (power cylinder swept volume). Air-cooled
and liquid-cooled versions of the engine have been developed.
The liquid-cooled engine was used for the experimental work
reported in this paper. Details of the engine are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1
SPV580LC performance to date.
Cylinders

Cylinder conguration
Bore stroke
Swept volume
Dimensions including generator (L W
H)
Power 95 RON gasoline (Stub exhaust)
Min propeller cruise load SFC
Power 95 RON gasoline (Advanced exhaust)
Min propeller cruise load SFC

90 V-4
62
48
580
360
364
30.9
0.318
35.4
0.286

Power kerosene JET A-1

Cooling system
Mass

mm
3
cm
mm
kW
kg/kWh
kW
kg/kWh
kW
kg

369

30.5
Liquid (air option)
17.45 (17.22)

3. Computational engine modelling

Models replicating the SPV580 were constructed with basic
structures shown in Fig. 2. The external CFD junctions highlighted
are congured to allow transfer of mass, ow velocity and further
thermodynamic properties of the output from the parent model to
the child model input. The pumping cylinder and intake/exhaust
geometry was dened as the parent model while the power
cylinder geometry, crossover system, transfer and exhaust ports
were dened as the child model. The output from the pumping
cylinder (parent model) therefore providing the starting
conditions for the relevant power cylinder (child model).
3.1. Model theory
The models developed use in-cylinder heat transfer assumptions based upon the Woschni [15] model. The expression for heat
transfer coefcient within the engine cylinder was derived by
Woschni based upon engine experiments with normal operation
(ignition applied) and with the engine being motored externally
(i.e. not ring). The heat transfer coefcient derived by Woschni is
determined from the following relationship:-

h 0:0128 D

0:2

P 0:8 T

0:53

0:8 Cm
vch

(1)

Woschni found that when the engine was motored the characteristic gas velocity vch, can be dened as the mean velocity of the
piston. When the engine was operated under its own combustion
the velocity varies proportionally as a function of the increased
cylinder pressure. The original 1967 Woschni model was
employed in all models created during this programme of work.
The relative heat transfer area scaling factor, Cm, in equation (1)
is related to cylinder bore area. Cm values derived were 1.016
and 1.267 for piston and combustion chamber surfaces
respectively.
The Colburn analogy dened by Bird et al. [16] is used to
determine heat transfer in circular ducts. Colburns analogy for
heat transfer coefcient is dened as:-

C
h

Fig. 1. Stepped piston crossover system (SPX) e Simplied schematic (image

courtesy of Bernard Hooper Engineering Ltd).

33

rUcp Pr

2
3

(2)

The friction coefcient, Cf, is calculated based upon the laminar

or turbulent ow regime occurring within the model.
Engine friction is allowed for using the Chen and Flynn [17]
correlation. The use of Morse tests during dynamometer testing
provides a means of assessing mechanical efciency and hence
friction mean effective pressure (FMEP). It is possible to dene
a representative friction prole for the engine CFD model. Data
from Morse testing recorded at BHE has been used to determine
FMEP values at various engine speeds, thereby attempting to achieve closer correlation between modelled and actual test data. It
should be noted that the original intention of the Morse tests was
to

Fig. 2. Models of pumping (upper) and power cylinders (lower) e SPV580.

make an assessment of the engine mechanical efciency and in

particular each cylinders contribution to the overall power
output rather than to directly assess FMEP so only a limited range
of engine speeds were assessed during the tests. The prior
existence of this data has
proven useful for subsequent
development of correlation factors within the models. The
relevant equation for FMEP derived for the model based on Chen
and Flynn correlation was as follows:-

FMEP 0:1167 0:005Pmax 552:764 RPM

2:8689 RPM

S
2

S
2

(3)

The combustion process is modelled by the application of

a Wiebe [18] function. Sher [19] and Heywood and Sher [20] have
further analysed the Wiebe function in relation to three spark
ignition two-stroke cycle engines. The mass fraction burned at
a given point in the cycle can be determined from the following
expression:-

xq 1

exp

c q

q0

experimental test data for the Wiebe model exponents. A further

method for improving correlation is to derive the heat release
prole from the instantaneous cylinder pressure throughout the
cycle. WAVE allows input of measured cylinder pressure proles
in order to inuence the heat release model. Unfortunately
experi- mental test programmes during development of the
SPV580 engine did not require installation of cylinder pressure
transducers and so
no data exists. However some exploratory work to try to improve
correlation has been conducted. Aziz et al. [23] built a 125 cm3
stepped piston engine and instrumented the engine to analyse
cylinder pressure. Published data at 5000 RPM has been used to
determine possible input values to inuence the SPV580 model.
Cylinder pressure diagrams recorded during development of the
SPX500 stepped piston twin-cylinder Norton WULF motorcycle
engine in the early 1970s by Hooper and Favill [24] were also

(4)

Dqb
Sher found from analysis of the combustion rate of the three
crankcase scavenged engines that values of b 5 and c 3 to 3.2
can be recommended for small spark ignition two-stroke cycle
engines. Sher and Zeigerson [21] also performed modelling analysis
on a theoretical stepped piston engine based on the prior work by
Harari and Sher [22]. Values for b and c based on this work have
been used in order to derive a suitable Wiebe function for the
computational analysis of the SPV580 as reproduced in Fig. 3.
4. Heat release model experimentation (Wiebe model)
The work of Sher and Zeigerson [21] has been explored within
this study to try to achieve a closer correlation in the absence of

Fig. 3. Stepped piston engine Wiebe function based on values derived by Sher and
Zeigerson [21].

reviewed. By interrogating recorded cylinder pressure data it has

therefore been possible to inuence the heat release model. Fig. 4
displays data derived from the results recorded at Norton with
the work of Aziz et al. and is compared with cylinder pressure
data output from the baseline CFD model without overriding the
default assumptions of the heat release model. The Norton
data was recorded at full load 5500 RPM.
The vertical lines in Fig. 4 indicate the port timings for the
SPV580 (solid), UTM125 (dashed) and SPX500 (chain dash)
engines.
Whilst the SPV580 and UTM125 engines have similar swept
volumes and compression ratio, the engines may well differ
signicantly in other areas of their design other than port timings.
The bore:stroke ratio of the UTM125 is unity whilst the SPV580
and SPX500 are over-square designs. The UTM125 is a singlecylinder engine whereas the multi-cylinder SPV580 and SPX500
use cross- over charging between twin pairs of pumping and
power cylinders. All of these factors could provide possible
sources of difference.
Whilst it was hoped that this exploratory work may improve
the observed performance and therefore improve correlation
with experimental test data, the results actually showed no
improve- ment. Input of the heat release model has actually
created a detri- mental effect compared with the standard
inactivated heat release model (no HR) shown in Fig. 5. Reduced
performance can be seen in power terms particularly above 4500
RPM and a small reduction in specic fuel consumption (SFC).
4.1.
results

CFD

model

Fig. 6 displays model output data in terms of scavenging and

charging efciency. The general fall in charging efciency between
3000 RPM and 4500 RPM is explained further within the
discussion.
As previously discussed during the experimental phases of
research and development of the SPV580 it was not necessary to
instrument the test engines with pressure transducers. However
some analysis was performed at Norton during development of the
SPX500 engine. This data is reproduced for comparative purposes
in Fig. 7 with the WAVE SPV580 model. In addition to this
a 1775 cm3 V4 cylinder compression ignition stepped piston
engine
designed and built at BHE was also instrumented. Being a CI
engine

Fig. 4. Comparison of cylinder pressure based on work of Aziz et al. (UTM125), Norton

(NV SPX500) and SPV580 WAVE model output without heat release model input.

Fig. 5. Inuence of heat release rate on the predictions of power and specic fuel
consumption at full load.

cylinder pressure data is of no comparative use for this study,

however the crossover transfer passage pressure was monitored
and is shown in Fig. 7 at 3000 RPM (SPD1775).
The measured pressure data for the SPD1775 and modelled
data for the SPV580 show reasonable similarities. Both engines
employ reed valve controlled induction systems. The higher peak
pressure for the SPD1775 corresponds to the higher design
primary compression ratio selected for this engine. The SPX500
was not originally designed with reed valves and utilises
piston port controlled induction. This may explain the lower
minimum pres- sures prior to TDC. It is interesting to note that the
SPX500 appears to achieve a higher peak pressure than the
WAVE predicted pres- sure for the SPV580 despite both having
similar primary compression ratio (PCR) values. The exhaust
and transfer port timings are also shown in Fig. 7 for the
SPV580 (solid), SPX500 (chain dash) and SPD1775 (dashed).
4.2. Comparison of experimental and theoretical performance
4.2.1.
Auxiliary port fuel injection (APFI) e 95 RON
gasoline
An SPV580LC engine was modied to allow installation of
conventional gasoline-type electro-magnetic fuel injectors. The

Fig. 6. Modelled scavenging and charging efciency e SPV580.

Fig. 7. Comparison of stepped piston pumping cylinder pressure SPD1775 diesel

engine, SPX500 and WAVE SPV580 engines.

objective was to achieve injection at low fuel pressure into each

cylinder around bottom dead centre. This required the injectors
to be located within the V of the engine. However, the presence in
this area of the auxiliary crossover manifold, auxiliary transfer
ports and the reed valves restricted the freedom to select an
optimum location and orientation for the injectors. The ideal
angle of the injector would be to target the fuel away from the
exhaust port and feed directly into the combustion chamber, this
is clearly impos- sible
with the present design, and a
compromise was therefore made. These constraints and the nal
design are illustrated in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Injector location e SPV580LC (image courtesy of Bernard Hooper Engineering

Ltd).

To establish a datum against which to assess the performance

using injected kerosene JET A-1, data with carburetted or injected
95 RON gasoline was secured [5,9,10e14]. As can be seen from Fig.
9
APFI SFC is inferior to the results obtained with a carburettor. It
should be noted that when employing APFI, the need to provide
a rapid rate of fuel atomisation is essential for optimum fuel efciency. A carburetted fuel supply has a much longer time period
available for fuel/air mixing and delivery, since the fuel supply is
well upstream of the combustion chamber.
Countering this disadvantage with port fuel injection however,
is the ability of the engine to provide stratied charging. This is
shown graphically in Fig. 9. With a carburettor, fuel and air mixture
is supplied to the main and auxiliary transfer ports. With application of port injection, air only is supplied to all the transfer ports,
with the fuel being injected into the air ow from the auxiliary
transfer port. The auxiliary port air and fuel is steeply inclined
relative to the cylinder bore towards the combustion chamber. Air
only owing from the main transfer ports provides a wall
between the incoming auxiliary port fuel supply and the out
owing exhaust gas from the previous cycle, thus only air is lost
to the exhaust port, as opposed to fuel and air in nonstratied engines.
It should however be remembered, that with the current limitations on injector installation, if high fuel droplet velocity is
present from the injector, it is possible that the fuel could
penetrate the air wall and exit through the exhaust port.
Furthermore if fuel atomisation is poor then droplet mass will
be
high and the momentum of the droplets will prevent
satisfactory deection of the fuel charge towards the combustion
chamber.
A range of SPV580 models were developed with a pulse width
injector located in each auxiliary port attempting to simulate the
experimental work with injectors located as shown in Fig. 9. Initial
models used indolene fuel with subsequent analysis using a fuel
le created to replicate the thermodynamic properties of kerosene
JET A-1. CFD model output data using APFI of indolene is
shown in Fig. 9. For comparative purposes the experimental data
recorded with carburetted gasoline and APFI is also shown.
In terms of power relatively good correlation can be seen in
Fig. 9 with APFI at 3000, 4000 and 4500 RPM, however this does
not continue at the design maximum power speed conrmed by
experimental testing. Maximum power with APFI was recorded

Fig. 9. Comparison of gasoline experimental data using carburettor (CARB) and APFI
with WAVE modelled APFI of indolene e SPV580.

experimentally at 31.61 kW at 5000 RPM. The WAVE model using

indolene APFI outputs a corresponding value of only 25.64 kW at
the same speed. The power output is only marginally less from
the model at
4500 RPM (25.11 kW).
SFC correlation is
disappointing with much higher values observed with the models.
The minimum SFC from experimental analysis in Fig. 9 is
0.391 kg/kWh at
5000 RPM.
4.2.2. Auxiliary port fuel injection (APFI) e kerosene JET A-1
Alternative fuels can be created within WAVE via input of fuel
thermodynamic properties including lower heating value, density,
composition, entropy of formation, specic heat and heat of
vaporisation. Kerosene JET A-1 data was collated from a number of
sources notably from discussions with Shell and data published by
Goodger [25,26], CRC [27], Taylor [28], Annamalai et al. [29]
and Lapuerta et al. [30].
In 1975 Goodger [25] stated that kerosene fuels display
average properties similar to dodecane (C12H26) and tridecane
(C13H28). In
1980 Goodger [26] further stated that on average kerosene
equates
approximately to C13H25.5. These observations have therefore
been applied to the composition values within the simulations.
Indolene has been used as a comparable fuel to gasoline.
4.2.3. Effects of compression ratio
The SPV580 gasoline engine has a trapped compression ratio
(TCR) of 6.75:1. Initially the ratio was reduced via shimming of the
cylinder-crankcase joint face to give 6.0:1. Susceptibility to knock
was still apparent with full load operation at 6.0:1. It was therefore
decided to further reduce the ratio to 5.7:1.
Simulation data from APFI of JET A-1 at TCR of 5.7:1 and 6.0:1
is compared in Fig. 10 with experimental test data recorded with
the SPV580 operating at 5.7:1 TCR and a JET A-1 fuel pressure of 5.5
bar.
From Fig. 10, the modelled output shows a slightly higher
power at all speeds with 6.0:1 TCR. Maximum power modelled
at 6.0:1
TCR is 23.59 kW at 5000 RPM corresponding with 23.46 kW at
5.7:1. A reasonable correlation with test data can be seen
however delineation occurs at higher model speeds and SFC
correlation is relatively poor except at 3000 RPM.
4.2.4. Direct injection (DI) e 95 RON gasoline
The results of full load simulations at varying trapped air fuel
ratios of 14.7:1 and a rich operation at 13.3:1 is shown in Fig.
11 with test data recorded using carburettor fuelling.

Fig. 10. Effect of varying TCR comparing experimental data (5.5 bar JET A-1 5.7:1 TCR)
and WAVE modelled APFI of JET A-1 with 6.0:1 and 5.7:1 TCR e SPV580.

Fig. 12. Effect of TCR using WAVE modelled DI of JET A-1 -SPV580.

Fig. 11. Comparison of gasoline experimental data with WAVE modelled DI of

indolene
e SPV580.

At 6000 RPM with a relatively rich AFR of 13.3:1 a peak

maximum power of 28.38 kW can be seen. At stoichiometry the
maximum power level is 27.10 kW. SFC is lowest at 14.7:1 AFR at
all speeds with a minimum of 0.283 kg/kWh at 3500 RPM rising
to
0.312 kg/kWh at 6000
RPM.
4.2.5. Direct injection (DI) e kerosene JET A-1
Models were developed to explore the DI performance using
JET A-1 at
the two key
experimental TCR levels. The
summarised results are presented in Fig. 12.
The highest power observed from the JET A-1 DI models of
26.61 kW at 6000 RPM was with 6.0:1 TCR. At 5.7:1 this reduces
slightly to 26.53 kW. Power data at other speeds in Fig. 12 is also
reduced with the lower TCR. The SFC using JET A-1 is also lower at
6.0:1 TCR at all speeds with a minimum at 3500 RPM (0.297 kg/
kWh). Using 5.7:1 TCR the minimum full load SFC increases to
0.302 kg/kWh at 3500 RPM.
4.2.6. Combustion knock simulation
In order to detect occurrence of knock models developed by
Douaud and Eyzat [31] have been used based upon Fuel RON
values.

Contact with Shell was made to see if values were available for
JET A-1. Unfortunately no representative values have yet been
derived as it is not relevant for the normal use of JET A-1 in turbine
engines and operation in SI engines is in its relative infancy.
However using correlations derived by Kalghatgi [32] a potential
RON value of 58.6 has been calculated based on a Cetane value of
30. This value was therefore used in the sub-model to attempt
to identify knock occurrence. At high operating speeds no
knock was observed, however an example occurring at 1000
RPM is shown in Fig. 13.
In Fig. 13 the rapid cylinder pressure rise can be seen
occurring from approximately 7 ATDC. The model is operating at
full load with high 6.5:1 TCR. For the intended application this
load condi- tion would not in fact be possible however the
evidence of knock prediction is demonstrated.
5. Discussion
The
experimental test phases [5,10,12] and [13]
demonstrated good results exploring kerosene fuelling of spark
ignition engines. This work demonstrated the feasibility of the
operation of UAV engines on lower volatility fuels. It has been
observed that at low to medium speed operation an increase in
power can be achieved using kerosene JET A-1 when compared
with baseline gasoline test data. At maximum power speeds
however the general observation has shown a small power loss.
The SPV580 engine has demonstrated power levels using
kerosene JET A-1 within 5e10% of recorded gasoline levels. The
further advantage of being able to operate on fuel with no added
lubricant offers further advantages over many crankcase
scavenged engines that require addition of a separate metering
pump for heavy fuel operation.
Cruise or part load SFC is of prime importance for UAV endurance. Relatively high SFC can be acceptable at full load operating
conditions as this is normally only required for vehicle launch and
rapid climb manoeuvres. Prior part load testing of the SPV580 has
demonstrated good SFC levels [9,10] and [13] with increased SFC
recorded as low as 5.3% using the SPV580. Whilst this is still an
increase in required mission fuel payload it nevertheless offers
feasible operation and achievement of military single fuel policy
objectives.
The application of computational simulation of the engines
studied using Ricardo WAVE has demonstrated some interesting
results. Simulation of crankcase scavenged engines has been performed, however the replication of a pump charging system to

Fig. 13. Cylinder pressure showing combustion knock evidence using JET A-1 (full load
1000
RPM).

provide a representative stepped piston engine model proved

considerably more challenging as discussed earlier in this paper.
These models however have been developed to allow simulation of
the subject engine to a reasonable level of correlation within the
connes of assumptions made in the absence of certain test
parameters. These parameters include absence of cylinder pressure
data and the ability to accurately dene combustion proles,
piston surface and combustion chamber temperatures, heat
transfer and scavenging details. However, whilst some reasonable
correlation of power output has been observed, the same cannot
be reported in terms of SFC. Apart from cases where direct
injection has
been modelled, the SFC levels modelled with
auxiliary port injection has repeatedly shown considerably higher
levels than those measured during experimental tests. It is not
possible to accurately model the scavenging process during the
port open period around BDC. This is clearly the period where
charge short circuiting is likely to occur when both the transfer
and exhaust ports are open simultaneously. Furthermore it would
appear that it is not possible to replicate stratied charge
operation, successfully applied to stepped piston experimental
test engines, within the architecture of WAVE. If one considers for
example the case
of auxiliary port injection, the injector
position as detailed in
Fig. 9 is naturally a critically
important factor with this conguration due to the proximity of
the exhaust port opposite the injector. Whilst it is possible to
locate the injector close to the end of the auxiliary port duct within
the model, it is not possible to dene the directionality of the
ow from the injector. This could explain the poor SFC observed
from the models attempting to simulate APFI. It is also not
possible to accurately dene the entry aspect of transfer ports
and the desire to focus incoming charge away from the exhaust
port. This may therefore further explain high levels of SFC
simulated with APFI models.
Fig. 14 shows the WAVE modelled pressure time history for
the SPV580 displaying cylinder, inlet, pump cylinder, transfer port
and exhaust port pressures. The pumping cylinder pressure
corre- sponds with the neighbouring pumping cylinder that is
utilised to charge the power cylinder. This explains the 180
phase difference between the pump pressure and the transfer port
pressure. During the open cycle period when the exhaust and
transfer ports are open it is possible to boost the charging
efciency of the cylinder design by effective manipulation of
the forward and reverse pressure waves occurring in the
exhaust system. By effective system design it is possible to draw
incoming fresh charge into the exhaust port as well as into the
cylinder where the charge is required. If the engine designer can
create an exhaust system that provides suitably timed reverse
pressure waves to arrive back at the exhaust port just prior to
exhaust port closure then it is possible to force the shortcircuited charge back into the cylinder where it can be used to
positive effect by enhancing cylinder charging. This method has
been successfully applied to looped scavenged two-stroke
engines as a form of ram charging of the cylinder. The circled
area in Fig. 14(i) during the period during the phase of transfer
port and exhaust port closure demonstrates this critical phase. It
can also be seen at 3000 RPM in Fig. 14(i) that during the
circled critical phase of port overlap that a strong positive
exhaust pressure pulse is present. This
demonstrates a
desirable condition where the exhaust pulse will provide resistance to the further ow of fresh charge into the exhaust and will
act to return any short circuited fresh charge back into the
cylinder. This may explain the good results modelled at 3000 RPM
in terms of charging efciency and power output.
Fig. 14(ii) exhibits a similar analysis but this time at 4000 RPM.
It can be seen that in this case a reverse effect is occurring. Here
there is a strong negative exhaust pulse. This will serve to draw
further charge from the cylinder and the closing transfer ports
into the exhaust thereby ejecting this part of the new charge

directly into

Some good correlation has been observed however additional

work is required to improve correlation further. The following
conclu- sions can be drawn from the work to date.
(1) From prior experimental test work power output levels within
5e10% of those recorded with 95 RON gasoline have been
observed with a maximum power recorded of 30.47 kW at
5250 RPM using kerosene JET A-1.
(2) The potential results of direct injection have been simulated
providing output data that appears to correspond with results
that could be expected from the SPV580 engine.
(3) The minimum predicted full load SFC has been observed with
direct injection. Minimum full load levels using indolene fuel
are 0.283 g/kWh at 4500 RPM and 0.273 g/kWh at 3000 RPM.
This equates to a thermal efciency of 29.58% and 30.67%
respectively.
(4) Using JET A-1 the minimum observed full load SFC was also
observed using direct injection with values of 0.315 kg/kWh at
4500 RPM and 0.310 kg/kWh at 3000 RPM. In terms of full
load thermal efciency this equates to 26.58% and 27.01%
respectively.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the support provided by
UK Ministry of Defence during the design and experimental
phases of the work reported and Ricardo for the provision of
WAVE for exploration of theoretical simulations. The advice and
information provided by Shell UK in support of the study is also
gratefully acknowledged.
Appendix

Fig. 14. WAVE predicted pressure time history comparison at (i) 3000 RPM and (ii)
4000 RPM.

the exhaust system. This may explain the severe fall in charging
efciency observed in Fig. 6 and the general fall in model power
output from 3000 RPM to 4000 RPM. It should be pointed out that
other stepped piston engines do not exhibit this drop in power as
demonstrated by the data published by Hooper et al. [14].
For direct injection models, losses due to short circuiting of
incoming charge, were modelled as lost air charge and much
smaller quantities of fuel. The ability to model direct injection
within WAVE has enabled an analysis of potential SFC with this
fuel delivery conguration. The levels predicted appear to
correspond with values that may be expected from a DI twostroke engine and support arguments to explore this type of fuel
system further in order to maximise thermal efciency.
6. Conclusions
An initial exploration of the computational simulation of the
SPV580 stepped piston engine has been performed in order to
further investigate the results recorded from dynamometer
testing.

Notation
AFR
b
c
Cf
Cm
cp
D
FMEP
h
P
Pmax
Pr
RPM
S
T
U
vch
x(q)

Dqb
q
q0
r

air:fuel ratio
constant (form factor)
constant (efciency parameter)
friction coefcient
elative heat transfer area scaling factor
gas constant pressure specic heat (J/kg K)
cylinder diameter (m)
friction mean effective pressure (bar)
heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K)
instantaneous gas pressure (bar)
maximum cylinder pressure (bar)
Prandtl number
engine speed (r/min)
engine stroke (m)
instantaneous gas temperature (K)
gas velocity (m/s)
characteristic gas velocity (m/s)
mass fraction burned at crank angle q ( )
duration of combustion ( )
crank angle ( )
crank angle at start of combustion ( )
gas density (kg/m3)

Abbreviations
APFI
Auxiliary Port Fuel Injection
AVGAS AViation GASoline fuel
AVTUR AViation TURbine fuel
BDC
Bottom Dead Centre
CFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics
CI
Compression Ignition

DI
Direct Injection
EC
Exhaust port Closure
EO
Exhaust port Opening
HR
Heat Release
JET A-1 Commercial aviation grade kerosene fuel
JP5
Jet Propulsion 5 fuel
JP8
Jet Propulsion 8 fuel
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
PCR
Primary Compression Ratio
RON
Research Octane Number
SFC
Specic Fuel Consumption
SPD1775 Stepped piston diesel 4 cylinder 1775 cm3 engine
SI
Spark Ignition
SPX
Stepped piston crossover system
SPX500 Stepped piston twin-cylinder 497 cm3 engine developed
at Norton/BHE
TC
Transfer port Closure
TCR
Trapped Compression Ratio
TDC
Top Dead Centre
TO
Transfer port Opening
UAV
Unmanned Air/Aerial Vehicle

References
[1]
[2]

[3]

[4]
[5]

[6]
[7]

[8]

[9]

P. Donaldson, Heavy Duty, Unmanned Vehicles, Shephard Group 16 (No. 3)

(June/July 2011) 36e38.
M. Rozenkranc, J. Ernst, Tactical UAV engines integration in IAI, AIAA Paper
No.2003-6534, in: 2nd AIAA Unmanned Unlimited Systems, Technologies and
Operations Aerospace Conference, San Diego, California, Sept 2003.
L. Holmblad, Design and development of modern two-stroke marine diesel
engines, in: IMechE 150th Anniversary 69th Thomas Lowe Gray Lecture, Jan
1997.
M. Legault, G. Laamme, The Bombardier CL327 VTOL UAV System, in: 13th
Remotely Piloted Vehicle Conference, Bristol University, Mar/Apr 1998.
B. Hooper, P.R. Hooper, Initial heavy fuel development of stepped piston and
crankcase scavenged two-cycle engines, in: 12th International RPV Conference, Bristol University, 9e11 September 1996.
K. Schlunke, The orbital combustion process engine, in: 10th Vienna Motorsymposium, VDI No. 122, pp. 63e68, 1989.
P. Duret, A. Ecomard, M. Audinet, A new two-stroke engine with compressed
air assisted fuel injection for high efciency low emissions applications, SAE
Paper (Feb 1988) No. 880176 (SAE International Congress and Exposition,
Detroit, Michigan).
J. Turner, D. Blundell, R. Pearson, R. Patel, D. Larkman, P. Burke, S. Richardson,
N.M. Green, S. Brewster, R. Kenny, R. Kee, Project omnivore: a variable
compression ratio ATAC 2-stroke engine for ultra-wide-range HCCI operation
on a variety of fuels No. 2010-01-1249, SAE Paper (2010).
B. Hooper, P.R. Hooper, Design and development of the 30 kW RPV stepped
piston engine, in: 9th International RPV Conference, Bristol University, 9e11
September 1991.

[10] P.R. Hooper, Initial development of a multi-fuel stepped piston engine for
unmanned aircraft application, in: 4th International Conference ICE99, Capri,
Naples, 12e16 September 1999.
[11] P.R. Hooper, A stepped piston engine for UAV application, in: UVS TECH 2001
Conference Brussels, November 2001.
[12] P.R. Hooper, Initial development of a multi-fuel stepped piston engine for
unmanned aircraft application, Aircraft Eng. Aerospace Technol.. ISSN: 00022667 73 (5) (2001). ISSN: 0002-2667 459e464 MCB University Press.
[13] P.R. Hooper, Stepped piston engines for multi-fuel UAV application, in: IMechE Conference on Propulsion Systems for Unmanned Aircraft, Bristol, 14
April 2005.
[14] P.R. Hooper, T. Al-Shemmeri, M.J. Goodwin, Advanced modern low emission
two-stroke cycle engines, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers, Part D: J. Automobile
Eng. 225 (11) (November 2011).
[15] G. Woschni, A universally applicable equation for the instantaneous heat
transfer coefcient in the internal combustion engine SAE Paper No.670931,
SAE Trans. 76 (1967) 3065.
[16] R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, second ed.
Wiley, 2002.
[17] S.K. Chen, P. Flynn, Development of a compression ignition research engine
No. 650733, SAE Paper (1965).
[18] I. Wiebe, Halbempirische Formel fr die Verbrennungsgeschwindigkeit, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften der UdSSR, Moscow, 1967.
[19] E. Sher, The effect of Atmospheric conditions on the performance of an
airborne two-stroke spark ignition engine, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D 198
(15) (1984) 239e251,.
[20] J.B. Heywood, E. Sher, The Two-stroke Cycle Engine: Its Development,
Operation and Design, Taylor and Francis/SAE International, 1999, ISBN 07680-0323-7.
[21] E. Sher, M. Zeigerson, A stepped-piston two-stroke engine for high altitude
applications No. 940400, SAE Paper (1994).
[22] E. Sher, R. Harari, A simple and realistic model for the scavenging process in
a crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engine, J. Power Energy 205 (1991)
129e137.
[23] A.A. Aziz, Z.A. Latif, M.F.M. Mohamad, G.L. Ming, Development of a 125 cc two
stroke, step-piston engine using a one-dimensional engine code, J. KONES
Proc. Intern. Combust. Engines 12 (2005) 1e2.
[24] B. Hooper, J.E. Favill, Modern stepped piston engines, in: IMechE Paper
No.C133/78 Design and Development of Small IC Engines Conference, 31
Maye2 June 1978.
[25] E.M. Goodger, Hydro-carbon Fuels, Macmillan Press, 1975.
[26] E.M. Goodger, Alternative Fuels e Chemical Energy Resources, Macmillan
Press, 1980, ISBN 9780-333-258132, pp. 227.
[27] CRC Report, Handbook of Aviation Fuel Properties CRC Report No. 635, third
ed. Coordinating Research Council Inc, Alpharetta, GA/SAE International,
Warrendale, PA, 2004.
[28] C.F. Taylor, The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice, second ed.,
vol. 1, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1978, ISBN 0 262 70015 8, pp. 46.
[29] K. Annamalai, K.I. Puri, Combustion Science and Engineering, CRC Press Taylor
and Francis Group, 2007, ISBN 978-0-8493-2071-2, pp. 851.
[30] M. Lapuerta, J.J. Hernandez, R. Ballesteros, A. Duran, Composition and size of
diesel particulate emissions from a commercial european engine tested with
present and future fuels, Proc. IMechE Part D: J. Automobile Eng. 217
(D08902) (2003).
[31] A.M. Douaud, P. Eyzat, Four-octane-number method for predicting the antiknock behaviour of fuels and engines, SAE Paper (1978) 780080.
[32] G.T. Kalghatgi, Auto-ignition quality of practical fuels and implications for fuel
requirements of future SI and HCCI engines, SAE Paper (2005) No. 2005-010239.