SENSITOMETRY

OBJECTIVES
Define sensitometry
List sensitometric equipment
Construct a D log E curve from sensitometric data
Describe the effect of automatic-processor reducing
agents on the shape of a D log E curve
Define film characteristics
contrast and latitude)

(resolution,

speed,

Analyze D log E curves to determine speed, contrast

and latitude relationships

Sensitometry
It is the measurement of the characteristic
responses of film to exposure and processing
It is accomplished by exposing and processing a
film and then measuring and evaluating the resulting
densities
It is used to evaluate technical factor exposure
systems, films, intensifying screens and processing
equipment
It is useful in establishing, evaluating and
maintaining technical exposure charts and systems
It is the duty of a qualified radiologic technologist

SENSITOMETRIC EQUIPMENT
A pnetrometer or a sensitometer is
required to produce a uniform range of
densities on a film
A densitometer is required to provide
an accurate reading of the amount of
light transmitted through the film

PENETROMETER
It
is
a
series
of
increasingly thick, uniform
absorbers (step wedge)
It is usually
aluminium

made

of

It is not recommended to
use for quality control
monitoring
of
film
processores but it is an
excellent
method
for
monitoring
both
x-ray
equipment and film/screen
combinations

SENSITOMETER
It is designed to expose a
reproducible, uniform, optical step
wedge onto a film
It contains a controlled intensity
light source and a piece of film
with a standardized optical step
wedge image
Optical step wedges are available
in 11 and 21 step versions. 11-step
wedges usually increase density
100% and the 21-step wedges
usually increases density by 41%

DENSITOMETER
It is an instrument that provides a
reading of the amount of
blackening (density) on a film
It consists of a calibrated uniform
light, a stage for placing the film
to be measured, a light aperture, a
sensor arm with an optical
sensor, a readout display and a
calibration control

 Density readings are accomplished by

comparing the amount of light emitted by the
light source with the amount of light
transmitted through the film
Because films are sensitive to a wide range
of exposures, their densities are best
visualized if the range is compressed into a
logarithmic scale
When using a logarithmic scale with a base
of 10, an increment of 0.3 represents a
doubling of exposure. This is because the
log of 2 is 3

 The numbers that are displayed by a densitometer

are known as optical density numbers. They can be
expressed with the term OD in front of the number
(OD 1.5)
They are calculated using the following formula:
OD = log10 Io/It
Radiographic film density range from 0.0 to 4.0
The ability of a film to stop light is termed opacity.
Opacity is calculated using the following formula
Opacity = Io/It

THE D LOG E CURVE

Sensitometry is normally shown
as a graphic relationship between
the amount of exposure (E) and
the resultant density on the film
(D)
D log E curves. They also known
as charcteristic, sensitometric and
Hurter and Driffield (H&D)
The important elements of a
typical D log E curve are the base
plus fog, toe, straight line portion
(gamma), shoulder and maximum
density (D max)

The base plus fog portion

It the density at no exposure (inherent

density)

It includes the density of the film base,

including its tints and dyes, plus any fog
the film has experienced

Film base density ranges around OD 0.05

- .010. Processing adds about OD 0.050.10 in fog

The total base plus fog should not exceed

OD 0.22

Fog can be caused by heat, chemical

fumes, light and radiation exposure

The toe portion

It
is
controlled
phenidone

by

It is a reducing agent that

controls the subtle gray
tones
early
in
the
development process

The straight line portion

It is the portion between the toe
and shoulder
It is usually linear because the film
is reacting in a linear fashion to
exposure
The range of diagnostic densities
varies from a low of OD 0.25-0.50
to a high of OD 2.0-3.0
The majority of diagnostic quality
information on a radiograph will
measure between OD 0.5-1.25

The shoulder
It is controlled by the
hydroquinone
It is the reducing agent
that controls the heavy
black tone later in the
development process

The maximum density (D max) portion

It is the highest point on the D
log E curve
It is the maximum density the
film is capable of recording
It represents the point where
all the silver halides have a full
complement of silver atoms
and cannot accept more

 Additional exposure beyond D

max will result in less density
because silver atoms attached to
sensitivity specks will be ionized
again, reversing their charge and
causing them to be repelled from
the speck
This process of reversal, or
solarization, reduces the intensity
of the latent image and will
produce less density. The true D
log E curve is bell-shaped
Duplication film is an example

FILM CHARACTERISTICS
Resolution, speed, contrast, latitude
Sensitometry permits analysis of film
speed, contrast, and latitude within the
normal exposure ranges of the film

FILM RESOLUTION
It is the ability to accurately image an object
It is also called detail, sharpness, definition
and resolving power
It is measured by the ability to see pairs of
lines. The unit is lp/mm
Film resolution is determined by the size of
the silver halide crystals. An inverse
relationship exists between film resolution
and crystal size

FILM SPEED

The amount of density a film produces for

a given amount of exposure

It is determined by the films sensitivity to

exposure

It is controlled by the activity of the

phenidone because it affects the toe of the
D log E curve. The position of the toe
determines how soon the straight line
portion will begin

Film A is faster than film B because film A

produces all density levels with less
exposure than film B requires for the same
density

 Film sensitivity is determined by the

size of the silver halide crystals, the
number of sensitivity specks, and the
thickness of the emulsion layer
Film speed is directly related to crystal
size, number of sensitivity specks, and
thickness of emulsion layer

FILM SPEED POINT

It is a point on the D log E

curve where a density of OD
1.0+b+f is achieved

ANSI specifies x-ray film

speed as the exposure
required to reach OD 1.00.

The speed exposure point is

the log exposure that will
produce the speed point for
a given film. Film A has a
speed point of 1.5, while film
B has a speed exposure
point of 2.0

 It is important to adjust technical

factors from one film to another in
clinical radiography practice
It is important to be able to calculate
the difference in exposure that will
produce a diagnostic quality image on
a new film when the proper factors are
known for a previous one
The difference in film speed is
calculated as: antilog (log E1 log E2)

 What is the difference in speed

between film A and film B in
this figure?
antilog (log EA log EB)=
antilog (2-1.5)=Antilog (0.5) = 3.16
Film A is 316% faster than film B

 Relative speeds (RS) have been

assigned by film manufacturer to assist
radiographers in relating films to one
another as they are used in film and
intensifying screen combinations
Relative speed = 1/

exposure in R needed to
produce speed point density (OD 1.0+b+f)

What is the RS for a film that requires an exposure of

5 mR to produce the speed point density?
1/0.005 R= 200

FILM SPEED AND DEVELOPER SOLUTION IMMERSION TIME

The longer the film is subjected

to the chemical action of the
developer solution, the greater
the amount of the black
metallic silver deposited on the
latent image sites through the
reduction process
20-25s in automatic processors

FILM SPEED AND DEVELOPER SOLUTION TEMPERATURE

Higher temperatures
increases the activity
level of the reducing
agents
in
the
developer and this
produces
greater
density on a film
35C normal developer
temperature

FILM SPEED AND SOLUTION CHEMICAL ACTIVITY

The chemical activity of

the developer solution
will also increase the
development of density
Determination of proper
time, temperature and
activity for a particular
developer and film is
done by graphing speed,
contrast and base plus
fog levels for various
activity concentrations

FILM CONTRAST
It is the difference between
adjacent densities
Contrast is controlled by the
level of activity of the
hydroquinone. It establishes
the shoulder of the D log E
curve and the position of the
shoulder affects the slope of
the straight line portion of the
curve

GRADIANT POINT
Gamma is a measure of the
slope of the straight line portion
of the curve at the speed point
(OD 1.0)
The slope of any portion of the D
log E curve can be calculated
and this is known as a gradient
point
Gradient point must have their
OD values. They are sometimes
known
by
their
locations
(toe,middle, and upper) gradient

 Overall film contrast is defined by the average

gradient of the straight line portion of the D log E
curve between OD 0.25 +b +f and OD 2.50 + b + f
Average gradient is calculated as:
average gradient= D/E or
average gradient= D2-D1/E2-E1
Where:

D1= OD 0.25 + b + f
D2= OD 2.50 + b + f
E2= exposures that produces D1
E1= exposures that produces D2

 The
difference
between
average
gradient
and
various gradient points
If the the slope of the
straight line portion is at 45
angle, the average gradient
will measure 1.0. Doubling
of exposure will double
opacity and not density.
This is a common misnomer
is that doubling exposure
will double density. Because
density is a log number

FILM LATITUDE
It is the range of exposures that
will produce densities within
the diagnostic range
It can be recorded as the width
of the range of exposures that
will
produce
diagnostic
densities according to the
following formula:
Latitude= Eh El
Where:
Eh= OD 2.50 at high exposure point
El= OD 0.25 at low exposure point

 What is the latitude

for film A in this
figure?
1.8 1.1=0.7

Latitude and contrast are inversely

related

This affects the overall shape of the

D log E

Latitude changes whenever there is

a change in the average gradient of
the D log E curve

Speed
could
change
without
altering average gradient and
latitude

A difference in film speed usually

results in different contrast and
latitude

The relationship of speed, contrast,

and latitude are shown in the tables

CONCLUSION
Sensitometry is the measurement of the
characteristic responses of a film to
exposures and processing
Density is expressed as alogarithmic scale
Sensitometry is represented in a D log E
curve
Film characterized by its resolution, speed,
contrast, and latitude